Action Research Model

The Action Research Model is a problem-solving framework widely used in

organizational development, change management, and social sciences. It
emphasizes collaboration between researchers (or change agents) and
participants (or stakeholders) to address issues, implement changes, and learn
from the outcomes in an iterative and participatory process.

This model was developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s and is grounded in the
belief that effective change happens when those affected by it are actively
involved in diagnosing problems, developing solutions, and implementing
changes.

Key Characteristics of the Action Research Model

1. Collaborative and Participatory:

o Involves active participation from stakeholders, such as employees,
managers, or community members.
o Encourages shared ownership of the problem and solutions.
2. Iterative and Cyclical:
o The process is conducted in cycles, allowing for continuous
feedback, learning, and improvement.
3. Focus on Real-World Problems:
o Directly addresses practical issues within an organization or
community.
4. Data-Driven:
o Uses data collection and analysis to diagnose issues, monitor
changes, and evaluate outcomes.
5. Learning-Oriented:
o Promotes learning for individuals, teams, and the organization
through reflection and feedback.

Stages of the Action Research Model

The process typically follows a cyclical series of steps:

1. Problem Identification

• Identify the issue or area for improvement within the organization or

community.
 • Gather input from stakeholders to understand their perspectives and
priorities.
• Define the scope and goals of the project.

2. Data Collection

• Collect relevant data to analyze the root causes and dynamics of the
problem.
• Methods may include surveys, interviews, focus groups, or observation.

3. Data Analysis and Diagnosis

• Analyze the data to identify patterns, underlying issues, and opportunities

for improvement.
• Collaboratively interpret the findings with stakeholders to build a shared
understanding.

4. Action Planning

• Develop an action plan based on the diagnosis.

• The plan should include specific interventions, goals, timelines, and roles
for stakeholders.

5. Implementation

• Execute the planned actions to address the identified problem.

• Ensure ongoing communication and collaboration with stakeholders
during this phase.

6. Evaluation

• Assess the outcomes of the actions taken.

• Use both qualitative and quantitative methods to measure success and
identify areas for refinement.

7. Reflection

• Reflect on the process and results with stakeholders.

• Discuss what worked, what didn’t, and what could be improved in future
cycles.

8. Iteration (Repeating the Cycle)

• Based on the evaluation and reflection, refine the approach and repeat the
cycle.
 • This iterative process allows for continuous improvement.

The Positive Model

The Positive Model is an approach to organizational change that focuses on

identifying and amplifying an organization’s strengths, successes, and
opportunities rather than concentrating on problems or deficits. This model is
rooted in Appreciative Inquiry (AI), a philosophy developed by David
Cooperrider and colleagues, which emphasizes leveraging what works well in
an organization to inspire positive change and innovation.

Unlike traditional problem-solving methods that focus on diagnosing and fixing

issues, the Positive Model takes a generative approach. It encourages
organizations to build on their core strengths and create a compelling vision of
the future.

Key Principles of the Positive Model

1. Focus on Strengths:
o Emphasizes what is working well in the organization.
o Seeks to amplify positive attributes and behaviors.
2. Constructive Inquiry:
o Uses inquiry and dialogue to uncover success stories, shared
values, and aspirations.
3. Future-Oriented:
o Encourages envisioning a desired future based on the
organization’s strengths and achievements.
4. Collaborative Approach:
o Involves all stakeholders in a participatory process to create shared
ownership of change initiatives.
5. Generative Learning:
o Inspires new ideas, opportunities, and ways of thinking that can
lead to innovation and growth.

The Five Phases of the Positive Model

The Positive Model is often structured around the 5-D Cycle of Appreciative
Inquiry:
1. Define

• Objective: Clarify the focus of the inquiry and establish the purpose of
the change initiative.
• Key Question: What do we want to explore and improve within the
organization?
• Example: Identifying areas such as employee engagement, customer
satisfaction, or innovation for inquiry.

2. Discover

• Objective: Identify and appreciate the organization’s strengths, best

practices, and past successes.
• Key Question: What are the organization’s peak moments, and what
contributes to these successes?
• Activities: Conduct interviews, focus groups, or storytelling sessions to
gather positive examples.

