Communication Engineering [AGM]

Communication Engineering
UNIT III - Notes

FM Transmitters: 1. FM Modulation

1.1 Mathematical Representation

1.2 FM Spectrum, Power and Bandwidth

2. Difference between AM and FM

3. Comparison between NBFM and WBFM

4. Circuits and Analysis of:

4.1 Direct FM Generation using FET reactance modulator

4.2 Direct FM Generation using Varactor diode

4.3 Indirect FM Generation

5. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

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1. FM Modulation:

The frequency modulation can be defined as the process of varying the frequency of the carrier
signal in accordance with instantaneous value (Amplitude) of the input modulating signal. The
carrier, modulating signal and the FM waveforms also are shown in the following figure:

The frequency of a carrier (fc) will increase as the amplitude of modulating (input) signal increases.
The carrier frequency will be maximum (fc max) when the input signal is at its peak. The carrier
deviates maximum from its normal value. The frequency of a carrier will decrease as the amplitude of
the modulating (input) signal decreases. The carrier frequency will be minimum (fc min) when the
input signal is at its lowest.

The carrier deviates minimum from its normal value. The frequency of the carrier will be at its normal
value (free running) fc when the input signal value is 0V. There is no deviation in the carrier.

 Frequency Deviation:
The amount of change in the carrier frequency produced, by the amplitude of the input modulating
signal, is called frequency deviation. It is denoted by Δf. The Carrier frequency swings between fmax
and fmin as the input varries in its amplitude.

The difference between fmax and fc is known as frequency deviation. Similarly, the difference
between fc and fmin also is known as frequency deviation. i.e.,

∆𝐟 = 𝐟𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐟𝐜

∆𝐟 = 𝐟𝐜 − 𝐟𝐜 𝐦𝐢𝐧

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1.1 Mathematical Representation of FM Signal:

For the message (modulating) signal m(t) and carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos2πfc t, standard equation of
angle modulated wave is given by the expression:

s(t) = Ac cosθi (t) - - - - [1]

The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is

fi = fc + K f m(t)

Where, K f = frequency sensitivity (Hz/V)

Also, we have the relation:
dθi (t)
ωi =
dt

dθi (t)
2πfi =
dt

θi (t) = 2π ∫ fi dt

Substitute the values of fi in above expression;

θi (t) = 2π ∫[fc + K f m(t)] dt

θi (t) = 2πfc t + 2πK f ∫ m(t) dt

Equation [1] 
s(t) = Ac cos (2πfc t + 2πK f ∫ m(t) dt)

This is the generalized expression of FM modulated signal with message signal m (t).

Let, m(t) = Am cos2πfm t

s(t) = Ac cos (2πfc t + 2πK f ∫ Am cos2πfm t dt)

2πK f Am
s(t) = Ac cos (2πfc t + sin 2πfm t)
2πfm

s(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β sin 2πfm t)

.. where, β = K f Am /fm

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1.2 FM Spectrum:

Frequency modulation can be classified as Narrowband if the value of modulation index (β < 1) and
as wideband FM if (β > 1). Suitable mathematical steps required in order to find out frequency
spectrum for both these NBFM and WBFM are discussed in the following section:

A] Narrow Band FM (NBFM)  The equation of frequency modulated wave is given by

s(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β sin 2πfm t)
s(t) = Ac [cos2πfc t . cos(β sin 2πfm t) − sin2πfc t. sin(β sin 2πfm t)] . . . . cos(A + B) = cosA. cosB − sinA. sinB

For NBFM, β < 1 and for small values of θ  sinθ ≈ θ and cosθ ≈ 1
Using above approximations, cos(β sin 2πfm t) ≈ 1 and sin(β sin 2πfm t) ≈ β sin 2πfm t
s(t) = Ac [cos2πfc t (1) − sin2πfc t. (β sin 2πfm t) ]
s(t) = Ac [cos2πfc t − β sin2πfc t. sin 2πfm t ]
1
Again, by using trigonometry formula of  sinA. sinB = 2 [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
β
s(t) = Ac [cos2πfc t − {cos2π(fc − fm )t − cos2π(fc + fm )t} ]
2
Ac β Ac β
s(t)NBFM = Ac cos2πfc t + cos2π(fc + fm )t − cos2π(fc − fm )t
2 2

This is the final expression for Narrow band frequency modulated signal. From the expression, it can
be observed that it consists of three components: carrier, upper sideband and lower sideband.

