BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The science of food is the study of food components, their behavior under
different environmental conditions, process of harvesting, milling, exposure to
heat, cold, acid, alkalis etc. It covers all aspects of food raw material
production, handling, processing, distribution, marketing and final
consumption. For each food the processing methods evolved are based on
their composition in terms of carbohydrates, proteins, fat, vitamin and
minerals. Now food is a global commodity. Today, the field of food science
has progressed from basic physical, chemical and biological reactions that
take place during processing to the fields of biotechnology, food engineering,
packaging and its effect on the consumer. New processing technologies now
aim at not only increasing the shelf life but also retaining maximum
organoleptic properties and qualities of fresh foods. The basic knowledge of
food, its composition, need, effects of processing etc is essential in order to
meet the demands of the market.
Unit 1 deals with ‘Introduction to food science’. After defining the food, its
properties, constituents and chemistry are explained. Need of nutrition,
digestive process, food spoilage and its effects are also discussed. This unit
also covers the recent trends and new processes and equipments coming up in
food processing. Food evaluation is discussed in brief.
Unit 2 is about ‘Food processing industries’. This unit explains about the
world scenario of food processing, segments of food industries, status of food
processing in India. It also covers problems and prospects of Indian food
industries. The statuses of major food processing industries like cereal, pulse,
horticultural crop, meat and fish industries are discussed. It also gives an
overview of National Food Policy.
Unit 3 covers ‘Food laws and associated bodies’. Need pf food laws and
standards are discussed. Indian and international food standards and
regulatory bodies like PFA, FPO, MPO, BIS, AGMARK, AOAC, USDA,
FDA, ISO, Codex Alimentarius are described. Quality assurance systems like
HACCP, GMP and TQM are also discussed. This unit also gives an overview
of export authorities of India, APEDA, MPEDA, NABL, and MFPI and their
role. Product certification and licensing is also discussed in brief.
BPVI-001 FOOD FUNDAMENTALS
Block 1 Introduction to Food Science and Technology

Unit 1 Introduction to Food Science

Unit 2 Food Processing Industries
Unit 3 Food Laws and Associated Bodies

Block 2 Characteristics of Edible Agricultural Products

Unit 4 Food Grains, Pulses and Oil Seeds

Unit 5 Fruits and Vegetables
Unit 6 Dairy, Poultry, Meat, Fisheries and Marine Products
Unit 7 Commercial Crops, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants

Block 3 Nutrition
Unit 8 Nutritional Aspects
Unit 9 Food for Growth and Repair
Unit 10 Loss of Food Value in Fresh Produce and Processed
Products
Unit 11 Anti-Nutritional Factors, Food Contaminants and
Toxic Elements

Block 4 Quality Aspects

Unit 12 Quality Characteristics

Unit 13 Deteriorative Factors and their Control
Unit 14 Quality Assurance: Regulation, Codes, Grades and
Standards
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD
SCIENCE
Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction − Definition of Food
1.2 Constituents of Food, Properties and Their Significance
Physical Properties of Foods
Rheological Properties
Thermal Properties
Mass Transfer Properties
Electrical Properties
1.3 Food Chemistry: Moisture, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Vitamins,
Minerals, and Phyto-Chemicals
Moisture
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Phyto-chemicals
1.4 Nutrition and Digestion
Nutrient Needs
Digestive Process
Components of the Human Digestive System
Stability of Nutrients
1.5 Food Spoilage and its Effects
Types of Food Deterioration
Causes of Food Deterioration
Food-Borne Disease
1.6 Recent Trends in Food Processing and Preservation
1.7 New Products and Equipment
1.8 Food Evaluation
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.10 Key Words
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.12 Some Useful Books

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• know constituents of food and properties;
• explain chemistry of food and nutrition;
• describe food spoilage and its effect; and
• discuss recent advances in food science and food evaluation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION − DEFINITION OF FOOD

Foods are materials, which in their naturally occurring, processed or cooked
forms, are consumed by human beings for their nourishment, sustenance and
enjoyment. Moreover food items are food grains (cereals: wheat, rice, coarse
cereals like sorghum, millets etc.), legumes (pulses: red gram, black gram,
green gram, beans), horticultural produce (fruits, vegetables, spices,
condiments etc.), livestock produce (meat, egg, milk etc.) and fish (fish,
prawns, crabs etc.). Beverages like tea, coffee, cocoa etc are also part of food.
Food sources in their natural form are cultivated, reared, captured or cultured.
Some foods can be taken in raw form while most need some kind of
processing to introduce desirable characteristics in them to make them
acceptable, edible and digestible.
Food, as is known, is the essence of life. It is an exciting subject to study and
know its importance and values. In earlier days human started experimenting
on various forms and tastes. This led to the development of culinary art. Later
on some people who developed special interest, became expert and earned
name and fame. Much later it became a huge industry with a trade value of
US$ two trillion.
Food Science and Food Technology can be defined as
Food Science: Food Science is the discipline in which the Biological and
Physical Sciences and Engineering are used to study the nature of Foods,
Causes of their deterioration and the principles underlying Food Processing.
Food Technology: It is the application of Food Science to the selection,
preservation, processing, packaging, distribution and use of safe nutritious and
wholesome food.

1.2 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD, PROPERTIES AND

THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
There are two important properties of food: nutritional value and taste
(hedonic) value. The former is relatively easier to quantify since important
nutrients are limited in number and their effects are more or less defined.
Defining the taste is more difficult because it must take into account all those
properties of food including visual appeal, smell, taste and texture, which
interact with our senses. These properties are influenced by a large number of
compounds, which in part have not been identified. Besides their nutritional
and hedonic values, foods are increasingly being judged according to
properties, which determine their handling.

1.2.1 Physical Properties of Foods

In broad sense, the physical properties of foods may be defined as those
properties that lend themselves to description and quantification by physical
rather than chemical means.
a) Geometrical properties: These encompass the properties of size, shape,
volume, density and surface area as selected to homogeneous units. The
geometrical characteristics of texture refer to structural geometry and
structurally heterogeneous foodstuffs.
Size and shape: The shapes of fruits and vegetables have been classified
into 13 categories such as round, oblate, oblong, conic, elliptical,
truncated, ribbed etc. the much prevailing method for quantitative shape
description involves sphericity which is
Sphericity = de/dc
Where, de is the diameter of a shape of same as the test object and dc is its
diameter of smallest circumscribing sphere (usually the longest diameter
of the test object).
 Size is usually characterized by determining the opening, as in sieve or
screen, through which the product will or will not pass and measurement
of diameter or length of product.
Volume, density and surface area: Volume and density measurement of
liquid foods present no special problem, other than the proper control of
temperature at which measurements are made. Standard volumetric
methods (graduated cylinder) for volume quantification and pycnometer or
commercial density meters for density measurement are simple. Volume
of agricultural products, especially those exhibiting an irregular shape, is
usually determined by water displacement. Density of solids can be
determined by floatation in liquids (usually salt solutions) of different
densities. Density of certain agricultural produce (peas, lima beans,
potatoes) is an indirect measure of their texture also. Separation by density
in floatation is also used with many agricultural commodities to remove
defective materials and extraneous matter. Density is measured and
defined in various ways like true density, substance density, particle
density, apparent density and bulk density.
Surface area values have a meaning in heat transfer. A number of methods
have been developed for calculating the surface area of products such as
fruits etc based on shape factor measurement (e.g. areas of axial or
longitudinal cross sections).
b) Optical properties: The most important optical properties from the
quality point are colour and surface appearance (gloss) of the produce.
These works on reflected light along with some spectrophotometer
measuring light in both reflectance and transmittance modes. Transmitted
light may be used for detecting defects such as water cores in apple.
Colour: It is one of the most important attributes and can separate a high
quality produce (such as the golden yellow of a table orange) or can alert
the consumer to a potential psychological danger (such as green processed
meat). It also inferences flavour requirements in produce such as
beverages and dessert gels and it affects consumer perceptions.
Spectrophotometric method for colour description is based on three
demarcations reflectance (lightness), dominant wavelength and purity. In
this Hunter colour lab equipment colour scales L, a and b are used. L
defines the lightness, a, the red-green lines and b the blue-yellow lines.
Gloss: The appearance of a surface, whether it is glossy or dull, is an
important physical aspect of food quality detected by human vision.
Typical of products where a shiny surface is valued as apples, cucumbers,
cherries, on the other hand, oranges, green beans etc have dull surface.
Gloss in the psychological attribute of surfaces associated with the
spectrum reflects and can vary from surface to surface.

1.2.2 Rheological Properties

The complex nature of foods their variability and their diverse behaviour are
some of the reasons for cataloguing separately the flow behaviour of specific
foods.
The evaluation of rheological properties of solid foods can be divided into two
broad classes. Fundamental tests measure properties that are inherent to the
material and independent on the geometry of sample, the condition of loading
or the apparatus e.g. modulus of elasticity, Poisson ratio, relaxation time, and
shear modulus. Empirical or imitator tests are used to determine properties
such as puncture force and extrusion energy where the mass of the sample,
geometry, speed of test etc also determine the parameter estimated. The
fundamental tests as applied to solid foods may again be classified into two
essentially different groups: those divided under conditions of static (quasi-
static) loading and those considered under dynamic conditions. Because foods
are visco-elastic both time dependants and time independent measurements
are required.
Foods that flow under gravity and do not retain their shape are considered to
be fluid foods. Foods may exist as solids at one temperature and as liquid at
other temperature (like ice-creams), suspension of solid matter is fluid media
or emulsions. Because of wide varieties of their structure and composition,
foods exhibit flow behaviour ranging from simple Newtonian to time
dependent non-Newtonian and visco-elastic. For example, raw whole egg at
21 C was found to be a Newtonian fluid. However frozen egg was found to be
a shear-thinning fluid.

1.2.3 Thermal Properties

Thermal properties are required to understand heat transfer during heating or
cooling which foods are often subjected. Variability in composition and
physical characteristics is typical for all food products.
The major thermal properties are specific heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity,
thermal diffusivity and heat transfer coefficient. These are much commonly
used properties in designing a system for heating/ cooling of foods. These are
several other properties that are thermal in value but are much less important
to most heat transfer applications: melting/freezing point, latent heat, heat of
respiration, heat of adsorption, coefficient of thermal expansion, dielectric
constant, emissivity and absorptivity (radiation heat transfer).

