Information Communication Technology

(Application and Concept)

Chapter One
1.1 Information Communication Technology Versus
Information System
Information and Communications Technology or (ICT), is often used as an
extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more specific term
that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of
telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as
necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems,
which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The
term ICT is now also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and
telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link
system. There are large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination
of the telephone network) to merge the audio-visual, building management and
telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified
system of cabling, signal distribution and management.
The term Infocommunications is used in some cases as a shorter form of
information and communication(s) technology. In fact Infocommunications is the
expansion of telecommunications with information processing and content
handling functions on a common digital technology base.
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and
telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data,
often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used
as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses
other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.
Several industries are associated with information technology, such as computer
hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-
commerce and computer services.
In a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has
defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application,
implementation, support or management of computer-based information
systems". The responsibilities of those working in the field include network
administration, software development and installation, and the planning and
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management of an organization‘s technology life cycle, by which hardware and
software is maintained, upgraded, and replaced.
1.2 Information System (IS)
Information system (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and
software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and
distribute data. The study bridges business and computer science using the
theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business
models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.
Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is a field studying computers and
algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware
designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes
functionality over design.
Any specific Information System aims to support operations, management and
decision making. In a broad sense, the term is used to refer not only to the
information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, but
also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of
business processes. Some authors make a clear distinction between information
systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems
typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT,
focusing instead on the end use of information technology. Information systems
are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control
the performance of business processes.
Information system is a special type of work system. A work system is a system in
which humans and/or machines perform work using resources to produce
specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work
system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting,
storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information.
1.3 ICT Literacy

Since we live in information society, everyone is expected to be ICT literate. The

ICT literacy entails.
Awareness: As you study computers, you will become aware of their importance,
versatility, pervasiveness, and their potential for good and ill in our society.

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Knowledge: You will learn what computers are and how they work. This requires
learning some technical jargons that will help you deal with the computer and
with people that work with computers.
Interaction: This implies learning to use a computer to perform some basic tasks
or applications.

1.4 Impact of ICT on Society

There are both positive and negative impacts of ICT in this modern society. Some
these impact are discussed below:
Positive Impacts
Faster Communication Speed: In the past, it took a long time for any news or
messages to be sent. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail
to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of
bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information
can travel fast and at an instant.
Lower Communication Cost: Using the Internet is cost effective than the other
modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows
people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the
Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet.
Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.
Reliable Mode of Communication: Computers are reliable. With the internet,
information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at any time. This
makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer
is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result
will be faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO. GIGO is a short form for
Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to
the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
Effective Sharing of Information: With the advancement of ICT, information can
be shared by people all around the world. People can share and exchange
opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and
forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to
the development of knowledge based society.
Paperless Environment: ICT technology has created the term paperless
environment. This term means information can be stored and retrieved through

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the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online
chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
Create Employment: Although many employment areas have suffered job losses,
other areas have grown and jobs have been created. Some examples of areas
where jobs have been created: IT Technicians: All of the computers in a business
need to be maintained: hardware fixed, software installed, etc. IT technicians do
this work. Computer Programmers: All of the software that is now used by
businesses has to be created by computer programmers. Hundreds of thousands
of people are now employed in the 'software industry ‘. Much of modern business
is conducted on-line, and company websites are very important. Company
websites need to be designed and built which is the role of web designers.

Negative Effects
Individualistic and introvert: Nowadays, people tend to choose online
communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to
become more individualistic and introvert.
Moral decedent and threats to the society: Some ICT users use ICT tools for,
fraud, identity theft, Pornography, Hacking etc. That could result to a moral
decedent and generate threats to the society.
Health Problems: A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours
frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical
and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic
environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces
back strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.
Unemployment Situation: Some jobs have been lost as a result of computers
being used to do the same work that people used to do, for examples:
Manufacturing: Many factories now have fully automated production lines.
Instead of using people to build things, computer-controlled robots are used.
Secretarial Work: Now people have personal computers, they tend to type and
print their own documents. Accounting Clerks: Companies once had large
departments full of people whose job it was to do calculations (e.g. profit, loss,
billing, etc.) .A personal computer running a spreadsheet can now do the same
work.

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Chapter Two

C
2.1 Description of Computer System
omputer is a device that is capable of automatically accepting (i.e.
input), storing and processing data into useful information (i.e.
output), at a very high speed, under the control of stored
instructions (i.e. program). A computer could also be defined as a
machine for manipulating data according to a list of instructions
(programs). Computer is the backbone of ICT.
2.2 Parts of a Computer
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single
part called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working
together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called
hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs,
that tell the hardware what to do.)
The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer
system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these
parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single
notebook-sized package.