3. Dream

• Objective: Envision an ideal future based on the organization’s strengths.

• Key Question: What could the organization look like if it fully realized
its potential?
• Activities: Facilitate collaborative visioning exercises to create a shared
picture of success.

4. Design

• Objective: Develop strategies, structures, and processes to bring the

envisioned future to life.
• Key Question: What systems and actions will help us achieve our
dream?
• Activities: Co-create plans and prototypes for implementing the vision.

5. Destiny (or Deliver)

• Objective: Implement the plans and sustain the momentum for change.
• Key Question: How can we ensure ongoing growth and alignment with
our vision?
• Activities: Execute action steps, monitor progress, and celebrate
achievements.
Applications of the Positive Model

• Organizational Development: Enhances culture, teamwork, and

innovation by focusing on strengths.
• Change Management: Facilitates transitions by emphasizing
opportunities rather than problems.
• Leadership Development: Helps leaders build on their strengths and
inspire their teams.
• Community Engagement: Encourages collaborative efforts to create
thriving communities.
• Employee Engagement: Boosts morale and productivity by focusing on
positive experiences and achievements.

Benefits of the Positive Model

• Inspires Engagement: People are more motivated by focusing on what

works well than on fixing problems.
• Builds Confidence: Celebrating strengths fosters a sense of pride and
capability within the organization.
• Generates Creative Solutions: A focus on possibilities opens the door to
innovation and new opportunities.
• Strengthens Relationships: Collaborative processes build trust and
alignment among stakeholders.
• Sustainable Change: A positive focus often leads to more enduring and
transformative results

Different Types of Planned Change

Planned change refers to deliberate, systematic efforts to improve an

organization’s effectiveness, solve problems, or adapt to new opportunities. The
types of planned change can be classified based on the magnitude of change,
the degree of organization, and whether it occurs in domestic or international
settings.

1. Magnitude of Change

The magnitude of planned change reflects the extent of transformation within an

organization. It is often categorized as follows:
a. Incremental Change

• Definition: Small-scale, gradual adjustments that aim to refine existing

processes, systems, or behaviors.
• Examples:
o Updating internal policies.
o Introducing a new performance evaluation method.
o Improving customer service practices.
• Characteristics:
o Low-risk.
o Easier to implement.
o Focuses on continuous improvement.

b. Transformational Change

• Definition: Large-scale, fundamental shifts that alter the organization’s

structure, strategy, or culture.
• Examples:
o Organizational restructuring.
o Shifting to a digital-first business model.
o Implementing a diversity and inclusion overhaul.
• Characteristics:
o High-risk and high-reward.
o Requires strong leadership and effective change management.
o Often driven by external forces, such as market disruptions or
technological advancements.

c. Revolutionary Change

• Definition: Abrupt, radical transformations often necessitated by crises

or significant opportunities.
• Examples:
o Mergers and acquisitions.
o Responding to economic recessions or industry upheavals.
• Characteristics:
o Requires rapid execution.
o High levels of uncertainty and resistance.

2. Degree of Organization

The degree of organization in planned change depends on how well-structured

and prepared the change process is within the organization.
a. Systematic Change

• Definition: A well-organized, structured approach to change with clear

goals, timelines, and roles.
• Examples:
o Launching a new product line with pre-defined milestones.
o Implementing an enterprise-wide ERP system.
• Characteristics:
o Proactive and planned.
o Supported by frameworks like project management or change
management models.

b. Emergent Change

• Definition: Change that unfolds organically in response to unforeseen

circumstances or opportunities.
• Examples:
o Adopting new practices during a crisis (e.g., remote work during a
pandemic).
o Adapting marketing strategies to sudden changes in consumer
behavior.
• Characteristics:
o Reactive and flexible.
o Often relies on improvisation and agile principles.

c. Chaotic Change

• Definition: Change that occurs in an unplanned, disorganized manner

due to external or internal pressures.
• Examples:
o Responding to leadership turnover without a succession plan.
o Adjusting to sudden regulatory changes without preparation.
• Characteristics:
o High risk of failure.
o Requires quick decision-making and strong crisis management
skills.