1.2.4 Mass Transfer Properties

Mass transfer plays a very important role in basic unit operations of food
processing. It is also involved in several physical, chemical and biological
food processes such as salting, sugaring, oxygen absorption, de-aeration, and
cleaning of process equipment. It is important in food processing and storage,
where transfer of moisture; vapours/ gases and flavours components may
influence food quality.
1.2.5 Electrical Properties
These properties determine the amount of energy coupled by a food product,
its distribution within the product. Electrical properties are of most basic
interest in high frequency food processing and their dielectric properties
because these determine a number of related electrical properties, which affect
energy coupling and its distribution within a food product. Biological material
acts as heavy insulators i.e. non-ideal capacitors, in terms of their ability to
store and dissipate electrical energy from an applied electromagnetic field by
radiation transfer. These properties result form electric charging and less
current generally related to materials electrical capacitance and resistance and
are defined by fundamental dielectric properties.

1.3 FOOD CHEMISTRY: MOISTURE,

CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, LIPIDS,
VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND PHYTO-CHEMICALS
Nutrients are naturally occurring chemical substances found in food. There are
six categories of nutrients: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals,
and water. The chemistry of these nutrients influences the characteristics of
our food. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in food provide the energy our
bodies need to function.

1.3.1 Moisture
Every food material contains moisture. It is found in two forms i.e. free water
and bound water. It is one of the most important attributes of the food material
that affects processing, preservation and storage of foods. Fifty to 60 percent
of human body weight consists of water. The fruits and vegetables contain
90% to 99%, fruit juices 80% to 89%, pasta, legumes, beef, and dairy 10% to
60%, and crackers and cereals contain 1% to 9% water.

1.3.2 Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates in diet come from plant foods. Simple carbohydrates
include the different forms of sugar (monosaccharides and disaccharides);
complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) include starches and dietary fiber.
Specifically they are composed of carbon and water and have a composition
of Cn (H2O)n. No single carbohydrate is essential, but carbohydrates do
participate in many required functions in the body. Carbohydrates may be
divided into following categories.
Monosaccharides: It may have 6 carbons (called hexoses), or 5 carbons
(called pentoses). Glucose (dextrose), fructose, and galactose are three
common hexoses. Ribose and deoxyribose are two common pentoses.
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides may be linked together to form a
disaccharide. Sucrose (sugar) is the most common disaccharide and is made of
one molecule each of glucose and fructose. Lactose is the major sugar in milk
and is made up of one molecule of glucose and one of galactose. Maltose is a
disaccharide made from two molecules of glucose.
Polysaccharides: Combination of more than two sugars is referred to as
oligosaccharides, unless they are very large and then they are called
polysaccharides. Raffinose and stachyose are two oligosaccharides.
Nutritionally, polysaccharides are added to increase the dietary fiber content
and functionally to thicken, form gel, bind water and stabilize proteins. Starch,
cellulose, gums are main polysaccharides.

1.3.3 Proteins
Amino acids are building blocks of protein. Dietary protein is supplied from
plant and animal sources. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. The shape
and thus the function of a protein is determined by the sequence of its amino
acids. Proteins must be broken down (hydrolyzed) to amino acids before they
can be used. Once absorbed, amino acids are utilized to make proteins,
converted to energy, or stored as fat. About 20 percent of the human body is
made of protein.
Amino acids contain an amino group (-NH2) and an acid group (-COOH).
There are twenty amino acids that are found in proteins. Amino acids join by
forming peptide bonds. The conformation of a protein molecule in the native
state is determined by the primary structure, the secondary structure, a tertiary
structure.
Primary: The primary structure is the combination of amino acids in a proper
sequence by means of the peptide bonds. No other forces or bonds are implied
by this structural level designation.
Secondary: Secondary structure is that which forms a pleated or helix
structure. The alpha helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonding between carboxyl
and the amide groups of the peptide bonds that generally appear in a regular
sequence along the chain of amino acids.
Tertiary: A tertiary structure is the folding of the coiled chain or chains.
Covalent, hydrogen, and Vander Waals forces may be involved in the
structural organization of protein molecules.

1.3.4 Lipids
Lipids include fats and oils from plants and animals. Lipids are the substances
in foods that are soluble in organic solvents. This category includes fatty
acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, pigments, vitamins, and cholesterol.
Naturally occurring fatty acids have an even number of carbons. Reaction
products of long-chain fatty acids are very important to the flavour of foods.
Fatty Acids: Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated (contain double
bonds). A fatty acid that contains one double bond is called mono-unsaturated
and with two or more double bonds is called polyunsaturated. Unsaturated
fatty acids can exist in two forms, cis and trans, depending upon the arrange-
ment of the portions of the fatty acid molecules around the double bonds. The
double bonds in lipid molecules are highly reactive toward oxygen.
Triglycerides: Food fats are made up of three molecules of fatty acids
connected to a molecule of glycerol and are known as triglycerides. The vast
majority of foods contain fat in the form of triglycerides. Triglycerides are
broken apart by lipases enzymes produces soapy flavour products.
Triglycerides molecule that has had one fatty acid removed is called a
diglyceride, two fatty acids removed is called a mono glyceride.
Phospholipids: Some fatty acids are connected to glycerol molecules that
contain a molecule of phosphorus. These special lipids are known as
phospholipids e.g. lecithin. They play important roles in the body but are not
essential nutrients because the body can synthesize them in adequate
quantities.
Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a compound produced by the body that has
received considerable attention due to its reported link to heart disease. Some
people have a genetic problem with the system that regulates cholesterol
synthesis, and they produce excessive amounts. These people generally have
greatly elevated serum cholesterol levels. This is of concern because high
serum cholesterol is a risk factor for coronary heart disease.
1.3.5 Vitamins
Vitamins are chemical compounds in our food that are needed in very small
amounts (in milligrams and micrograms) which regulate the chemical
reactions in our body. The vitamins are divided into fat-soluble and water-
soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. The
water-soluble vitamins include the B vitamins and vitamin C. B vitamins
include: thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, pantothenic acid, folic acid,
biotin, and cobalamin (vitamin B12).

1.3.6 Minerals
Minerals, which are also needed only in small amounts, have many different
functions. Some minerals assist in the body's chemical reactions and others
help form body structures. Minerals are important for energy transfer and as
an integral part of vitamins, hormones, and amino acids. Depending on the
amount in the body, minerals in the diet are classified as macro-minerals or
micro-minerals (sometimes called trace minerals) as listed below:
Macro-minerals
Calcium Chloride
Phosphorous Magnesium
Potassium Sulphur
Sodium
Micro-minerals important in nutrition include:
Chromium Molybdenum Iodine
Cobalt Silicon Nickel
Copper Tin Selenium
Fluorine Vanadium Zinc
Manganese Fluorine

1.3.7 Phyto-chemicals

Phytochemicals exhibit diversified physiologic and pharmacologic effects.

Active derivatives extracted from leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits of
plants may be classified into three main categories:
1. Toxic with no discernible therapeutic use; e.g. pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
nicotine, and hydrazine derivatives
2. Toxic but useful for treatment of disease when used in controlled amounts;
e.g. morphine, digitalis, and vinca alkaloids
3. Chemo preventative, useful against diseases; e.g. arteriosclerosis, cancer,
and diverticular disease

Most active chemo preventative phytochemicals are high molecular-weight

fibers such as celluloids, pectins, lignins, and low-molecular-weight
compounds such as carotenoids, dithiolthiones, flavnoids, indole carbinols,
isothiocyanates, mono- and triterpenoids, and thioallyl derivatives.

1.4 NUTRITION AND DIGESTION

1.4.1 Nutrient Needs
The requirement for a nutrient is that the minimum intake will maintain
normal functions of the body and health. The main nutrients required by
human beings are water, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals.
These are the source of energy. The nutrient needs of human beings are
described below.
a) Water: Water is essential. About 65 percent of the adult body is made up
of water. Lack of water can cause death more quickly than lack of any
other nutrient. All the chemical reactions that occur in the body take place
in water. Water also reacts during the chemical processes, regulates body
temperature, transports nutrients and wastes, and dissolves nutrients. An
adult should drink three to five litres of water each day.
b) Carbohydrates: Dietary carbohydrates include sugars, complex
carbohydrates, starch and fiber. During digestion all carbohydrates except
fiber break down into sugars. Sugars and starches occur naturally in many
foods that also supply other nutrients. Examples of these foods include
milk, fruits, some vegetables, breads, cereals, and grains.
c) Fiber: Fiber is found only in plant foods like whole-grain breads and
cereals, beans and peas, fruits and vegetables. Eating a variety of fiber-
containing plant foods is important for proper bowel function. Some of the
health benefits associated with a high-fiber diet may come from other
components present in these foods, not just from fiber itself. For this
reason, fiber is best obtained from foods rather than supplements.
d) Protein: The nitrogen in protein is used for the synthesis of purines,
pyrimidines, nucleic acids, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), hemoglobin,
and cytochromes.
Depending on age and gender, humans require different levels of protein
in their diet. Humans need the amino acids that the body cannot
synthesize. These are known as essential amino acids. They include:
Phenylalanine Methionine
Tryptophan Valine
Histidine Leucine
Isoleucine Threonine
Lysine Arginine
e) Lipids: In food, lipids are a source of essential fatty acids, gives that
energy, act as carriers for flavours and fat-soluble vitamins, contributes to
texture and mouth feel, is a pre-cursors of flavour, and provides heat
transfer medium. The body can produce most of the fatty acids that it
requires. It cannot make some fatty acids that contain double bonds. From
linoleic acid (18 carbon fatty acid with two double bonds) humans can
synthesize all the other fatty acids they require. Thus, linoleic acid is
considered as an essential nutrient.
f) Vitamins: Table 1.1 lists the fat-and water-soluble vitamins and their
functions.