2.2.1 System Unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box
placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic
components that process information. The most important of these components
is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain"
of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which
temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The
information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off. Almost
every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit.
Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral
device or device.

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 Figure 2a. System Unit
2.2.2 Storage
Computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information on a metal
or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is
turned off.
2.2.3 Hard disk drive
Computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or
stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive
amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of
storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is
normally located inside the system unit.

Figure 2b. Hard disk drive

2.2.1

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2.2.2
2.2.4 CD and DVD Drives
Computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located at the
front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD,
and many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a
recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also
use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

Figure 2c. CD

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a
DVD drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record
data onto blank DVDs.

2.2.5 Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or
diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount
of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to
damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to
be, although some computers still include them. Why are floppy disks "floppy"?
Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve. The disk
inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material

Figure 2d. Floppy disk

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.
3.2.6 Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer
screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit
like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a
long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless. A mouse usually
has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you
to scroll smoothly through screens of information.

Figure 2e. Mouse

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in
the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where
it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the
item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking
with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.

2.2.7 Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard
on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:
The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending
on where they are used.
The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to
enter numbers quickly.
The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position
within a document or webpage.

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Figure 2f. Keyboard

Note: We can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you
can perform with a mouse.

2.2.8 Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion
of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television
screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures.
There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD
(liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD
monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors,
however, are generally more affordable.

Figure 2g. LCD monitors (left); CRT monitor (right)

2.2.7. Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to
use your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations,
announcements, and other materials. Many people also like being able to print
their own photos at home. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and
laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home. They
can print in black and white or in full color and can produce high-quality
photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally
better able to handle heavy use.
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Figure 2h. Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

2.2.9 Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or
connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound
effects from your computer.

Figure 2i. Computer Speakers

2.2.9. Modem
To connect our computer to the Internet, we need a modem. A modem is a device
that sends and receives computer information over a telephone line or high-
speed cable. Modems are sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed
modems are usually separate components.

Figure 2j. Cable Modem

2.3 Advantages of Computer System

Below are some advantages of computer systems

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  Accuracy and Reliability: The results produced by a computer are
extremely correct and reliable. What is often called ‗computer errors are
actually human mistakes; invalid data and errors are corrected easily.
 Speed: The speed of computer makes it the machine ideal for processing
large amounts of data; e.g. accounting, banking operations etc.
 Storage/Memory Capability: Computer systems can store tremendous
amounts of data, which can then be retrieved fast and efficiently. The
volume of information we deal with today is far beyond what we can
handle manually.
 Productivity: Computers are able to perform dangerous, boring, routine
jobs, such as adding long list of numbers, punching holes in metal or
monitoring water levels. Most workers (e.g. in banks) will appreciate
increased productivity when computers are used to do their jobs.
 Flexibility: Computer could be used for various purposes
e.g. multiprogramming, batch processing, real-time processing, data
collection, bank transaction processing etc.
 Automatic operation: Computer performs data processing automatically
under the control of internally stored programs.
 Configuration and adaptability: Different or suitable peripherals may be
used by business organizations to suit their business processing
requirements.

2.4 Disadvantages of Computer System

Some of the dis-advantages of computers are discussed below
 Cost of initial setup may be high. When a system
that has been using a manual process for execution
of its processes and desires to switch to an
automated system, the cost of setting it up at initial
will tend to be high.
 Cost of maintenance may be high.
 Inefficient feasibility study before implementation may hamper business
operations.
 Lack of skilled personnel may hamper computer operations and results
obtained.
 Requires regular electrical power supply.

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  Excessive exposure to computer may result in some health problem such
as poor eye sight, wrist pain, back ache, neck pain etc.
 Computer virus attack may infect and destroy Data/information, which
will automatically affect business operations.
 It may lead to unemployment, because one computer can do the job of
about 10 persons.
2.5 Application of Computer in Society
Computers have moved into many facets of our lives. There is virtually no area of
human endeavor that computer usage has not penetrated. Though we cannot
exhaust listing all the areas of application of computers, the following are some
key areas of computer application:
Science: One of the most important advantages of computers is in the field of
science for research and development. The computers have played a major role in
most of what we know about ourselves and the universe. The satellites, the
telescopes and almost all the research tools make use of computers in some or
the other way. The huge calculations required for space science, safe
communication between scientists, storage of all the gathered information are
some of the computer uses in science and technology.
Medical: The important use of computers in the medical field is for research and
development. The high end machines used for diagnosis and cure of many
diseases are nothing but computers. For example, the Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI), CT scan, ultrasound devices, etc are amongst the uses of
computers in hospitals. Even many surgical procedures, known as laparoscopic
surgeries, need the help of computers. Web conferencing helps doctors treat
people remotely.
Education: Computer uses in the field of education are infinite. The Internet is a
huge source of information. There are online universities that deliver online
degrees and distance learning is spreading far and wide. Many schools and
colleges have started making use of audio-visual ways of imparting knowledge. A
horde of tools that need a computer, help students in many ways.
Banking: The banking sector has improved on fronts such as security, ease of use,
etc. with the help of computers. Most of the banking operations can be done
online, known as Internet banking, and you don't have to walk up to the bank for
virtually anything. You can withdraw money from ATMs and deposit money in any