AM modulated signal can be given by:

Ac μ Ac μ
s(t)AM = Ac cos2πfc t + cos2π(fc + fm )t + cos2π(fc − fm )t
2 2

On comparing the expressions of AM and NBFM signals, it can be concluded that the spectrum of
AM and NBFM will be same except 180 degree phase shift at lower sideband frequency component.
Note: Power and bandwidth requirement of NBFM will be same as that of AM signal.

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B] Wide Band FM (WBFM) 

The equation of frequency modulated wave is given by
s(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β sin 2πfm t) . . . where, β > 1

The expression for Wide band frequency modulated signal is given by:
∞

s(t)WBFM = Ac ∑ Jn (β) cos2π(fc + nfm )t

n=−∞

where,

Jn (β) = Bessel function and

1 π j(βsinθ−nθ)
Jn (β) = ∫ e dθ
2π −π

Figure shows, plot of Bessel

Function for the different values
of β = 0, 1, 2 ….

By expanding WBFM expression for the values of n = 0, ±1, ±2 … ..

s(t)WBFM = Ac J0 (β)cos2πfc t + Ac J1 (β)cos2π(fc + fm )t + Ac J−1 (β)cos2π(fc − fm )t

+ Ac J2 (β)cos2π(fc + 2fm )t + Ac J−2 (β)cos2π(fc − 2fm )t +. . . . . . ..

Thus, from above expression it can be observed that there are infinite sidebands present in the
spectrum of WBFM signal. The amplitude of spectrum is nothing but value of Bessel function at that
point. Here, only five components are considered for n = 0, 1, -1, 2, -2.

Spectrum of WBFM

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From the spectrum of WBFM, it can be observed that bandwidth requirement of this signal is
theoretically INFINITE ! But, practical it is calculated using CARSON’s Rule as:

BW = 2(β + 1)fm or BW = 2(∆f + fm )

Also, total power requirement is

Ac 2
Pt =
2R

2. Difference between Frequency Modulation and Amplitude Modulation:

SN Parameter Frequency Modulation (FM) Amplitude Modulation (AM)

01 Definition It is the process of varying It is the process of varying

frequency of carrier wave with amplitude of carrier wave with
respect to instantaneous value respect to instantaneous value
of modulating signal. of modulating signal.
02 Amplitude of Carrier Remains constant Is varying according to message
03 Transmitted power Remains constant Is varying according to ‘µ’
2
Ac Ac 2 μ2
Pt = Pt = (1 + )
2R 2R 2
04 Modulation Index Can exceed above one [β > 1] ‘µ’ cannot exceed above 1
05 No. of Sidebands Infinite sidebands are present. Only two sidebands are present
06 Bandwidth Theoretically, infinite !
By Carson’s rule: BW = 2fm
BW = 2[1 + β]fm
07 Fidelity Better than that of AM Poor than FM
08 Broadcast frequencies 88 MHz – 108 MHz 535 KHz – 1650 KHz
09 Transmission Are Complex and costly Are Simple
Equipment
10 Noise Interference Is less [due to presence of Is more
amplitude limiters]
11 Adjacent channel Is absent [due to Guard band] Is present
interference
12 Area of reception Is small Is large

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3. Comparison between NBFM and WBFM:

SN Parameter Narrow Band FM Wide Band FM

01 Modulation Index (𝛃) β<1 β>1

02 Frequency Deviation (∆𝐟) 5 KHz 75 KHz
03 Modulation Frequency 30 Hz – 3 KHz 30 Hz – 15 KHz
04 Number of Sidebands Only 2 sidebands are present. Infinite sidebands are present.
05 Bandwidth BW = 2fm 15 times than that of NBFM
BW = 2[1 + β]fm
06 Noise Suppression Is less Is More
07 Applications Mobile Communication Entertainment & Broadcasting

4. Generation of Frequency Modulated Signals:

There are two basic methods of generating Frequency Modulated signals:

 Direct method
 Indirect method

Direct Method: This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band
FM wave directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM.
VCO produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage. i.e.,

𝑓𝑖 ∝ 𝑚(𝑡)

𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)

Indirect Method: This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band
FM wave indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of
frequency multipliers we will get WBFM wave.