Table 1.1: Functions of some vitamins

 Vitamins Some functions
Fat-Soluble vitamins
Vitamin A Growth and development of bone and epithelial cells, vision
Vitamin D Absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
Vitamin E Antioxidant in tissues
Vitamin K Aids in blood clotting
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Thiamin Coenzyme in energy metabolism
Riboflavin Coenzyme in many enzyme systems
Niacin Coenzyme for cell respiration; release of energy from fat,
carbohydrates and proteins
Vitamin C Metabolism of amino acids, fats, lipids, folic acid, and
cholesterol control, collagen formation
Vitamin Coenzyme for red blood cell maintenance and nerve tissue;
B12
B carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism

g) Minerals: Table 1.2 lists some of the macro minerals and micro minerals
and their functions.
Table 1.2: Functions of some minerals

Mineral Some functions

Calcium Bone mineral; blood clotting; nerve, muscle, and gland
function
Phosphorus Bone mineral, part of many proteins involved in
metabolism
Iron Part of haemoglobin and some enzymes, oxygen
transport
Copper Iron absorption, haemoglobin synthesis, skin pigments,
collagen metabolism
Magnesium Bone mineral, enzyme activator; energy metabolism
Sodium, Potassium, Tissue fluid pressure and acid-base balance, passage of
Chloride nutrients and water into cells, nerve and muscle
function
Zinc Activator of many enzymes
Iodine Thyroid function
Manganese Synthesis of bone and cartilage components,
cholesterol metabolism
Selenium Removal of peroxides from tissues, enzyme activation

1.4.2 Digestive Process

The processing of food takes place in four stages:
a) Ingestion: The act of eating. This is the first of the four main stages of
food processing.
b) Digestion: Digestion breaks down food into molecules small enough to be
absorbed. It breaks polymers into monomers that are easier to absorb and
that can be used to synthesize new polymers required by the organism.
c) Absorption: Cells that line the digestive tract take up the nutrients.
Nutrients are transported to the cells where they are incorporated into the
cells and converted to energy that may be used immediately or stored until
needed.
d) Elimination: In the last stage of food processing is elimination in which
undigested wastes pass out of the digestive tract.

1.4.3 Components of the Human Digestive System

The following structures are considered parts of digestive system:
Mouth Gall bladder
Tongue Pancreas
Pharynx Small intestine
Salivary glands Large intestine
Esophagus Rectum
Stomach Anus
Liver

1.4.4 Stability of Nutrients

The nutritive value of food starts with the genetics of the plants or animals.
Fertilization, weather, maturity and harvest also influence the composition of
the plant or animal being used for food. Storage before processing affects
nutrient levels. Then all of the processing steps continue to affect the nutrient
levels in a food. Finally, preparation in the home or at the restaurant can
reduce the final nutritive value of a food before the digestive process.
Vitamin A is highly sensitive to acid, air, light and heat, vitamin C, D and
thiamin to alkalinity, air, light and heat. Because of this sensitiveness, cooking
losses of some essential nutrients may be in excess of 75%. A primary goal of
food science is to preserve the nutrients through all phases of food harvesting,
processing, storage, and preparation. Stability of nutrients under varying
conditions of pH, air, light, heat, and cold is different. Nutrient losses are
small in most modern food processing operations, but when nutrient losses are
unavoidably high, the law allows enrichment.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the major properties of food? Define them.
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2. Describe the chemistry of carbohydrates and proteins?
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3. What nutrients are required to our body and what are their functions?
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4. Describe digestive process of human.
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1.5 FOOD SPOILAGE AND ITS EFFECTS
All foods have a time limit of their usefulness that depends on the type of
food, the storage conditions, and other factors. Shelf life is the time required
for a food product to reach an unacceptable quality. It depends on the food
item, the processing method, packaging, and storage conditions. Food
spoilage includes changes in organoleptic quality, nutritional value, food
safety, aesthetic appeal, colour, texture, and flavour. To some degree, all
cause negative changes in the food as much as possible.

1.5.1 Types of Food Deterioration

The three general categories of food deterioration are physical, chemical and
biological. Factors that cause food deterioration are many, including light,
cold, heat, oxygen, moisture, dryness, other types of radiation, enzymes,
microorganisms, time, industrial contaminants, and macro-organisms (insects,
mice, etc).

1.5.2 Causes of Food Deterioration

Specific causes of food deterioration include number of factors as described
below. These items can cause deterioration individually or in any
combination.
Bacteria, Yeast, Mold: Thousands of species of microorganisms exist, and
few hundred are associated with foods. Not all are bad because some are
desirable in food preservation. Bacteria are single-celled organisms occurring
in three shapes: round (cocci), rod (bacilli), and spiral (spirilla and vibrios).
Some produce spores, and these spores are resistant to heat, chemicals, and
other adverse conditions.
Yeasts are the largest of the microorganisms but are still single cells, and
some produce spores. Molds are larger than bacteria. They are often
filamentous, and they all produce spores.
In foods, microorganisms attack all the food components-sugars, starches,
cellulose, fats, and proteins. Depending on the food and the microorganism,
the action on food could be to produce acids, making the food sour, or
produce alcohol. Some microorganisms produce gas, making the food foamy;
still others produce unwanted pigments or toxins.
Environmental conditions that affect microbial growth include temperature
and oxygen. Microbes that prefer cold temperatures are said to be
pyschrophilic. Mesophilic microorganisms prefer normal temperatures;
thermophilic microorganisms prefer hot temperatures. Bacteria or moulds that
require atmospheric oxygen are said to be aerobic, and those yeast and
bacteria that do not require atmospheric oxygen are called anaerobic.
Facultative microorganisms are both aerobic and anaerobic; obligative
microorganisms are either.
Insects: Insect damage can be minor, but the wounds facilitate additional
damage by microorganisms. Insect damage and infestation can also be so
much that it can make the food inedible.
Food Enzymes: All foods from living tissues have enzymes. At the time of
harvest or slaughter, enzymes that control digestion and respiration proceed
uncontrolled and cause tissue damage. Some of the post-harvest enzymatic
reactions are desirable-for example, the ripening of tomatoes and the aging or
tenderizing of beef. Heat, chemicals, and radiation can control enzyme action.
Heat and Cold: The higher the temperature, the faster the biochemical
reactions. In fact, the rate of chemical reactions doubles with each 10-degree
rise in temperature. On the other hand, subfreezing temperatures damage
tissues. Cold temperatures may also cause discoloration, change the texture,
break an emulsion, and denature protein. Chilling can injure the tissue of
fruits.
Oxygen: Chemical oxidation reactions can destroy vitamins (especially A and
C), alter food colours, cause off-flavours, and promote the growth of moulds.

1.5.3 Food-Borne Disease

Food infections are caused when a microorganism is present in the food and it
causes infections in the human when the food is consumed. Clostridium
perfringen, Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli and several others can cause
infections. Food intoxication occurs when a food is consumed that contains
chemical toxins which poison the humans. Staphylococcus aureus and
Clostridium botulinum both produce toxins.
Microbes associated with disease: Disease-causing organisms that are
associated with foods are very important from both a human health
perspective and from economical perspective. The diseases that are caused by
microbes associated with food are grouped into three categories: infections,
intoxications, and toxico-infections.
Food-borne intoxications: Intoxications are the result of the ingestion of a
toxin that is produced by a microbe living on the food product. The toxins that
are produced by these organisms usually have a long half-life, even if the
microorganism have died, the toxin remains. Intoxications also differ from
infections in that the symptoms usually occur within hours after ingestion,
instead of the days that are normally associated with food borne infections.
Toxin producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus are responsible for
staphylococcal food poisoning. It can be found in nasal passages, skin and
throats of human. Most of these toxins are stable, even under heating
conditions. The infective dose for the toxin is between 100-200 nanogrms.
Mycotoxins: Mycotoxins are toxins that are produced by molds that have the
ability to grow on food products. Different species of Aspergillus and
Penicillium can produce mycotoxins. Depending on the type of food and the
conditions, the mold may be present or absent, even if the mycotoxins
remains. Foods associated with mycotoxins include grains, such as corn,
wheat, beans, rice and groundnut. If moisture is introduced, molds can grow
and form mycotoxins. These toxins are then transferred into the food product
that is made from the initial material.

1.6 RECENT TRENDS IN FOOD PROCESSING AND

PRESERVATION
New food products and safe foods require new food processing methods and
systems. In recent trends, firms exercising control over several stages of food
production may increasingly dominate the food industry. This refers to the
way products are acquired or traded in a market. Food industry firms form
three basic types of vertical coordination.
Open production: A firm purchases a commodity from a producer at a
market price determined at the time of purchase.
Contract production: A firm commits to purchase a commodity from a
producer at a price formula establish in advance of the purchase. The contract
farming comes in this group.
Vertical integration: A single firm controls the flow of a commodity across
two or more stages of food production.
The food industry has traditionally operated in an open production system.
However, more discriminating consumers, plus new technological
developments that allow farm product differentiation, are contributing to a
decrease in open production and vertical integration. Changing demographics
and the increasing value of a person’s time contributed to consumer
preferences for a wide variety of safe, nutritious and convenient food
products.
Providing food products with specific characteristics preferred by more
discriminating consumers will likely involve increasingly more detailed raw
commodity products, such as frying chicken of a specific weight and size, or a
corn kernel with a specific protein content. This effort to carefully tailor raw
commodities with processing in mind is already underway in food industries.

1.7 NEW PRODUCTS AND EQUIPMENT

The kind of food consumed is changing continuously and contributing to the
competition and marketing. Over 10000 products are introduced each year in
food processing sector. The initial focus of research was to reduce post-
harvest losses through improved drying and storage technologies. Later
research led to advances in processing techniques for food and feed. Latest
research is being carried out to bring about improvement in safety and quality.
New industrial applications evolved, such as new forms of heat processing,
low energy production, pasteurization, semi-finished production techniques
(filtration, extraction, centrifugation), chilling and freezing. Now, computers
are being used to develop sophisticated monitoring systems for instance
scientists have developed computer sensors that continually measure plants
‘vital signals’ such as tissue temperature, and swelling and regulate the
irrigation and atmospheric gas concentrations accordingly. Packaging
technologies like vacuum packaging of milk have also improved.
Better grain storage techniques and post-harvest management allow
developing countries with humid tropical climates to compete in the world
grain markets with virtually insect free exports from temperate zones. Recent
developments in biotechnology are fostering more concentrated seed
production, vertical integration of production and processing and the need for
segregated handling system to preserve the identity of distinct products.
New processes are continuously being tried in unit operations. New processes,
which are coming up now, are Ohmic heating, irradiation, supercritical fluid
extraction and high hydrostatic pressure technologies.
The success of freezing technology has opened a new field for food
processors. Complete meals are being prepared now which are frozen until the
consumer is ready to thaw and heat them. Many of these meals are sold in
serving dishes. Other frozen foods, which are now coming up, are potpies, fish
sticks, desserts and potatoes. Additives, food composition standards and
labelling are also leading to the development of new products and
machineries.