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branch, thanks to the networking affected by the use of computers. The
complete banking experience has also become safer.
Crime Investigation: High end computer devices have ensured that justice is more
effective. CCTV cameras and other computer operated security systems have
reduced the amount of crime. And if it still happens there are many ways to track
down the criminal in no time. Forensic science employs computers for many of its
operations related to investigations.
Entertainment: The field of entertainment has been revolutionized by computers.
Animation, graphic image manipulation etc has made the entertainment
experience hundred times better. Computer gaming is achieving new landmarks
in terms of technology. Movie making, editing, music composition etc everything
needs computers. This is only the tip of the iceberg and the uses of computers in
society are many more. But then the development of computer technology has
also given rise to many vices like identity theft.
Government: The Government can use computers for the processing of
immigration, tax collection/administration, keeping tracks of criminals, computing
budgets and statutory allocations, Civil Service Records, computing wages,
salaries, gratuities and pensions etc.
Communication: Any computer has any potential to link up with other computers
through communication systems such as telephone lines or satellite. This link-up
facilitates exchange of memos, reports, letters, data/information, and even
having meetings among people in geographically dispersed locations.
Robotics: Robots are information machines with the manual dexterity to perform
tasks too unpleasant, too dangerous, or too critical to assign to human beings. For
example, robots are used in defense to perform underwater military missions;
robots could be used for welding or paint-spraying in factories, and in car
assembling.
Business/Commerce: Products are packaged with zebra striped symbols
(Universal Product Code {UPC}) that can be read by scanners at supermarket
checkout stands to determine prices of commodities. It has become a
commonplace for companies and consumers to transact business among
themselves with the help of computers. It could be in form of Business-to-
Business {B2B} or Business-to-Consumer {B2C}. Computers have been found
useful in payroll preparation, inventory control, auditing operations, personnel

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records keeping, preparation of consumer utility bills, financial market
transactions etc.
Energy: Energy companies use computers and geological data to locate oil, coal,
natural gas and other mineral resources. Meter-readers use hand-held computers
to record how much energy is used in a month in homes and businesses.
Computers can analyze the fuel consumption in our cars.

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Chapter Four
Computer Hardware System
4.1 Description of Hardware
Desktop computer before is really a system of many parts working together. The
physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware.
The figure below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer
system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these
parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single
notebook-sized package.

Figure 4a: The Computer System

The computer system components parts were described in chapter 2 of this
material and almost all the components described are parts of computer
hardware. In this chapter the computer hardware will be describe based on the
computer hardware configuration which include both the directly visible and
invisible hardware. This hardware configuration is as given in figure 4b below.

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 Figure 4b. Computer Hardware Configuration
Note: Computer Hardware can be divided basically into two; the CPU and
Peripherals. CPU is made up of control unit, Arithmetic and logic unit and Main
memory. While the peripheral is made up of Input devices, Output devices and
Backing storage.
The components of computer hardware based on the diagram in figure 4b are the
CPU and Peripherals (input and output units). Some of the peripherals were
described in chapter two of this book.
4.2 Central Processing Unit
This is an integral part of system unit of computer system that made up of other
components like; the main storage, the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit.
Main Storage
The Main Storage contains two types of memory chips, named the
Random-Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM). RAM is a
memory that has the same access time for all locations. It is used to store data
and program temporarily whenever they are needed in main memory. It is
constantly being re-used for different data items or programs as required. Static