4.1 Direct FM Generation using FET reactance modulator

One method of Generation of Frequency Modulation suggests if either the capacitance or inductance
of an LC oscillator tank is varied, frequency modulation of some form will result. If this variation can
be made directly proportional to the voltage supplied by the modulation circuits, true FM will be
obtained. There are a number of devices whose reactance can be varied by the application of
voltage. The three-terminal ones include the reactance field-effect transistor (FET).

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Basic reactance modulator: Provided that certain simple conditions are met, the impedance z, as
seen at the input terminals A–A of figure, is almost entirely reactive. The circuit shown is the basic
circuit of a FET reactance modulator, which behaves as a three-terminal reactance that may be
connected across the tank circuit of the oscillator to be frequency-modulated. It can be made
inductive or capacitive by a simple component change. The value of this reactance is proportional to
the transconductance of the device, which can be made to depend on the gate bias and its
variations. Note that an FET is used in the explanation here for simplicity only. Identical reasoning
would apply to a bipolar transistor or a vacuum tube, or indeed to any other amplifying device.

Theory of Reactance Modulators:

In order to determine z, a voltage v is applied to the terminals A–A between which the impedance is
to be measured, and the resulting current i is calculated. The applied voltage is then divided by this
current, giving the impedance seen when looking into the
terminals. In order for this impedance to be a pure reactance (it is
capacitive here), two requirements must be fulfilled. The first is
that the bias network current ib must be negligible compared to
the drain current. The impedance of the bias network must be
large enough to be ignored. The second requirement is that the
drain-to-gate impedance (X c here) must be greater than the gate-
to-source impedance (R in this case), preferably by more than 5:1.

The following analysis may then be applied:

Rv
vg = ib R =
R − jX c
The FET drain current is
g m Rv
i = g m vg =
R − jX c

Therefore, the impedance seen at the terminals A – A is

v R − jX c
z= =
i gm R
1 jX c
z= (1 − )
gm R

If XC ≫ R in above equation, then equation will reduce to

−jX c
z=
gm R
This impedance is quite clearly a capacitive reactance, which may be written as
Xc 1 1
X eq = = =
g m R 2πf g m RC 2πf Ceq

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From above equation it is seen that under such conditions the input impedance of the device at A–A
is a pure reactance and is given by
Ceq = g m RC

This equivalent capacitance depends on the device transconductance and can therefore be
varied with bias voltage. The capacitance can be originally adjusted to any value by varying the
components R and C. The expression gmRC has the correct dimensions of capacitance; R, measured
in ohms and gm measured in siemens (s), cancel each other’s dimensions, leaving C as required.

4.2 Direct FM Generation using Varactor Diode:

A varactor diode is a semiconductor junction diode that is operated in a reverse biased mode. A
reverse biased pn junction diode appears to be a small capacitor. As reverse bias increases, this
junction capacitance decreases. All junction diodes exhibit this characteristics. However, varactor
diode have been designed to optimize this particular characteristics. Such diodes are made so that
the capacitance variations are as wide and linear as possible. Most varactor diodes have nominal
capacitance in the range of 1 to 200 pf and the capacitance variation can be as high as 12 to 1.

Above figure shows basic principle of varactor frequency modulator. L1 and C1 form tank circuit of
the carrier oscillator. The capacitance of the varactor diode depends on fixed bias set by R1 and R2
and the AF modulating signal. Either R1 or R2 is made variable so that the center carrier frequency
can be adjusted over a narrow range. The radio frequency choke [RFC] has a high reactance at the
carrier frequency to prevent the carrier signal from getting into the modulating signal circuits. At
positive going modulating signal adds to the reverse bias applied to the varactor diode D, which
decreases its capacitance and increases the carrier frequency. A negative going signal subtracts from
the bias, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the carrier frequency. Most LC oscillators are not
stable enough to provide a carrier signal. The LC oscillator frequency will vary due to temperature
changes, circuit voltage variations and such other factors. As a result, crystal oscillators are used to
set the carrier frequency. A typical circuit shown in figure below:

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4.3 Indirect FM Generation:

Because a crystal oscillator cannot be successfully frequency-modulated, the direct modulators have
the disadvantage of being based on an LC oscillator which is not stable enough for communications
or broadcast purposes. In turn, this requires stabilization of the reactance modulator with attendant
circuit complexity. It is possible, however, to generate FM through phase modulation, where a
crystal oscillator can be used. Since this method is often used in practice, it will now be described. It
is called the Armstrong system after its inventor, and it historically precedes the reactance
modulator.