1.8 FOOD EVALUATION

Variety, season, geographical differences, harvesting, handling, processing,
packaging, storage, display, home preparation, cooking, and serving influence
nutrient content of foods. The food composition is determined by a variety of
scientifically sound, standardized methods. The first system of approximating
the value of food for nutritional purposes was developed at the Weende
Experiment Station in Germany more than 100 years ago. This system
separates a food into nutritive fractions. This system was known as proximate
analysis. Various methods are developed to evaluate protein, carbohydrate,
fat, vitamins and mineral, and fiber in the food. Some of the methods are
standards developed by the Government organizations for quality analysis.
Number of equipment and processes are also available for proximate analysis
of food destructively or non-destructively. Newer methods of determining the
composition of foods have replaced or supplemented the old proximate
analysis and allowed determination of more specific nutrients in foods. These
include spectrophotometry, liquid chromatography, and gas chromatography,
which allow the determination of fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids, specific
minerals, and vitamins.
Food composition tables are used to evaluate the nutritional value of food
supplies, to develop food distribution programs, to plan and evaluate food
consumption surveys, to provide nutritional counselling, and to estimate the
nutritional content of individual diets. The parameters that are evaluated for
food evaluation are.
Description of food and measure
Moisture
Food energy (in Joules)
Protein, fat, different fatty acids (saturated, monounsaturated,
polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol), and carbohydrate (in grams)
Vitamins and Mineral (in milligrams and IU)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main causes of food deterioration and what are their effects?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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2. What do you understand by food evaluation?
……………………………………………………………………………
 ……………………………………………………………………………
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1.9 LET US SUM UP

Food is essentially required for human being for energy. Nutrition is the
processes by which the foods people eat provide the nutrients they need to
grow and stay healthy. There are six categories of nutrients: proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals and water. The chemistry of these
nutrients influences the characteristics of the food.
Food deterioration includes changes in organoleptic quality, nutritive value,
food safety, aesthetic appeal, colour, texture and flavour. To some extent, all
food undergoes deterioration after harvest. Deterioration may be physical,
chemical or biological. Some deterioration produces toxins that are not
destroyed by heat. Some of toxins produced by microorganisms can cause
infections in humans.
The kind of foods people eat change in response to many influences such as
demographic shifts, supply of ingredients, availability and costs of energy,
politics, scientific advances in nutrition, health and food safety. New
processing methods and approaches are coming up in food science.
The digestive process includes ingestion, digestion, absorption and
elimination. Nutrients in the diet are progressively broken into smaller
components by mechanical, chemical, and enzymatic means. Small molecules
resulting from digestion are absorbed to supply the body with energy, protein,
vitamins and minerals.
Food composition tables are used to evaluate the nutritional value of food
supplies, to develop food distribution programs, to plan and evaluate food
consumption surveys, to provide nutrition counselling and to estimate the
nutritional content of individual diets.

1.10 KEY WORDS

Food : Foods are materials, which in their naturally
occurring, processed or cooked forms, are
consumed by human beings for their
nourishment, sustenance and enjoyment.
Food infection : Illness produced by the presence and growth of
pathogenic microorganisms.
Lipids : A broad group of fat like substances with similar
properties.
Minerals : Minerals are needed only in small amounts and
have many different functions in the human
body.
Nutrition : It is the processes by which the foods people eat
provide the nutrients they need to grow and stay
healthy.
Nutrient needs : It is the minimum requirement for a nutrient
intake that will maintain normal functions and
health.
Protein : Large molecules of long chains of amino acids.
Properties of foods : Properties of foods include physical, rheological,
electrical, thermal and optical properties of
foods.
Triglycerides : Neutral fat molecule made up of three fatty acids
joined to one glycerol molecule through a
special chemical linkage called ester.
Vitamins : Vitamins are chemical compounds in our food
that are needed in very small amounts to regulate
the chemical reactions in our bodies.

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES "
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include following points:
• Geometric, rheological, thermal, electrical and mass transfer
properties;
• Significance of these properties.
2. Your answer should include following points:
• Chemical composition and bonding.
• Classifications.
3. Your answer should include following points:
• Nutrients needed.
• Significance, functions in body.
4. Your answer should include following points:
• Digestive process.
• Components of digestive system.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Your answer should include following points:
• Physical, chemical and biological causes
• Disease and other effects
• Mycotoxins and intoxications
2. Your answer should include following points:
• Proximate analysis
• Food evaluation table
 1.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
1. Fellows, P.J. (1998) Food Processing Technology, Principles and
Practices. Woodhead Publishing Limited. Cambridge, England.
2. Parker, R. (2003) Introduction to Food Science. Thomson Learning Inc.
New York.
3. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H. (1995) Food Science, 5th Edition.
Chapman & Hall Publishing Inc, New York.
4. Potter, N.N. (1987) Food Science. S.K. Jain for CBS Publishers &
Distributors, New Delhi.
5. Potty, V.H. and Mulky, M.J. Food Processing. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Private Limited, New Delhi.
 Food Processing
UNIT 2 FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES Industries

Structure

2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Food Production in India and World, Processing and Value Addition
2.3 Parts of Food Industry
2.4 Trends in Consumption of Processed Food
2.5 Status of Food Processing in India
2.6 Major Food Processing Sectors, their Status, Problems and Prospects
Problems in Food Processing Industries
Prospects
2.7 Cereal Processing
2.8 Pulse Processing
2.9 Oilseed Processing
2.10 Horticultural Crop Processing
2.11 Livestock and Aquacultural Produce Processing
Fish Processing
Meat Processing
2.12 National Food Processing Policy
2.13 Let Us Sum Up
2.14 Key Words
2.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
2.16 Some Useful Books

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• know scenario of food processing industries in India and world;
• explain trends of consumption of processed food;
• describe problems, prospects and status of food processing industries;
• learn about livestock and aquacultural processing industries; and
• explain national food processing policy.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Food processing industries are major industries in developed countries. In
developing countries, it is in growing stage. The food processing industires
include cereals, pulses, oilseeds, bakery, horticultural crops, livestock and
aquacultural produce etc. Now food is a global commodity and hence its
processing industries will play important role in economy of any country. Type
of food is now governed by consumers. The food processing in india is mainly
done by unorganized sectors. So, there is a need to know the status of food
procesing industries in india. The present unit covers the status of food
processing industries in india, trends of food consumption, major processing
industires of India and National Food Processing Policy.

25
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 2.2 FOOD PRODUCTION IN INDIA AND WORLD,
PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION
The global food industry, with a value of US$ 2.2 trillion annually, is the
single most important industry in the world economy. Food industry is
expected to be worth $ 10 trillion by 2028 and most of this growth will come
from developing world. The direct impact of the sub sector on growth and
indirect stimulus to other type of economic activity carry important
implications for employment, exports, food security and living standards. The
development of food industries mainly depends upon the raw material coming
from agriculture. The production of food grains of the world and percent share
of India is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Production of major agricultural commodities and India’ share
in 2001

S.No. Commodity World production % Share of India

(‘000 tons)
1. Paddy 601128 21.9
2. Maize 602814 1.9
3. Wheat 585421 12.3
4. Groundnut (in shell) 33802 17.7
5. Sugarcane 1259906 23.3

On an average, agro-industries accounts for about 2% of GDP in developing

countries but 9% in developed countries. The value of agro-processing is about
three to four times that of agriculture in developed world, while it is typically a
fraction of the value of agriculture in developing world. In developed
countries, the share of total value added products in agro industries is 20-30%,
whereas in developing world it is 30-45%.
The distribution of agro-processing industries within the developing world is
relatively unequal. In 1997, 40% of agro-processing value added products in
developing countries were concentrated in South and East Asia and Latin
America. Among the developing countries, India ranked fourth with 9% value
added products of the contribution from developing world. Trade in food
products is increasing with a growth rate of 9.4% each year compared with an
annual growth of 2.1% for agricultural commodities. Growth has been
concentrated among developed countries. About 85% of European Union food
exports are processed food while 60% of African export are primary
commodities.
Now food is a global commodity. Food is traded and shipped around the
world. The modern grocery store sells food from all over the world. These food
might include cheese from Europe, beef from Australia, strawberries from
Mexico, and apple from Argentina. The food processing industries are opening
subsidiaries in other countries and fast food companies are opening outlets all
over the world. Globalization and WTO will affect the world food processing
industries to a great extent with the new global standards and food safety
regulations.
26
 Food Processing
2.3 PARTS OF THE FOOD INDUSTRY Industries

The food industry is divided into four major segments:

i) Production
ii) Manufacturing/processing
iii) Distribution
iv) Marketing
Production: Production includes such activities as farming, ranching, orchard
management, fishing and aquaculture. Technologies involved in production of
the raw materials include the selection of plant and animal varieties,
cultivation, growth, harvest, slaughter, and the storage and handling of the raw
materials.
Manufacturing/processing: Manufacturing converts raw agricultural products
to more refined or finished products. Manufacturing requires many unit
operations and processes that are at the core of food sector.
Distribution: Distribution deals with those aspects conducive to product sales,
including: product form, weight and bulk, transportation, storage requirements
and storage stability.
Marketing: Marketing is the selling of foods in raw and processed form and
involves wholesale, retail, institutions and restaurants
These four divisions are rather artificial as these actually overlap one another.
Nevertheless, the food industry requires planning and synchronization in all its
divisions to be successful. Another way of dividing the food industry is along
major product lines:
• Cereals and bakery products
• Meats, fish and poultry
• Dairy products
• Fruits and vegetables
• Sugars and other sweets
• Fats and oils
• Non alcoholic beverages/alcoholic beverages
These divisions are typically where consumer consumption is measured and
reported. Each segment can be divided into number of sub-segments. For
example cereal processing may include wheat processing, pulse processing,
bakery industries, weaning foods industries, fast food manufacturing etc.
Allied industries: Many companies do not sell food directly but they are
deeply involved in the food industry. These are called allied industries. Allied
industries produce non-food items that are necessary for marketing food. The
packaging industry is a good example. Some specific examples include cans,
food colour and flavour, paper products, and plastic products. Chemical
manufacturers represent another group of allied industries. They supply the
acidulants, preservatives, enzymes, stabilizers, and other chemicals used in
foods. Monitoring and regulatory agencies such as the BIS, APEDA, FPO,
Food & Drug Administration (FDA), lawyers, consumer action and
information agencies, and other regulatory agencies are also part of allied
industries.