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RAM holds its memory so long as there is a power supply. Dynamic Ram (DRAM)
has to be refreshed by reading and rewriting the contents very frequently. RAM is
volatile, that is, the con-tents of RAM are lost when the power supply is switched
off. ROM (integrated circuit) is used to store vital data and programs which need
to be held within the main memory at all times. The contents of ROM are
permanently set during the manufacture of the computer.
However, there are other ways of putting programs and data into ROM.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) is a type of ROM that is manufactured
as an empty storage array and is later permanently programmed by the user.
Erasable PROM (EPROM) is a type of PROM whose data can be erased by a special
process so new data can be written as if it were a new PROM.
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) consists of adder/subtractor, electronic circuit
and working registers to which operands may be transferred during an operation.
The ALU performs the
 Arithmetic Operations
 Data Handling Operations
 Logical Functions.
The data to be processed are taken from main storage, stored in the working
registers, processed and the results placed back in the main storage.
Control Unit
The Control Unit examines the individual instructions in the users program one by
one, interprets each instruction and causes the various circuits to be activated to
perform the functions specified. Some of the functions of the control unit are:
 It co-ordinates the various parts of the computer system to form a
composite integrated data processing system.
 It controls the transfer of data between and within the working stores as
required by the program.
 It controls input/output. Once the program controller has initiated a
read/write operation, the control unit continues to monitor the operation
to ensure that it is satisfactorily completed.
 In time-sharing or on-line systems, the control unit coordinates the several
concurrent peripheral operations while data is processed internally within
the CPU.
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 4.3 Peripherals Input & Output Devices
4.3.1 Input Device
Computer Input is the process of transferring data from computer sensible media
into the main storage of the computer. The equipment which converts data been
captured on a source documents into machine sensible form is called an input
device. The following terms are related to inputting data into computer.
Data Capture is the term used to describe the process of collecting data in
machine sensible form at its source.
Data Collection is the term used to describe the process of recording the data on
source document and subsequently converting it into machine sensible form for
input to the computer.
Data Conversion is the process of transforming the data on source documents
into machine sensible form before carrying out the input operation.
Type of Input Device
Direct Input Devices allow data to be input into the computer without any need
for data conversion. Examples are: keyboard terminals, mouse, trackballs,
scanners, joystick, bar-code readers, touch screens, OCR, OMR and MICR
equipment.
Indirect Input Devices accept data from source documents and convert it into
computer-sensible form for subsequent input into the computer. Examples are:
magnetic tape, magnetic disk, compact disk and diskette drives.
Input devices can also be classified as manual or automated. Manual input
devices include keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, bar-code readers, scanners,
and touch screens. Automated input devices include MICR, OCR, OMR, magnetic
stripe and smart cards.

 Computer keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard
on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys
like:
The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending
on where they are used.

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The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to
enter numbers quickly.
The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position
within a document or webpage. Some modern keyboards come with "hot keys" or
buttons that give you quick and one-press access to programs, files, or
commands. Other models have volume controls, scroll wheels, zoom wheels, and
other gadgets.

Figure 4c. Modern computer keyboard

Three odd keys
So far, we've discussed almost every key you're likely to use. But for the truly
inquisitive, let's explore the three most mysterious keys on the keyboard: PRINT
SCREEN, SCROLL LOCK, and PAUSE/BREAK.
Print Screen (or PRT SCN)
A long time ago, this key actually did what it says—it sent the current screen of
text to your printer. Nowadays, pressing PRINT SCREEN captures an image of your
entire screen (a "screen shot") and copies it to the Clipboard in your computer's
memory. From there you can paste it (CTRL+V) into Microsoft Paint or another
program and, if you want, print it from that program. More obscure is SYS RQ,
which shares the key with PRINT SCREEN on some keyboards. Historically, SYS RQ
was designed to be a "system request," but this command is not enabled in
Windows.
Scroll Lock (or SCR LK)
In most programs, pressing SCROLL LOCK has no effect. In a few programs,
pressing SCROLL LOCK changes the behavior of the arrow keys and the PAGE UP

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and PAGE DOWN keys; pressing these keys causes the document to scroll without
changing the position of the cursor or selection. Your keyboard might have a light
indicating whether SCROLL LOCK is on.
Pause/Break
This key is rarely used. In some older programs, pressing this key pauses the
program or, in combination with CTRL, stops it from running.
 Electronic Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer
screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit
like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a
long wire that resembles a tail.
Some newer mice are wireless. When you move the mouse with your hand, a
pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance
might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you
want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release)
the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to
interact with your computer.
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and
a secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you
will use most often. Most mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to
help you scroll through documents and webpages more easily. On some mice, the
scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice might have
additional buttons that can perform other functions.

Figure 4d. Parts of a mouse

Holding and Moving the Mouse

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a
mouse pad. Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary
button and your thumb resting on the side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in

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any direction. Don't twist it; keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you.
As you move the mouse, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. If
you run out of room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up
the mouse and bring it back closer to you. Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your
wrist straight. Figure 4d illustrate the explanation given.

Figure 4d. Mouse holding technique

Pointing, clicking, and dragging: Pointing to an item on the screen means moving
your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item. When you point to
something, a small box often appears that describes the item. For example, when
you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information:
"Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."

Figure 4e.Pointing to an object to reveals a descriptive message about it

The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing to. For example, when
you point to a link in your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a
hand with a pointing finger . Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing
one of the mouse buttons.