3. Domestic vs. International Settings

Planned change can vary significantly depending on whether it occurs in

domestic or international contexts.
a. Domestic Settings

• Focus:
o Implementing change within a single country or cultural context.
• Key Considerations:
o National laws, regulations, and market conditions.
o Homogeneous cultural norms and values.
• Examples:
o Implementing new labor policies aligned with local labor laws.
o Restructuring operations to suit regional market demands.

b. International Settings

• Focus:
o Implementing change across multiple countries, cultures, and
regulatory environments.
• Key Considerations:
o Cross-cultural management and communication.
o Adapting to varying legal, economic, and political conditions.
o Addressing global supply chain complexities.
• Examples:
o Expanding operations into new countries.
o Standardizing processes across multinational subsidiaries while
accommodating local variations.
• Challenges:
o Managing cultural diversity and resistance.
o Navigating global compliance and geopolitical risks.

Conclusion

The types of planned change—categorized by magnitude, degree of

organization, and domestic vs. international settings—highlight the diverse
nature of organizational transformation. Understanding these distinctions
enables organizations to tailor their strategies and resources to the unique
challenges and opportunities of their specific context, ensuring more effective
and sustainable outcomes.
Change and Diagnosing Change

Change is a deliberate process aimed at improving organizational performance,

adapting to environmental shifts, or achieving strategic goals. Diagnosing
change involves assessing the organization’s current state to identify areas for
improvement, align processes, and design effective interventions. Effective
diagnosis provides insights into underlying issues and facilitates a structured
approach to implementing change.

To achieve this, several frameworks and theories guide the diagnosis of

organizational systems and dynamics:

Open Systems Theory

Definition:
Open Systems Theory views organizations as dynamic systems that interact
with their environment. It highlights the interdependence between the internal
components of an organization and external environmental factors.

Key Features:

• Inputs, Processes, Outputs: Organizations take inputs (resources,

information) from their environment, transform them through processes,
and deliver outputs (products, services).
• Feedback Loops: Feedback from the environment allows the system to
adapt and improve.
• Interdependence: Changes in one part of the system affect other parts.

Relevance to Diagnosing Change:

Open Systems Theory helps organizations understand how external factors like
market trends, competition, or regulations impact internal processes and
outcomes. Diagnosis focuses on ensuring alignment between external demands
and internal capabilities.

Systems Thinking

Definition:
Systems Thinking is a holistic approach that examines the relationships and
interactions between components within a system rather than focusing on
individual elements.
Key Features:

• Whole-System View: Emphasizes understanding the organization as an

interconnected whole rather than isolated parts.
• Causal Relationships: Identifies feedback loops, dependencies, and
unintended consequences of changes.
• Dynamic Complexity: Recognizes that small changes in one area can
have significant ripple effects across the system.

Relevance to Diagnosing Change:

Systems Thinking allows for a comprehensive analysis of how various elements
within an organization interact and contribute to its overall functioning. It helps
identify leverage points where interventions will have the most significant
impact.

Socio-Technical Systems Theory

Definition:
Socio-Technical Systems (STS) Theory focuses on the interdependence
between an organization’s social and technical subsystems, emphasizing the
need for balance between the two.

Key Features:

• Social Subsystem: Includes people, roles, relationships, and cultural

aspects.
• Technical Subsystem: Comprises tools, technologies, and processes
used in work.
• Joint Optimization: Suggests that both social and technical systems
must be optimized together for maximum effectiveness.

Relevance to Diagnosing Change:

STS Theory highlights the importance of considering both human and
technological factors when diagnosing change. It ensures that changes in
technology are supported by adequate training, communication, and cultural
alignment to avoid resistance and inefficiencies.

Work Redesign
Definition:
Work redesign involves restructuring tasks, roles, or workflows to improve
efficiency, job satisfaction, and organizational outcomes.

Key Features:

• Job Enrichment: Enhances roles by adding variety, autonomy, and

opportunities for personal growth.
• Workflow Optimization: Streamlines processes to reduce redundancies
and increase efficiency.
• Employee Engagement: Focuses on designing work that motivates
employees and aligns with their skills and aspirations.

Relevance to Diagnosing Change:

Work redesign is often a critical aspect of change diagnosis, as inefficient or
poorly structured work systems are a common source of organizational
problems. Diagnosing these issues involves analyzing job roles, task
distributions, and workflows to identify areas for improvement that benefit both
employees and the organization.