27
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 2.4 TRENDS IN CONSUMPTION OF PROCESSED FOOD
Although expenditure on food has increased considerably over the years, the
increase has not matched the gain in disposable income and hence percentage
of income spent on food has declined. As income rises, the proportion spent for
food declines.
Americans spent only about 8 percent of their personal consumption
expenditures for food to be eaten at home. This compares with 10 percent for
Canada and 11 percent for the United Kingdom. In less developed countries,
such as India and the Philippines, at home food expenditures often account for
more than 50 percent of a household's budget. In India, the percent total
personal consumption expenditures spent on food consumed at home is 51.3%.
Consumption trends change over the years, and this influences what the food
industry does. However, demand for individual foods is more responsive to
prices as consumers substitute among alternative food commodities. Rising
incomes increase expenditures on more expensive foods, as consumers demand
more convenience and quality. Demographic factors, such as changes in
household size and the age distribution of the population, can bring about
changes in consumption.
Away-from-home meals and snacks now capture almost half (45 percent) of
the U.S. food dollar. This is up from 34 percent in 1970. Fast food accounts for
the largest and fastest rising share of sales in the food industry. Sales in fast-
food industries now outpace the sales in full-service restaurants. People want
quick and convenient meals. They do not want to spend to much time in
preparing meals, travelling to pick up meals, or waiting for meals in a
restaurant. Consumers want to combine mealtime with time engaged in other
activities such as shopping, work, or travel. For example, McDonald's, Pizza
hut, KFC, Burger King, Taco Bell, and others are now located in conversant
outlets.

2.5 STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA

India is the world's second largest producer of fruits & vegetables, but hardly
2% of the produce is processed. India is the land of spices producing all
varieties worth over Rs. 3500 crores (US $ 900 million) amounting to 25-30%
of world production, which is processed for value-addition and export. It grows
22 million tonnes of oilseeds covering most of the varieties. Other important
plantation products include tea, coffee, cocoa and cashew.
India's livestock population is largest in the world with 50% of world's
buffaloes and 20% of cattle, but only about 1% of total meat production is
converted to value added products. India is the largest milk producer in the
world but only about 15% of the total milk production is processed through the
organized sector. Size of the semi-processed and ready to eat packaged food
industry is over Rs. 4000 crores (US $ 1 billion) and is growing at over 20%.
India has become a surplus producer of food from being an importer of food
grains. However, India does not figure significantly in the world trade of food
and food products. Food processing industry in India has been stagnant for a
long time, although consumers in India spend more than half their expendable
income on food, beverages and tobacco totalling almost Rs. 4000 billion.
28
There are a large number of small and medium size processing units and only a Food Processing
Industries
few large process houses. There are more than 800 flour mills, almost 600 fish
processing units with about 4500 cold storages, over 5000 fruit and vegetable
processing units, 170 meat processing units, about 650 soft drink units, more
than 400 sugar mills and 700 solvent extraction units. With bigger units run by
multi national companies, the number may not change significantly but there
might be a qualitative change in the character of the industry.
Processed food industry ranks 5th in size in India accounting for about 5.5% of
GDP, employing more than 1.5 million workers in the industry with a size of
about US$ 30 billion. More than 75% of the industry is in unorganized sector
in terms of turnover with value added foods account for US$ 17 billion. The
size of semi-processed and ready-to-eat/packaged food industry is about US$ 1
billion.
Processed foods worth over US$ 4 billion were exported in 2002-03, of which
rice is about 46% and marine products about 34%. Major exports besides rice
and fish products, have been fruits and vegetable products, meat and poultry
products both fresh and frozen, egg products and tea. There are good prospects
of having grains and grain products as well as milk and milk products also
among the major export items.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. How the food industries are segmented?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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2. What is the status of food processing in India?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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29
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 2.6 MAJOR FOOD PROCESSING SECTORS THEIR
STATUS, PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
Food processing industry in India can be segmented as follows:
1. Cereal/ pulse milling
2. Fruit & vegetable processing
3. Milk & milk products
4. Beverages like coffee, tea & cocoa
5. Fish, poultry, eggs & products
6. Meat & meat products
7. Aerated waters/soft drinks
8. Beer/alcoholic beverages
9. Bread, biscuits & other bakery products
10. Edible oil/fats.
11. Confectioneries
12. Breakfast cereals, malt protein, weaning, extruded food products
2.6.1 Problems in Food Processing Industries
At present most of the industries are in unorganized sectors. So, numbers of
problems are arising from different sections of the industries. Some of the
basic problems encountered by Indian food industries at different levels are
given below.
Farm level problems
• Poor yield of farm produce and therefore low returns
• Lack of material resources necessary for development
• Primitive methods of farming
• No control on quality of inputs and lack of finance to manage.
• Vagaries of weather
• Unavailability of reliable handling and transportation system
• Lack of storage facilities at farm
Distributors problems
• Lack of modern transportation facilities and high cost
• Inadequate cold storage faculties
• Irregular quality of farm produce
Processing industries problem
• Financing
• Higher import duties
• Higher cost of raw material and packaging
• Inadequate transport and cold storage facilities
• Infrequent availability of refrigerated containers
• Staggering advertising costs
• Limited domestic market
Consumer discontent
• Does not get value for money
• The price variation is a day to day affair
• Continued dependence on seasonal products
• Lack of variety of semi processed or prepared convenience food at
30 affordable prices.
The reasons for slow growth of processed foods in India in past are many. Food Processing
Industries
Majority of the population has low-income levels and cannot afford processed
foods. Indians traditionally prefer fresh foods that are cooked rather than use
preserved foods. There is also no national character for food habits and these
keep changing from region to region. However, the scenario is changing with
some foods especially the fast foods acquiring the national character. Also
some foods such as idli, dosa, some Punjabi foods like chhole, alu mutter etc.,
some Chinese foods and now the western foods like burgers and pizza are fast
gaining national popularity.
There are some factors that impede growth in this industry. Transport (both
road and railways) and communication are poor. This causes special problems
for perishable products. There are no reliable cold chains, which are necessary
for temperature sensitive foods like fruits & vegetables, ice creams etc.
Modernization is unaffordable for small-scale manufacturer but the large
companies do not find investment justifiable due to small size of market.
Packaging costs are high. Even the retail business in small stores so large that
an inventory needed to display various brands and that is lacking.
Supermarkets are not yet popular although a few are making appearance.

2.6.2 Prospects
Indian government is now making an effort to promote better growth of this
industry by giving it a priority sector status for lending by banks, most of the
industry (except in alcoholic beverages and those products reserved for small
scale), have been exempted from licensing, have relaxation in small scale
reservation, foreign technology agreements, agro-based export oriented units,
assistance in research and development etc. Government is also trying to
improve infrastructure support such as cold chain facilities, transport, storage
warehouses, etc. Governments are setting up Food Parks, 10-year tax holiday,
and replacement of PFA Act with a new more rational act. The bill for
Integrated Food Law is likely to be introduced in the Parliament.
Because of liberalization and other developmental measures being taken,
future of the industry looks very bright. To some extent cold chain is being
provided, which will help in retaining quality, freshness and reduce post-
harvest losses. With the new hybrid varieties being added the production
season is also being extended. These developments shall result in the greater
availability of quality raw materials to the industry thus resulting in better
capacity utilization and producing a wider range of products and of
international quality. The quality is now the watchword for success. The
multinationals now entering the food industry have an international marketing
network and have their brand loyalties all over the world. This will enable the
Indian products reaching all over the world in the form and packing required.
With the rise in the per capita income particularly of the middle classes a
drastic change in the food habits has been noticed. This will lead to an
increased domestic consumption of processed foodstuffs.

2.7 CEREAL PROCESSING

India produces about 200 million tonnes of different food grains every year.
All major grains like paddy, wheat, maize, barley, and millets like jowar (great
millet), bajra (pearl millet) & ragi (finger millet) are produced in the country.
31
Introduction to Food The country is self sufficient in grain production and is the second largest
Science and Technology wheat and rice producer in world, with a 20% share in total world production.
Primary milling of rice, wheat and pulses is the most important activity in food
grains. There are over 91,000 rice hullers and 2,60,000 small flourmills
engaged in primary milling. Further there are about 43,000 modernized rice
mills/huller-cum sheller and the quantity of rice bran processed for bran-oil
extraction stood at 3.4 million tonnes in 1999-2000.
Around 820 large flourmills in the country convert about 10.5 million tonnes
of wheat into wheat products. Branded rice is becoming popular in the country
and significant corporate presence is there in the domestic as well as export
markets. Some quantity of wheat and wheat products is also exported.
The total market of bakery product, bread and biscuit is 1.5 million tonne and
1.1 million tonne respectively in year 1998. The cake market alone is estimated
at 0.4 million tonne. The organized segment of the biscuit market is estimated
to be 0.44 million tonnes whereas the unorganized sector accounts for the
balance 0.66 million tonnes. Bread market is estimated to be growing at around
7% per annum in volume terms, whereas the biscuit market in the recent years
has witnessed a little higher growth at around 8-10% per year.
Besides the industrial areas in leading metropolis, the bakery products and
confectionery are carried on small-scale basis also at household level.
Whereas, the confectionery industry has developed remarkably with the
international brands mingling with the domestic market toffees, chocolates etc.
produced at large scale in important industrial regions of the country. During
the last 2 decades, small and unorganized players shared the growth in the
industry. Currently, there are an estimated 2 million bakeries across the
country engaged in production of bread, biscuits and other products. The
estimated annual production of bakery products in India is in excess of 3
million tonnes, of which bread accounts for nearly 50% and biscuits 37% in
volume terms in the organized sector. Sugar-boiled confectionery, consisting
of hard-boiled candy, toffees and other sugar-based candies, is the largest
confectionary segments and valued at around Rs 2,000 crore. The
confectionery industry has a current capacity of 85,000 tons; the market is
growing at the rate of 10-15% per annum.