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There are four basic ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking,
right-clicking, and dragging.
Clicking (single-clicking): To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and
then press and release the primary button (usually the left button). Clicking is
most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes
called single-clicking or left-clicking.
Double-clicking: To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and
then click twice quickly. If the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be
interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one double-click.
Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example,
you can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the
desktop.
Right-clicking: To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then
press and release the secondary button (usually the right button). Right-clicking
an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example,
when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu
allowing you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you're ever
unsure of what to do with something, right-click it. Right-clicking the Recycle Bin
opens a menu of related commands

Figure 4f. Right clicking recycle bin

Dragging: You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an
object, point to the object on the screen, press and hold the primary button,
move the object to a new location, and then release the primary button. Dragging
(sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and

22
folders to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your
screen.
 Joysticks
Joysticks are used more on video games than with PCs. A joystick has a short
vertical handle that can be tilted forwards and backwards, left and right. A joystick
allows the user to point to objects on the screen in the same way as a mouse, but
it is more convenient for following a moving target. It may have one or more
buttons on it.
 Light Pen
A light pen allows the user to point the pen at different parts of a screen to select
an option or draw a graphic, so it is like very accurate Touch screens. The use of
light pens is quite rare.
1.
 Optical Scanners
Optical scanning devices read text or graphics and convert them into digital input
for the computer. Thus, optical scanning enables the direct entry of data from
source documents into a computer system. Optical scanners employ photoelectric
devices to scan the characters being read. Reflected light patterns of the data are
converted into electronic impulses that are then accepted as input into the
computer system. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a form of optical
scanning.
2.
 Voice Recognition
Voice recognition systems analyse and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and
convert them into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Voice
recognition systems with large vocabularies require training the computer to
recognise your voice in order to achieve a high degree of accuracy
Output Devices
Computer output is the process of transferring data and information from the
main storage of the computer onto a human-sensible medium or a machine-
sensible medium. The principal methods of producing computer output are:

 Displayed output on a VDU screen

 Printed output on paper
 Computer-sensible output on a magnetic medium

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  Computer output on microform
 Plotters
 Sound output

Video Output
Video monitors use cathode ray tubes (CRT) technology similar to the picture
tubes used in home TV sets. The clarity of the video display depends on the type
of video monitor and the graphic circuit board installed in the computer. The
information displayed on the screen is often referred to as soft copy. Monitors
can be monochrome or colour. Monochrome monitors give a display of varying
intensity on a single colour, for example, white on black background or
orange/green on dark background. Colour monitors give a display with a range of
colours determined by the colour circuitry in the monitor and the computer.
Printers/ Plotters
A printer is a mechanical device used for producing human-readable information
on paper. A printer is connected to a computer for the sole purpose of
transferring the information from the computer to paper or other media. The
version printed out on paper is often referred to as hard copy. The three main
categories of computer printers are line printers, serial/character printers and
laser printers. A plotter contains a pen that draws lines on paper. Plotters are
devices used for producing hard copies of complex graphics outputs in the form of
graphs, charts, histograms and diagrams. These devices are much better than
ordinary printers at handling diagrams. The technique has a wide range of use in
fields such as scientific research, engineering and management information
systems. They are commonly used for such tasks as producing technical drawings
and road/rail networks.

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 Chapter Six
Computer Operation

u
6.1 Computer Users
User is an agent, either a human agent (end-user) or software agent, who uses a
computer or network service. Users are also widely characterized as the class of
people that use a system without complete technical expertise required to
understand the system fully. Computer users can be classified into the following
categories based on the way they think about computers.

Application-oriented Users
The vast majority of computer users are application-oriented. They have training
and experience exclusively with commercial software. They understand concepts
peculiar to computers such as files, folders, saving, and deleting. They live in a
WYSIWYG world; although they may be aware that what they see on the screen is
not an entirely accurate representation of what the computer is actually doing,
they are not interested in understanding hidden implementations. They have
learned how to map their thinking onto the capabilities of the applications they
regularly use, and they accept whatever limitations that thinking may impose.
They are pragmatic, learning as much as they need to get their work done. A new
problem requires a new piece of software. Spreadsheet ―programmers‖ fall into
this category, as may some programmers who work primarily with application
scripting tools such as
Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications. Nearly all commercial software is targeted
at this group of users, who can be considered
―computer-literate.‖
Goal-oriented users
The second largest group consists of goal-oriented users. These users focus
exclusively on the goals they want to accomplish and neither understands nor
cares about the software they use to accomplish those goals. This could be called
the ―I just want to type a letter‖ group. They only see the final product. They do
not care about, for example, the difference between a word processor document
and a PDF image of that same document, so they do not understand why they can
make textual edits to one and not the other.