This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be generated
using NBFM modulator. The modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one. Hence, in order to get
the required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave, choose the frequency multiplier value
properly. Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output signal whose
frequency is ‘n’ times the input signal frequency. Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.

If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is applied as the input of frequency multiplier,
then frequency multiplier produces an output signal whose modulation index is ‘n’ times β and
frequency ‘n’ times the frequency of NBFM wave. Sometimes, multiple stages of frequency multiplier
and mixers are required to increase the frequency deviation and modulation index of FM wave.

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5. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

A] Pre-emphasis: The noise suppression ability of FM decreases with the increase in the frequencies.
Thus, increasing the relative strength or amplitude of the high frequency components of the
message signal before modulation is termed as Pre-emphasis.

Pre-Emphasis Circuit:
At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network which amplifies the
high frequency, components more than the low-frequency components. The simplest form of such a
circuit is a simple high pass filter of the type shown in fig (a). Specification dictate a time constant of
75 microseconds (µs) where t = RC. Any combination of resistor and capacitor (or resistor and
inductor) giving this time constant will be satisfactory. Such a circuit has a cutoff frequency fco of
2122 Hz. This means that frequencies higher than 2122 Hz will he linearly enhanced. The output
amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave. The pre-emphasis curve is shown in
Fig (b). This pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy content of the higher-frequency signals so that
they will tend to become stronger than the high frequency noise components. This improves the
signal to noise ratio and increases intelligibility and fidelity.

The pre-emphasis circuit also has a upper break frequency fu where signal enhancement flattens out.
This upper break frequency is computed by the expression:

R2
fu = R 1 +
2πR1 R 2 C

It is usually set to very high value beyond the audio frequency range, typically it is 30 KHz.

B] De-emphasis: To reproduce the signal at the receiver, at its normal level; a de-emphasis circuit is
used. This is simple RC circuit with time constant of 75 microseconds (µs). It is shown along with its
response curve in the figure below. The de-emphasis circuit has a cutoff frequency of 2122 Hz. The
signals above this frequency is attenuated at the rate 6dB per octave. Therefore, pre-emphasis at the
transmitter is exactly offset by de-emphasis at the receiver, giving normal frequency response.

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Note:
 To increase the SNR at higher modulation frequencies, a high pass circuit called pre-
emphasis, is used at the transmitter.
 Another circuit called de-emphasis, the inverse process of pre-emphasis is used at the
receiver, which is a low pass circuit.
 The pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are widely used in FM transmitter and receiver to
effectively increase the output SNR.

____________________________________________________________________________________

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ON UNIT-III

[Following questions were asked in previous university exams: W2017, S2018, W2018, S2019 & W2019]

Q1. What is frequency modulation? Derive an expression for FM with suitable waveforms.
Q2. Differentiate Amplitude Modulation with Frequency Modulation.
Q3. Explain the working of varactor diode with its circuit diagram.
Q4. What are the characteristics of varactor diode? Explain its use for the generation of FM signal.
Q5. Explain with block diagram, direct method of FM generation.
Q6. Compare NBFM signal with WBFM.
Q7. What is NBFM? What are its limitations and merits over WBFM?
Q8. Explain the operations performed by FET reactance modulator.
Q9. Explain the Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM System. Draw relevant circuits and frequency
response curves.

NUMERICALS:

1] A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5V & frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM

generator which has frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/V. Calculate frequency deviation, modulation
index and bandwidth. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: ∆𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝜷 = 𝟎. 𝟏 , 𝑩𝑾 = 𝟒𝑲𝑯𝒛]

2] Frequency modulated wave is given by 𝑠(𝑡) = 20 cos[8𝜋106 𝑡 + 9 sin(2𝜋103 𝑡)]. Calculate

frequency deviation, bandwidth & power of FM wave. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: ∆𝒇 = 𝟗𝑲𝑯𝒛, 𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐𝟎𝑲𝑯𝒛, 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑾]

3] Calculate the carrier swing, carrier frequency, frequency deviation and modulation index for an FM
signal which reaches a maximum frequency of 99.047 MHz and a minimum frequency of 99.023 MHz.
The frequency of the modulating signal is 8 kHz. [𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐𝟒𝑲𝑯𝒛, ∆𝒇 = 𝟏𝟐𝑲𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝒄 =
𝟗𝟗. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛 , 𝜷 = 𝟏. 𝟓]

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