2.8 PULSE PROCESSING

In India, around 75% of pulses produced is consumed after having been milled
for removal of the husk and splitting or after some processing. Losses take
place at various stages after harvest viz. during storage, loosening of husk, at
the time of processing, etc. Among post harvest operations, storage causes the
maximum loss of 7.5%, processing, threshing and transport causes 1%, 0.5%
losses respectively, aggregating 9.5% total loss. Though the main cause of low
per capita availability is considered to be poor productivity and production but
reduction in post harvest losses can enhance the availability to a considerable
extent. However, most of the commercial technologies available for this
purpose are either obsolete or inadequate and result in heavy losses due to
breakage and powdering of the grain. Successful efforts have been made to
develop improved technologies to reduce milling losses and improve product
quality. Similarly there is a need for development and utilization of improved
technologies for the manufacture of products based on grain legumes.
32
Conversion of pulses to dhal is the third largest food processing industry in the Food Processing
Industries
country after rice and wheat milling industries. It is estimated that about 75%
of the pulses produced in the country are converted to dhal. Milling of pulses
has been practiced as a small-scale rural operation from time immemorial and
more recently as large commercial operation. About 30% of the production of
pulses is retained by the farmers and is processed in rural sector using
traditional techniques. Presently the dhal available in the market comes almost
entirely from the large-scale mills. There are about 10,000 dhal mills working
in various parts of the country processing different pulses throughout the year.
A majority of the 5500 mills, reported in the country are big and semi-
automatic/ automatic. They process more than 80% of the pulses produced in
the country. However, there is a good scope for new entrants in this field is of
particular significance as pulses are the main suppliers of proteins and
nutritious food to the poor masses.
Depending upon the scope for processing pulses, dhal-milling plants can be
setup in rural areas so that the waste material available from this industry could
be beneficially used for cattle feed and other purposes.
Many pulse milling machines, technology and process have been developed by
different research organizations of the country to overcome most of the
anomalies of the traditional methods. Some of these methods have better
milling efficiency, more yield in lesser time and at lesser processing costs
compared to the traditional process.

2.9 OILSEED PROCESSING

The vegetable oil processing and extraction industry also plays a vital role in
our edible oil economy. It comprises the orthodox bullock driven crushers and
the modern expander/extruder units. In recent times the processing sector has
passed through a transitional phase, attempting to cope with the rapidly
changing processing methods the world over.
Over the years the demand for both edible and inedible oils in India has been
on the rise. The gap between demand and supply has been largely bridged by
using innovative technologies and unconventional oil sources from forest
based oilseeds. In recent years per capita consumption of edible oil has also
been rising. It was estimated that edible oil demand would be about 7.1 million
tonnes or 26 million tonnes of oilseeds. Although India produces about
7 million tones of edible oils annually, a gap may still arise as the industry
sources are expecting an increase in our annual per capita consumption of
edible oil to 9 kg. The domestic demand for edible oils has been growing at
about 6.7 percent per annum whereas production only at 4.5 percent per
annum.
The processing by the solvent extraction industry declined to 10.4 million
tonnes in 1996 compared to 11.2 million tonnes in the previous year. Exports
of oil meal, oilseeds and minor oils have reached 4.55 million tones) valued at
Rs. 3766 crores ($ 1067 million) during the year 1996-97 at against 4.54
million tonnes (valued at Rs. 2873 crore equivalent to $ 820 million) in 1995-
96, i.e. a quantum jump of 35 per cent over the previous year.
India has about 2.5 lakhs ghanis and kolhus and around 50.000 oil mills of
different capacities. While most of the former categories have low
33
Introduction to Food productivity, majority of the oil mills have only the capacity of 1 to 5 tonnes
Science and Technology per day and about 150 are having that of 50 tonnes per day.
Vanaspati production has been growing at an annual rate of 1.6 per cent during
1990-91 to 1995-96. Yet of its 161 units, 49 have put down the shutter during
1996. The vanaspati producer’s are pressing for decontrolling the use of
mustard oil in vanaspati production. Now the Vegetable Oils Products (VOP)
industry is permitted to use only certain specified varieties of mustard. High
input cost is a major constraint faced by the manufacturers. The vanaspati
industry’s capacity utilization went down to 36 per cent in 1994-95 from a high
of 66 per cent in 1987-88. The industry has also added substantial capacities is
complete disregard to the market demand, 26.6 lakh tones in 1994-95
compared to 15 lakh tones in 1986-87.
For increasing domestic production potential for vegetable oil (edible &
industrial) from non-conventional sources, and integrated approach is
necessary for exploitation of non-traditional oilseeds. Soybean and oil palm are
two promising oil bearing materials for achieving self-sufficiency for India.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the major problems and prospects of processing industries?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What is the status of grain and oilseed milling in India?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

2.10 HORTICULTURAL CROP PROCESSING

The commercial processing of fruit & vegetables is less than 2%. The main
reason being that domestic consumption of processed items is quite meagre
34
because of economic reasons and also as a matter of habit as consumers prefer Food Processing
Industries
fresh fruits & vegetables. The high cost of packaging pushes up the cost of the
processed items and thereby makes them out of reach of the common man.
Because of the varied agro-climatic conditions some fresh fruit & vegetable are
available throughout the year.
Presently there are a little over 5198 units registered under the FPO distributed
all over the country. Most of the units fall in the cottage and or small-scale
sector. A few modern processing plants have, now come up and many more are
in the pipeline. The installed capacity, which was 11.08 lakh tonnes, in 1993,
increased to 21.00 lakh tonnes at the end of the year 1999. After the
liberalization of the economic policies in the country, a few very modern plants
produce mango pulp, tomato paste etc. in aseptic packing, freeze drying of
many fruit & vegetables including mushroom is being taken up. It is expected
that in the years to come, many modern state of the art plants shall come up.
The important items manufactured in the country are fruit pulps particularly of
tomatoes & mangoes, ready to serve juices, canned fruits, jam, pickles,
squashes, etc. Recently, items like frozen fruits, pulps, dehydrated & freeze-
dried vegetables, canned mushrooms etc. are also being produced. In the
coming years, new industries like carbonated fruit drinks, dehydrated and
freeze dried fruits, fruit juice concentrates are expected to come up.
India in a small way has been in the export market for almost 30 years. Among
the popular items in export are mango chutneys, pickles. Fruit juices, canned
and dehydrated mushrooms, frozen & canned fruit & vegetables. In the year
1997-98 the exports of processed fruit and vegetables were in the order of 299
thousand tonnes valued at Rs. 761 crores (US $ 200 million).
Due to the WTO Agreement, all the exporting units will have to follow the
Codex Alimentarius standards. This makes the compliance easier as one does
not have to try to comply with several different legal requirements of different
countries. There are many processors who export their products to several
countries. Codex Alimentarius also has another requirement and that is Hazard
Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). This has been incorporated to
ensure safety of food products. Although this is new to most Indian
manufacturers, several processing units have already incorporated these
requirements in their units.
The future looks quite promising for food processing industry. It is bound to
grow at much more healthy rate as many plans are implemented. Government
has a big role to play in its development and has already given its willingness
to help the industry.

2.11 LIVESTOCK AND AQUACULTURAL PRODUCE

PROCESSING

2.11.1 Fish Processing

With over 8000 km. of coastline, 3 million hectares of reservoirs and
1.4 million hectares of brackish water, India has vast potential for fishes from
both inland and marine resources. Units mostly exist in the small-scale sector
as proprietary or partnership firms or fishermen co-operatives. Over the last
decade, the organized corporate sector has become increasingly involved in
preservation, processing and export of coastal fish. But the wide variety of fish
35
Introduction to Food resources found in Indian inland waters, coastal areas and deep seas
Science and Technology comprising India's Exclusive Economic Zone, still remain grossly under
utilized
Processing of produce into canned and frozen forms is carried out almost
entirely for the export market. In all, there are about 393 freezing units,
13 canning units, 160 ice-making units, 12 fishmeal units and also about 476
cold storage units. Processed fish products for export include: conventional
block frozen products, individual quick frozen products (IQF), minced fish
products like fish sausage, cakes, cutlets, pastes, surimi, texturised products
and dry fish etc.
2.11.2 Meat Processing
India has a livestock population of 470 million that includes 205 million cattle
and 90 million buffaloes. The country produces about 450 million broilers and
30 billion eggs annually. Animals, which are generally used for production of
meat, are cattle, buffalos, sheep and goat, pigs and poultry. Mithun is also
slaughtered for meat in North East and Sikkim. Rabbit meat is also used as a
specialty in Kerala and some other states.
Consumption per head of both fresh and processed meat in India is very low at
1.5 kilograms. This compares with the world average of 35.5 kilograms. The
production of meat and meat products has shown an impressive growth. The
details of production of meat and meat products from 1994 to 1998 are as
given Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Production of meat and meat products (in thousand tonnes)

S. Meat product 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

No
1. Mutton and Goat 637 647 669 670 675
Meat
2. Pork Meat 366 420 420 420 420
3. Poultry Meat 422 578 480 580 600
4. Cattle Meat (Beef) 1290 1292 1202 1292 1295
5. Buffalo Meat 1200 1204 1204 1205 1210

The total meat production in the country is 4 million tonnes, which includes
beef, buffalo meat, mutton, goat meat, pork and poultry meat. However, only
about 1% of the total meat is converted into value added products like
sausages, ham, bacon, luncheon meat, kebabs, meatballs etc. The total meat
export during 1999-2000 was Rs.845.00 crores consisting mostly of mutton
and buffalo meat out of which 70% was contributed by export of buffalo meat.
The country has 3600 slaughterhouses, 9 modern abattoirs and 171 meat-
processing units licensed under MPO. A few modern pork-processing plants
are also coming up in the country. These are primary meat processing houses
and are administered by local authorities. Most of them are outdated and use
primitive technologies for the production of meat. There are very few modern
facilities, although a few such units do exist for pork and bacon processing, for
the integrated slaughter and processing of buffalo, sheep and goat meat and for
36
the processing of poultry meat. In addition to this, a large proportion of meat Food Processing
Industries
production is slaughtered in houses or small-unlicensed establishments.
Poultry processing is still in its infancy. There are only seven modern
integrated poultry processing plants. However, there are a good number of
small poultry processing units engaged in production of poultry meat products.
There are five egg-processing units engaged in exporting egg products.
The level of processing in the Indian market is very small and the potential for
rapid growth is therefore substantial. With the advent of fast food outlets in all
the metropolitan centers, the impact on meat processing industry is immense.
As per capita incomes rises and urban families live in smaller units, the
demand for processed meat products, which can be rapidly cooked, will rise.