25
They could be described as ―computer-illiterate,‖ even if they work with
computers on a regular basis. Many very intelligent people, scientists and
scholars, fall into this category. They are frustrated by the limitations of the
software they use because they do not understand the reasons for those
limitations. Though they may use common terms such as ―files,‖ they typically
map those concepts onto their real-world metaphorical analogues, resulting in
confusion.
(―Why can‘t I keep this picture in my email file?)
Original Computer Users
The third and smallest group of computer users ironically, the original computer
users is comprised of hackers. Hackers are computer-oriented computer users.
They have learned how to think like a computer, to understand the processes the
computer goes through. They favor small tools (e.g. the command line, shell
scripts) over large applications because they want to be in precise control of what
the computer is doing at all times. They comfortably work with data in ―raw‖
formats such as text files. This does not necessarily mean they are tied down with
minutiae of implementation; often they can work at much higher levels of
abstraction than other users. Hackers tend to seek out the abstract patterns
inherent in whatever end result they are working towards, then implement those
patterns in the computer. A new problem rarely requires new tools, merely a new
application of existing tools. They will create whatever new tools are needed to
bring the computer up to the level of the problem, rather than trying to adapt the
problem to fit the computer. On the other hand, their solutions tend to be brittle,
with a lot of exposed complexity that makes them unsuitable for non-hacker
users.

6.2 System Booting

When we start our Computer, there is an operation which is performed
automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting,
System will check all the hardware‘s and Software‘s that are installed or Attached
with the System and this will also load all the Files that are needed for running a
system. In the Booting Process all the Files that are Stored into the ROM Chip will
also be Loaded for Running the System. In the Booting Process the System will
read all the information from the Files that are Stored into the ROM Chip and the
ROM chip will read all the instructions that are Stored into these Files. After the
Booting of the System this will automatically display all the information on the
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System. The Instructions that are necessary to Start the System will be read at the
Time of Booting. There are two Types of Booting.
Cold Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State
Means when we Starts our System this is called a cold Booting. In the cold Booting
the System will be started from its beginning State means first of all, the user will
press the Power Button, then this will read all the instructions from the ROM and
the Operating System will be automatically gets loaded into the System RAM.
Warm Booting: The warm Booting is that in which System Automatically Starts
when we are Running the System, For Example due to Light Fluctuation the
system will Automatically Restarts So that in this Chances Damaging of system are
more, and the System will not be start from its initial State So May Some Files will
be Damaged because they are not Properly Stored into the System.

6.3 Occupational Health and Safety

Basic Description of Occupational health and safety Occupational health and
safety is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and
welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of all occupational
health and safety programs is to foster a safe work environment. As a secondary
effect, it may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers,
suppliers, nearby communities, and other members of the public who are
impacted by the workplace environment. It may involve interactions among many
subject areas, including occupational medicine, occupational (or industrial)
hygiene, public health, safety engineering, chemistry, health physics.
Occupational health should aim at:
 The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental
and social well-being of workers in all occupations;
 The prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their
working conditions;
 The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health;
 The placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment
adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities;
These regulations are concerned with the working environment. They place a
duty on employers to make sure that the workplace is safe and suitable for the

27
tasks being carried out there, and that it does not present risks to employees and
others.
Regulation for Maintaining Health and Safety
The regulations for maintaining health & safety in the working environment,
includes:
 maintenance of the workplace, equipment, devices and systems
 ventilation
 temperature in indoor workplaces
 lighting
 cleanliness and waste materials
 room dimensions and space
 work stations and seating
 condition of floors and traffic routes
 falls or falling objects
 windows and transparent or translucent doors, gates and walls windows,
skylights and ventilators
 sanitary conveniences
 washing facilities
 drinking water
 accommodation for clothing
 facilities for changing clothing
 Facilities for rest and to eat meals.
Why Occupational Health and Safety
Some reason for occupation health and safety are;
 Occupational health and safety promote health and safety procedures in
organizations.
 Help to recognize hazards and measure health and safety risks, set suitable
safety controls in place, and give recommendations on avoiding accidents
to management and employees in an organizations.
 An effective training program can reduce the number of injuries and
deaths, property damage, legal liability, illnesses, workers' compensation
claims, and missed time from work.
 Safety training classes help establish a safety culture in which employees
themselves help promote proper safety procedures while on the job. It is
important that new employees be properly trained and embraces the

28
 importance of workplace safety as it is easy for seasoned workers to
negatively influence the new hires.