Conclusion

Diagnosing change requires a thorough understanding of the complex

interactions within and outside the organization. Frameworks like Open
Systems Theory, Systems Thinking, Socio-Technical Systems Theory, and
principles of Work Redesign provide valuable perspectives to analyze and
address organizational challenges. Together, they enable organizations to create
more adaptive, efficient, and people-centered systems that support successful
change initiatives.

Reinventing the Organization

Reinventing the organization refers to rethinking and restructuring an

organization’s structure, processes, and culture to adapt to changing
environments, leverage new opportunities, and meet modern challenges. Unlike
traditional, hierarchical approaches, reinvented organizations focus on agility,
innovation, and purpose to stay competitive in a fast-paced, globalized, and
technology-driven world.
Benefits of Reinventing Organizations

1. Improved Employee Engagement

o Fosters a sense of ownership and purpose among employees.
o Reduces burnout and enhances job satisfaction.
2. Greater Innovation
o Encourages creativity and experimentation by breaking down
bureaucratic barriers.
3. Enhanced Resilience
o Increases the organization’s ability to respond to disruptions,
whether economic, technological, or environmental.
4. Sustainability and Social Impact
o Aligns the organization’s goals with broader societal and
environmental objectives, improving reputation and stakeholder
trust.

Challenges in Reinventing Organizations

1. Cultural Resistance
o Employees and leadership accustomed to traditional models may
resist new approaches.
o Requires a shift in mindset and strong communication.
2. Skill Gaps
o Transitioning to a reinvented model may necessitate new skills,
particularly in technology and collaborative practices.
3. Balancing Change and Continuity
o The challenge of innovating while maintaining core organizational
values and stability.

Examples of Reinvented Organizations

1. Google
o Operates with a flat structure, encourages innovation, and provides
employees with flexibility and autonomy.
o
Organizational Inertia: Factors and Influences

Organizational inertia refers to an organization’s resistance to change due to

entrenched routines, processes, and mindsets. It often stems from internal and
external factors, including organizational culture, commitments and
capabilities, and external institutional constraints. Understanding these
dimensions helps identify the sources of inertia and develop strategies to
overcome it.

1. Organizational Culture

Definition:
Organizational culture comprises shared values, norms, beliefs, and practices
that guide how employees interact and make decisions. A strong culture can be
both a stabilizing force and a source of resistance to change.

Influence on Inertia:

• Deeply Embedded Traditions: Long-standing values and practices

create a preference for maintaining the status quo.
• Resistance to New Ideas: Employees and leaders may dismiss
innovative approaches as misaligned with the organization's identity.
• Groupthink: A cohesive culture may discourage dissent and critical
thinking, limiting adaptability.

Examples:

• Organizations with hierarchical cultures may resist flattening structures or

adopting agile methodologies.
• Companies prioritizing stability over innovation may struggle to embrace
disruptive technologies.

Addressing Culture-Driven Inertia:

• Encourage a growth mindset and openness to change.

• Introduce cultural transformation programs to align values with new
strategic directions.
• Reward adaptability and innovation to shift cultural norms.

2. Commitments and Capabilities

Definition:
Commitments are investments in resources, strategies, or relationships, while
capabilities refer to the skills, knowledge, and systems that drive organizational
operations. Both can lock an organization into existing patterns, creating inertia.

Influence on Inertia:

• Resource Lock-In: Heavy investments in specific technologies,

facilities, or markets may prevent exploration of alternatives.
• Skill Rigidities: Employees’ expertise in specific areas can make it
difficult to pivot to new approaches.
• Strategic Commitments: Overreliance on a single business model or
strategy can limit flexibility.

Examples:

• A company invested in legacy IT systems may delay adopting cloud-

based solutions.
• A manufacturing firm skilled in traditional production methods may resist
automation.

Addressing Capability-Driven Inertia:

• Diversify resource allocation to encourage experimentation with new

technologies or markets.
• Upskill employees to bridge gaps between existing capabilities and future
needs.
• Adopt a portfolio approach to strategy, balancing current strengths with
future-oriented initiatives.