2.12 NATIONAL FOOD PROCESSING POLICY

The Government has come out with a draft national food processing policy
with a vision to motivate farmers and food processors and to provide
interactive coupling between technology, economy, environment and society
for steady development of food processing activities to build up a substantial
base for production of value added agro food products for domestic and export
markets with a strong emphasis on food safety and quality enabling the farmers
especially to realize direct benefits of new technology and marketing network
and to ensure adequate availability of quality food products for the consumers
at affordable prices.
The policy will seek to create an appropriate environment for the entrepreneurs
to set up food processing industries through rationalization of tax structure,
harmonization & simplification of food laws, promotion campaign to create
market for processed foods by providing financial assistance to Industry
Associations, NGOs/cooperatives, private sector units, State Government
organizations. It also includes infrastructural development programs like
establishment of cold chain, low cost pre-cooling facilities near farms, cold
stores and grading, sorting, packaging facilities, application of biotechnology,
remote sensing technologies, energy saving technologies and technologies for
environmental protection, building up a strong infrastructural base for
production of value added products with special emphasis on food safety and
quality matching international standards etc. The policy has many backward
and forward linkages between farmers, market, processors and consumers.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the status and prospects of meat processing industries?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

37
Introduction to Food 2. What is National Food Processing Policy?
Science and Technology
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

2.13 LET US SUM UP

The food industry is divided into production manufacturing distribution and
marketing. The industry is highly responsive to change and interrelated with
others. Consumers drive the food industry and to some extent the food industry
drives the consumer, making changes in food consumption, types and meals.
Food is now a global commodity with changing tread scenario in the world.
The food processing industry in India is in its growing stage. It contributes
5.5% of GDP. Most of the foods processing industries are in unorganized
sector. There are number of problems which are responsible for slow growth of
food Industry. But the prospects of food industry are very good, as changes in
the food habits have been observed in the recent past.
Cereal processing is the major food-processing sector in India. Numbers of
bakery products are also produced in the India and the market is growing fast
rate 7.5% of pulses produced in India is processed for preparation of dall.
There are about 5500 processing mills in India. There are about 2.5 lakh ghanis
in India. Vanaspati production sector is slow. The commercial processing of
fruits and vegetables is only 2% in India. There are 5198 food processing units
which are registered under food product order.
In fish processing the organized sectors are now coming up. There are about
393 freezing units in the country. Meat is one of the important export
commodity in food processing export sector. Only 0.2% of total meat
production is further processed at commercial scale. The poultry processing is
in the starting phase.

The government has come out with a draft national food processing policy
with a vision to motivate and provide interactive compiling between all
stakeholders. The policy will seek to create an appropriate environment for the
entrepreneurs to set up food processing industries through creating enabling
environment, infrastructure development with backward and forward linkages.

2.14 KEY WORDS

National food processing
policy : Draft of government on food processing policy of
India.

38
 Food Processing
Food processing
Industries
industries : The industries engaged in commercial processing
of foods.
Allied industries : The industries indirectly associated with food
processing industries.
Cereal processing : The processing of cereals like wheat, paddy etc.
Primary processing : It includes cleaning/grading of raw material and
dehusking.
Pulse processing : The processing of pulses to get the dall or any
other product.
Oilseed processing : Processing of oilseeds to extract oil from oil-
bearing seeds.
Horticultural crop
Processing : Processing of fruits and vegetables to increase
their shelf life and prepare other products.
HACCP : Hazard analysis and critical control points.
Fish processing : Processing of fish includes, freezing, canning,
deboning etc.
Meat Processing: The processing of animal carcass for human consumption.

2.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
"
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Classification based on units of industry

• Classification on food products

2. Your answer should include following points:

• Past and present status

• Future prospects and scope

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Problems of farmers, market, processor and consumers

• Future scope, government policies

2. Your answer should include following points:

• Cereal, pulses, oilseeds

• Processing industries, potential

39
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Meat, fish, poultry processing

• Present status
• Future scenario

2. Your answer should include following points:

• Vision of policy
• Linkages, creation of enabling environment, infrastructure

2.16 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Economic Survey 2001-2002. Economic Division, Ministry of Finance,
Government of India.
2. Fellows, P.J. (1998) Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practices.
Woodhead Publishing Limited. Cambridge, England.
3. Parker, R. (2003) Introduction to Food Science. Thomson Learning Inc.
New York.
4. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H. (1995) Food Science, 5th Edition.
Chapman & Hall Publishing Inc, New York.

40
 Food Laws and
UNIT 3 FOOD LAWS AND ASSOCIATED Associated Bodies

BODIES
Structure

3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Food Laws and Standards
3.3 Indian: PFA, FPO, MPO, BIS, AGMARK
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA)
Fruit Products Order (FPO)
Meat Products Order (MPO)
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
AGMARK Standard
3.4 International: AOAC, USDA, FDA, ISO, Codex Alimentarius,
HACCP, GMP
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC)
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Food and Drugs Administration (FDA)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
Codex Alimentarius
Hazard Analysis and Critical Contort Point (HACCP)
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
3.5 Export Promotion Council
3.6 APEDA and MPEDA
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA)
3.7 Food Health Authority
3.8 NABL
3.9 FRAC
3.10 MFPI, Ministry of Health
3.11 Total Quality Management
3.12 Product Certificate & Licensing
3.13 Let Us Sum Up
3.14 Key Words
3.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.16 Some Useful Books

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• know types of standards;
• state prevention of food adulteration act (PFA), FPO & MPO, Bureau of
Indian standards (BIS), AGMARK standards;
• learn international standards organization (ISO), AOAC, USDA and FDA
• explain codex Alimentarius, HACCP, GMP;
• know about different export promotion councils, APEDA, MPEDA;
• know the organisations - NABL, MFPI, FRAC; and
• organisation describe total quality management (TQM).

41
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 3.1 INTRODUCTION
Food processing involves number of unit operations and material handling. So,
there are always chances that the food may be contaminated. The food material
should also contain essential nutrients. So, standards are formed and number of
agencies and organizations are involved at national and international level to
make the standards implement and regulate them. This unit covers Indian and
international standards and implementing agencies, export promotion agencies
of India, NABL, etc. The quality assurance systems like HACCP, TQM and
GMP are also covered in brief.

3.2 FOOD LAWS AND STANDARDS

Food is the basic need of all living organisms. Hence, its quality should be
given top priority. Processing of the food and food products is usually done at
mass scale. So, there are always the possibilities of food being adulterated. The
contamination of food can affect a large number of populations at a time and
hazards may occur. Secondly, the consumer must get the product for which he
has paid. An article of food is called adulterated if the food contains any other
substance which effects, or it so processed as to affect injuriously the nature,
substance or quality, inferior or cheaper substance has been substituted,
prepared and packed or kept under unsanitary condition whereby it has become
contaminated or injurious to health, contains filthy, putrid rotten, decomposed
or diseased animal or vegetable substance or is insect infested or is otherwise
unfit for human consumption etc. The processors may add any prohibited
preservative or permitted preservative in excess of the prescribed limits. So, it
is essential to set the minimum quantities of desirable characteristics required
and the maximum quantities of undesirable components that the food should
contain. This also helps to set common standards for commodities and prevents
confusion among consumers. Thus, the standards are formulated. There are
several ways of arriving at the standards for product quality but four methods
are commonly used;
1. Legal standards: Standards, which are established by government bodies.
2. Company or voluntary standards: Set by the various segments of food
industry. Voluntary standards generally represent a consumer image and
may become a trademark of product quality.
3. Industry standards: An organized group attempts to establish given limits
of quality for any food product. Normally these become effective by
pressure from marketing organizations or by specific commodity groups
where legal standards are not involved.
4. Consumer or grade standards: The consumer standards represent the
consumer requirements of a product and are generally based on experience
of the industry with its consumer.
Out of these, the legal standards are the most important. In fact the government
has empowered several agencies and promulgated a number of acts and orders
to contract the menace. Agencies and institutions have also been created to lay
down standards for the quality of foods. The manner in which the food is
processed and packaged is also covered by a number of regulations. Many
different types of standards apply to the evaluation, production, testing, and
42 monitoring of dietary supplements. Regulations and product standards are
used, as the “yardsticks” that define specific requirements manufacturers must Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
follow to assure product safety and to provide accurate information to health
professionals and consumers. These standards also encourage the safety and
quality of products by manufacturer making sure that the product meets the
standards.

3.3 INDIAN STANDARDS

The Government of India is fully aware of the possibilities of food being
adulterated. It has therefore, several agencies, acts, standards and orders which
have been formed to formulate standards, implement them, check the
adulteration and protect the consumers. Some agencies and institutions were
created to lay down standards for the quality of foods. The main agencies
involved in this are described below.

3.3.1 Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA)

One of the early acts to be promulgated in food laws and standards was the
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act of 1954, which has been in force since
June 1,1955, amended 1964 and again in 1976. The objective of this act was to
ensure that food articles sold to the customers are pure and wholesome. It is
also intended to prevent fraud or deception and encourages fair trade practices.
The Act prohibits the manufacture, sale and distribution of not only adulterated
foods but also foods contaminated with toxicants and misbranded foods. A
central committee for food standards has been constituted under the Act and
has been charged with the function of advising the Central Government on
matters relating to the Food standards.
The Food Health Authority is appointed at state level who is the Director of
Public Health and Preventive Medicine. He is responsible for the good quality
and standards of foods available to the consumers. Under FHA are the Local
Health Authority (LHA). There is a Local Health Authority appointed in each
city in every state.

3.3.2 Fruit Products Order (FPO)

The Government of India promulgated a Fruit Products order in 1946. In 1955,
the order was revised. The Fruit Products Order (FPO) lays down statutory
minimum standards in respect of the quality of various fruits and vegetable
products and processing facilities. The FPO is enforced by the Department of
Health. Presently there is a little over 5198 units registered under the Fruit
Products Order of 1955 distributed all over the country. Most of the units fall
in the cottage or small-scale sector. A few modern processing plants have, now
come up and many more are in the pipeline. The installed capacity which was
11.08 lakh tonnes, in 1993 increased to 21.00 lakh tonnes at the end of the year
1999.

3.3.3 Meat Products Order (MPO)

It provides means to:
1. Detect and destroy meat of diseased animals.
2. Ensure that the preparation and handling of meat and meat products be
conducted in a clean and sanitary manner.
43
Introduction to Food 3. Prevent the use of harmful substances in meat foods.
Science and Technology
4. See that every cut piece of meat is inspected before sale to ensure its
wholesomeness.
The order also lays down rules and conditions for the procedure to be adopted
for the selection of disease-free animals, slaughterhouse practices.