Safety and Health Hazards

The terminology used in OSH varies but generally speaking a hazard is something
that can cause harm if not controlled. The outcome is the harm that results from
an uncontrolled hazard. A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular
outcome will occur and the severity of the harm involved. ―Hazard‖, ―risk‖, and
―outcome‖ are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage, or
damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, ―harm‖ generally
describes the direct or indirect degradation, temporary or permanent, of the
physical, mental, or social wellbeing of workers. For example, repetitively carrying
out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard. The outcome could be a
musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) or an acute back or joint injury.
Nigerian Occupational Health and Safety Bill
The Bill to enact a law that would take care of the health and safety of industrial
workers passed through second reading on the floor of the Senate on 25 th
February, 2009. The bill sponsored by Senator Chris Anyanwu which was
committed to the senate committees on Labor, Health seeks amongst other
things to ensure that employers of labor are properly protected.
Highlights of Nigerian Occupational Health and Safety Bill
 To make further provisions for securing the safety, health and welfare of
persons at work
 To make provisions for protecting others against risks to safety or health in
connection with the activities of persons at work
 To establish the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health to
create a general framework for the improvement of working conditions and
the working environment
 To prevent accidents and departures from health arising out of or in the
course of work
 To ensure the provision of occupational safety and health services to
workers in all sectors of economic activity
The bill is also to establish the National Council for Occupational Safety and
Health Hazards and for related issues with the following functions

29
  To ensure employee safety and health in Nigeria by working with
employers and employees to create better working environments
 To act as a regulatory agency by issuing safety and health standards that is
enforceable under Nigerian safety law.

6.4 Computer Health and Safety

Description of Computer Health and Safety
The number of computers in the workplace has increased rapidly over the last few
years and it is now quite normal for most staff in organizations to be exposed to
computer usage. The Health and Safety at Work Act lays down legal standards for
computer equipment and requires employers to take steps to minimize risks for
all workers. Improving health and safety practice should be taken seriously,
although it need not take much time or expense. Measures employers should take
include:

 Understanding the law - make sure someone in your organization has a

health and safety brief covering all areas, not just computers.
 Being aware of the health risks - the government officially recognizes some
of the risks although there are some grey areas you'll need to make up your
own mind about.
 Assessing the risks - using procedures set out in the law - be systematic and
get help if you need it. Get a health and safety audit done by a competent
organization if necessary.
 Taking steps to minimize the risks - this may only involve taking simple
measures.
 Training all users to recognize the risks - if people aren't aware of the
dangers they can't take adequate precautions to protect their health.
 Taking users views seriously - if users feel there is something wrong there
often is.
Risks within Computer Environment
The main risks associated with using computers include:
 Musculoskeletal problems
 Eye strain
 Hint‘Rashes and other skin complaints have also been reported, although it
is thought these are caused by the dry atmosphere and static electricity
associated with display units rather than by the display units themselves

30
Musculoskeletal problems
These can range from general aches and pains to more serious problems which
include
 Upper limb disorders such as repetitive strain injury (RSI) and carpal tunnel
syndrome - by far the most important as it can quickly lead to permanent
incapacity
 Back and neck pain and discomfort
 Tension stress headaches and related ailments

Causes of Musculoskeletal Problems

 Maintaining an unnatural or unhealthy posture while using the computer
 Inadequate lower back support
 Sitting in the same position for an extended period of time
 An ergonomically poor workstation set up

Eye Strain
Computer users can experience a number of symptoms related to vision as follow:
 Visual fatigue
 Blurred or double vision
 Burning and watering eyes
 Headaches and frequent changes in prescription glasses
Computer work hasn't been proven to cause permanent eye damage, but the
temporary discomfort that may occur can reduce productivity, cause lost work
time and reduce job satisfaction.
Causes of Eye Strain
Eye problems are usually the result of visual fatigue
 Glare from bright windows or strong light sources
 Light reflecting off the display screen
 Poor display screen contrast

6.5 Precaution to Prevent Risk Associated With Computer

31
Musculoskeletal Problems: General precautions to avoid musculoskeletal
problems include:
 Taking regular breaks from working at your computer - a few minutes at
least once an hour
 Alternating work tasks
 Regular stretching to relax your body
 Using equipment such as footrests, wrist rests and document holders if you
need to
 Keeping your mouse and keyboard at the same level
 Avoiding gripping your mouse too tightly - hold the mouse lightly and click
gently
 Familiarize yourself with keyboard shortcuts for applications you regularly
use (to avoid overusing the mouse)
 It is also important to have your workstation set up correctly. Your
workstation includes monitor, keyboard, mouse, seating, desk, and where
appropriate, footrest (to enable you to put your feet flat if they would
otherwise not reach the floor), wrist rest, and document holder.