3. External Institutional Constraints

Definition:
External institutional constraints include regulations, industry norms, market
pressures, and stakeholder expectations that shape organizational decisions and
behaviors.

Influence on Inertia:

• Regulatory Hurdles: Compliance with laws and standards may limit an

organization's ability to innovate.
 • Market Dependencies: Reliance on specific suppliers, customers, or
partnerships can discourage disruptive changes.
• Industry Norms: Conformity to traditional industry practices may stifle
differentiation or risk-taking.

Examples:

• Financial institutions bound by stringent regulations may find it

challenging to adopt blockchain technology.
• Established automotive companies may hesitate to transition to electric
vehicles due to supplier dependencies.

Addressing External Constraints:

• Collaborate with regulators and industry bodies to advocate for

progressive policies.
• Build flexibility into supply chains and partnerships to reduce
dependencies.
• Monitor emerging trends and be proactive in aligning with shifting
industry norms.

Interconnections Among Factors

The interplay between culture, commitments, capabilities, and external

constraints amplifies organizational inertia:

• A strong culture emphasizing stability can reinforce resource lock-ins and

skill rigidities.
• External constraints may solidify internal commitments by validating
current strategies.
• Resistance from culture and capabilities can limit the organization’s
ability to respond to external demands.

Strategies to Overcome Organizational Inertia

1. Leadership Vision and Communication:

o Strong leadership is essential to articulate the need for change and
rally support across all levels.
2. Cultural Transformation:
 o Gradually shift values and norms to foster innovation,
collaboration, and adaptability.
3. Capability Building:
o Invest in reskilling employees and developing flexible systems to
accommodate change.
4. Scenario Planning:
o Use future-oriented tools to anticipate and prepare for changes in
external constraints.
5. Small Wins and Pilot Programs:
o Initiate smaller, low-risk changes to build momentum and
demonstrate the benefits of adaptability.

Conclusion

Organizational inertia is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by internal

factors like culture, commitments, and capabilities, as well as external
institutional constraints. While it provides stability, unchecked inertia can
hinder growth and innovation. By addressing these factors holistically,
organizations can strike a balance between maintaining core strengths and
embracing the flexibility needed to thrive in a dynamic environment.

1. Red Queen Effect

Definition:
The Red Queen Effect, derived from Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-
Glass, describes a situation where organizations must continuously adapt and
evolve not just to gain an advantage but to maintain their position relative to
competitors.

Key Features:

• Constant Competition: Organizations must innovate and improve to

keep pace with rivals.
• Adaptation and Evolution: Success depends on rapid and continuous
evolution.
• No Final Victory: Competitive environments create a cycle where
advantages are temporary.

Organizational Implications:
 • Sustained Effort: Companies need to allocate ongoing resources to
innovation, technology, and skill development.
• Market Pressure: Industries like technology or e-commerce experience
fast-paced competition, requiring constant reinvention.
• Strategic Focus: Organizations may need to prioritize agility and
responsiveness to external changes.

Examples:

• Tech Industry: Companies like Apple, Google, and Samsung compete

by regularly updating products and services to outpace rivals.
• Retail: Amazon’s advancements in logistics and customer experience
force competitors like Walmart to continually evolve.

2. Greenfield Effect

Definition:
The Greenfield Effect refers to the opportunities available to organizations
when they enter new, untapped, or less competitive markets, often starting from
scratch without the constraints of existing systems or practices.

Key Features:

• Fresh Start: Organizations operate without the burden of legacy systems,

processes, or reputations.
• Innovation Potential: Freedom to design and implement optimal
solutions tailored to the market’s specific needs.
• Reduced Competition: Greenfield markets typically have fewer
established players, offering a greater chance for market dominance.

Organizational Implications:

• High Opportunity: Organizations can establish strong market positions

if they act quickly and strategically.
• Flexibility: They can adopt cutting-edge technologies and strategies
without the constraints of existing practices.
• First-Mover Advantage: Being among the first to enter can yield long-
term benefits.

Examples:

• Infrastructure Projects: A company building a factory in a new region

with no prior development has full freedom to design efficient processes.
• Emerging Markets: Entering an untapped market, like early internet
adoption in remote areas, offers growth without legacy constraints.