Monitors should
 Swivel, tilt and elevate - if not use an adjustable stand, books or blocks
adjust the height
 Be positioned so the top line of the monitor is no higher than your eyes or
no lower than 20° below the horizon of your eyes or field of vision Be at
the same level and beside the document holder if you use one
 Be between 18 to 24 inches away from your face

Keyboards should
 Be detachable and adjustable (with legs to adjust angle)
 Allow your forearms to be parallel to the floor without raising your elbows
 Allow your wrists to be in line with your forearms so your wrists does not
need to be flexed up or down
 Include enough space to rest your wrists or should include a padded
detachable wrist rest (or you can use a separate gel wrist rest which should
be at least 50 mm deep)

32
  Be placed directly in front of the monitor and at the same height as the
mouse, track ball or touch pad

Chairs should
 Support the back - and have a vertically adjustable independent back rest
that returns to its original position and has tilt adjustment to support the
lower back
 Allow chair height to be adjusted from a sitting position
 Be adjusted so the back crease of the knee is slightly higher than the pan of
the chair (use a suitable footrest where necessary)
 Be supported by a five prong caster base
 Have removable and adjustable armrests
 Have a contoured seat with breathable fabric and rounded edges to
distribute the weight and should be adjustable to allow the seat pan to tilt
forward or back

Tables and desks should

 Provide sufficient leg room and preferably be height adjustable
 Have enough room to support the computer equipment and space for
documents
 Have rounded corners and edges
Avoiding Eyestrain
Precautions that can be taken to avoid eyestrain include:
 Exercising the eyes by periodically focusing on objects at varying distances
 Blinking regularly
 Keeping the air around you moist - for example using plants, open pans of
water or a humidifier (spider plants are said to be particularly good for this
and removing chemical vapors from the air)
 Adjusting the screen height / seating so that when sitting comfortably your
eyes are in line with the top of the monitor screen
 Adjusting the brightness control on your monitor for comfort
 Adjusting the contrast on your monitor to make the
characters distinct from the background
 Adjusting the refresh rate of your monitor to stop it

33
 flickering
 Positioning monitors to avoid glare (e.g. not directly in front of windows)
i. Keeping your monitor screen clean
 Keeping the screen and document holder (if you use one) at the same
distance from your eyes
 Servicing, repairing or replacing monitors that flicker or have inadequate
clarity
 Regular eye testing - do this at least once every 2 years and more
frequently if necessary - especially if you are experiencing eye problems
related to using display equipment. Indicate the distance from your eyes to
the monitor to your optician and talk to them regarding special lenses or
the use of bifocals.

Chapter Seven
Data Processing Techniques

34
  Definition of Data Processing
Data processing can be defined as the methods and procedures of converting
data into information. That is, the manipulation of data, its retention and
subsequent retrieval. Data processing is the activities involved in the
transformation of data into information.

 Methods of Data Processing

Various methods of data processing are discussed below:
Manual method: This involves the use of pen, pencil, paper, desk
calculator/adding machine and human brain. This mode of data processing is
suitable in a business environment where volume of data to be processed is small
and delivery time is not critical.
Mechanical (or electro-mechanical) method: This involves the use involves the
use of machines that are activated by an operator e.g. punch cards equipment,
Abacus, accounting machine etc. This method is faster than the manual method
of processing data. The rate of error is less than the error rate in manual mode.
Electronic Data Processing Method: This involves the use of computer to process
data. EDP has the highest processing speed among all the three modes of data
processing. Input devices are used to feed data into the computer;
microprocessors are used to process the data and output devices are used to pass
the result of processing (i.e. output or information) to the user.
 Data Processing Stages
Stages of data processing include: origination, input, processing, storage, output
and distribution. The data processing cycle is depicted in the following diagram

35
 Origination(data
collection)

Input

Processing
Storage

Output

Distribution

i.

Origination: This is the collection of original (primary) data. It is possible to collect

data and store it away in a secondary storage medium pending the time the data
would be required for processing.
Input: This means feeding the data into the computer. Data is prepared in a
convenient/suitable form for processing. The form of input device used depends
on the data processing method. e.g. punch cards are used in electromechanical
data processing while magnetic tape, disk, keyboard (terminal) are used in
electronic data processing.
Processing: This is a planned series of actions and operations performed on data
to convert the data to a more meaningful form called information.
Storage: storage of data/Information could take place at any stage for future
purposes. The double-headed arrows show the storage of data/information at
one time, and the stored data/information serving as input for processing at
another time.
Output: This is the result of the processed data (information). At times, the
information produced today could be distributed to the appropriate end-users; at
some other times, the information could be used as input for another data
processing cycle.
Distribution: This is the dissemination of information produced, to the
appropriate quarters for decision-making. The decision-makers are the end-users
of information.

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