3.3.4 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standards Organization
established as a Society in 1947 as Indian Standards Institution and
subsequently made a statutory body as BIS under Bureau of Indian Standards
Act 1986. The Bureau comprises of members representing industry, consumer
organizations, scientific and research institutions, professional/technical
institutes, central ministries, State Government and Members of Parliament.
The functions of Bureau are;
1. Standard Formulation.
2. Certification: Product, Quality Management System, Eco Mark,
Environment Management System, Hallmarking of Gold Jewellery, Hazard
Analysis and Critical Control Points.
3. Laboratory: Testing, Calibration and Management.
4. Standards Promotion.
5. Consumer Affairs.
6. Awareness and Training Programs.
There are 14 Technical departments engaged in formulation of Standards. So
far 17000 Standards have been formulated in different technological areas
depending upon the National priority. These standards are evolved through the
consensus from sectors such as industry, Consumers, testing and laboratory
experts and Government organization by co-opting them in the related
technical committees, sub committee and panels. The standards are reviewed
time-to-time and continuously updated to match the technological changes
taking place. The BIS has formulated 1133 standards which pertains to food
products.

3.3.5 AGMARK Standard

The AGMARK standard was set up by the Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection of the Government of India by introducing an Agricultural Produce
Act in 1937. The word ‘AGMARK’ seal ensures quality and purity. The
quality of a product is determined with reference to the size, variety, weight,
colour, moisture, fat content and other factors are taken into account. It covers
the following commodities:
• Pulses
• Cereals, 1966, 2001
• Makhana
• Vegetable oils
• Fruits and vegetables
• Roasted Bengal gram
• Vermicelli, Macroni and Spaghetti
44
The grades incorporated are grades 1,2,3 and 4 or special, good, fair and Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
ordinary. Any officer of the Central Government or a State Government, or
any authority, authorized by the Central Government, may, if he has reason to
believe that any provision of this Act or the rules made there under has been,
or is being, contravened, enter any premises at any reasonable time and make
necessary inspection of, and search for, the agricultural produce in relation
which such contravention has been, or is being made. The officer can seize and
penalize the firm for not meeting the standards. The Central Government can
declare that the provisions of this Act shall apply to an article of agricultural
produce not included in the schedule or to an article other than an article of
agricultural produce and on the publication of such notification, such article
shall be deemed to be included in the schedule.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by standards and how they are arrived?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What are the functions of BIS? How standards are formulated?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

3.4 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

Quality of food is major concern worldwide. So, each country has formulated
its own standards and created agencies for strict quality control measures of the
food products. Some of them are internationally accepted as standards. A brief
description of some these standards are given in this section.

3.4.1 Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC)

AOAC is an independent association devoted to promoting methods validation
and quality measurements in the analytical sciences. It does this by reviewing
and validating approved standard methods of analysis. Promoting uniformity

45
Introduction to Food and reliability in statements of results, and developing and promoting criteria
Science and Technology useful for laboratory accreditation and analysis certification.
AOAC official methods program is designed to provide methods of analysis
for which performance characteristics have been determined and tested. The
cornerstone of this program is the inter-laboratory collaborative study by
which proposed methods are validated through independent testing in separate
laboratories following the same method and analyzing the same samples. The
methods can be used to determine compliance with government regulations, to
maintain quality control and process requirements, to set and evaluate
compliance with terms of procurement contracts, to conduct national and
international trade and to support research.
The AOAC methods are recognized worldwide as an authoritative resource,
because of thorough and rigorous testing characterization. They are written in
U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Product specifications, and product
acceptance, relied on legal proceedings, and required as a basis of national and
international trade. They are also adopted by other national and international
standards organizations.

3.4.2 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

It is the main body of food standards in USA. Regulations and directives are
developed by USDA to ensure compliance with all relevant federal laws of
USA, executive orders, directives, and policies. It provides links to key Federal
Regulations and public laws enacted for USDA food distribution commodity
programs and food purchase programs. Regulations and policies of USDA
govern food safety related programs, processed product directives, the import
and export of meat, poultry, and egg products, and laboratory services. It
manages the process of developing food and nutrition regulations and ensures
that all the relevant food and nutrition agencies participate in this development
process. These regulations provide official marketing standards for grains and
oilseeds, and require that exported grains and oilseeds be officially weighed
and inspected. The Department's laws also regulate the slaughter and
manufacture of meat products. The regulations also protect and promote U.S.
agricultural health, administer the Animal Welfare Act, carry out wildlife
damage management activities, and ensure that America's agricultural exports
are protected from unjustified trade restrictions.

3.4.3 Food and Drugs Administration (FDA)

The Food and Drug Administration of USA is one of the oldest and most
respected consumer protection agencies. Its mission is to promote and protect
the public health by helping safe and effective products reach the market in a
timely way, to monitor products for continued safety after they are in use, and
to help the public get the accurate, science-based information needed to
improve health. FDA’s regulatory approaches are as varied as the products it
regulates products such as new drugs and complex medical devices, other
products such as x-ray machines and microwave ovens, cosmetics and dietary
supplements that must be proven safe and effective before companies can put
them in the market. FDA safeguards the USA food supply by making sure that
all ingredients used in foods are safe, and that food is free of contaminants like
disease-causing organisms, chemicals, or other harmful substances. The
agency must approve new food additives before they can be used in foods. It
also monitors the safety of dietary supplements and the content of infant
46
formulas and medical foods. FDA regulates all medical devices, including Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
simple items like thermometers to very complex technologies such as heart
pacemakers and dialysis machines. However, only the most complex new
medical devices are reviewed by the agency before marketing.

3.4.4 International Standards Organization (ISO)

ISO prepared a document called ISO 9000 series in 1987 (modified in 1994) as
a guideline for all organizations on managing quality and standard. Its Indian
equivalent is IS 14000 (1988). It is the principle and criteria for a management
system, which will improve a company’s performance. It is a media for
ensuring orderly and systematic maintenance and upkeep of system. It covers
quality, quality policy, quality management, quality system, quality control,
quality assurance, quality improvement, product, service, process and
customer. The ISO series is given below;
ISO 9000-1,2,3,4 : Quality management and quality assurance
ISO9004-1: Quality management and quality system elements
subcontractor
ISO9004-2: Guidelines for services
ISO9004-3: Guidelines for processed materials
ISO9004-4: Guidelines for quality improvement
ISO9004-5: Guidelines for project management
ISO9004-6: Guidelines for quality plans
ISO9004-7: Guidelines for configuration management
ISO 10011-1,2,3 : Guidelines for auditing quality system
ISO 10012-1,2 : Quality assurance requirements for measuring
equipment
ISO 10013: Guidelines for developing quality manual
ISO 10014: Guidelines for economic effect of quality
ISO 10015: Continuing education and training guidelines

3.4.5 Codex Alimentarius

The term Codex Alimentarius is taken from Latin and means food code. The
FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission was established to implement
the joint FAO/WHO Food Standard Program. About 150 countries including
India are member of the commission. The purpose of this program is to protect
the health of consumers and to ensure fair practice in the food trade; to
promote coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international
governmental and non-governmental organizations; to determine priorities and
initiate and guide the preparation of draft standards through and with the aid of
appropriate organizations; to finalize standards and after acceptance by
Governments, publish them in a Codex Alimentarius either regional or
worldwide standards. It brings together all the interested parties -scientists,
technical experts, governments, consumers and industry representatives to help
develop standards for food manufacturing and trade. These standards,
guidelines and recommendations are recognized worldwide for their vital role
in protecting the consumer and facilitating international trade. As Codex
Alimentarius represent a consensus of food and trade experts from around the
world, these standards are more and more being used in international trade
negotiations and also for setting of disputes by WTO.

47
Introduction to Food The Codex contract Point in India is the Directorate General of Health Services
Science and Technology (DGHS) in the Ministry of Health. Ministry of Food processing Industries is
also closely associated with the activities of Codex Alimentarius.

3.4.6 Hazard Analysis and Critical Contort Point (HACCP)

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is an important quality
assurance system. This system ensures that the products are safe and have good
quality. The system is extremely desirable in view of the changing scenario in
the International trade. It is science based and systematic, identifies specific
hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is
a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention
rather than relying mainly on end product testing. The system is capable of
accommodating changes such as advances in equipment design, processing
procedures or technological developments. It can be applied throughout the
food chain from primary production to final consumption and its
implementation should be guided by scientific evidence of risk to human
health. The application of HACCP is compatible with the implementation of
quality management systems, such as ISO 9000 series and is the system of
choice in the management of food safety within such systems. The HACCP
system consists of following seven principles;
1. Conduct a hazard analysis.
2. Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).
3. Establish critical limits.
4. Establish a system to monitor control of CCP.
5. Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a
particular CCP is not under control.
6. Establish procedures for verification to confirm the HACCP system is
working effectively.
7. Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate
to these principles and their application.
Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of food chain, the sector should be
operating according to Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the
appropriate Codex Codes of Practice, and appropriate food safety legislation.
During hazard identification, evaluation and subsequent operations in
designing and applying HACCP systems, consideration must be given to the
impact of raw materials, ingredients, food manufacturing practices, role of
manufacturing processes to control hazards, likely end use of the product,
categories of consumers of concern and epidemiological evidence relative to
food safety. The application of HACCP principles consists of following tasks;
1. Assemble HACCP team. The team must comprise of all experts required
for the development of an effective HACCP plan for a specific food
commodity.
2. All the information of the product such as composition, physical/ chemical
structure treatments etc should be described.
3. The intended use should be identified. It should be based on uses of the
48 product by the end user or customer.
4. The HACCP team should construct a flow diagram covering all the steps in Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
the operation.
5. On-site confirmation of the flow diagram should be done and amendments
in the flow diagram should be done if required.
6. All the hazards associated with each step should be listed, a hazard analysis
should be conducted and controls measures should be considered for
identified hazards.
In a large food factory the team should be multi-disciplinary that is, it should
include a microbiologist, processing specialist, chemist, biochemist, engineer,
packaging technologist, sales and training staff and personnel managers. For
medium and small scale, the quality control and production managers and few
supporting staff like sales and administrative managers should be enough.

3.4.7 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)

GMP provides quality assurances that off-the-shelf testing cannot. It provides
continual measures of quality that can uncover problems and fluctuations as
they occur before the product is shipped. The need for GMP takes on further
importance because the issues involved in developing test methods for dietary
supplements are many and complex. Until methods are further developed,
standardized, and widely accepted, GMP serves as a primary vehicle for
ensuring quality.
Good manufacturing practices (GMP) lie at the heart of quality. GMP
comprise a variety of practices that ensure quality including things such as:
• Raw materials quality assurance
• Record-keeping of substances throughout the manufacturing process
• Standards for cleanliness and safety
• Qualifications of manufacturing personnel
• In-house testing
• Production and process controls
• Warehousing and distribution
Virtually every manufacturer adheres to an in-house GMP standard, which
varies from producer to producer. In-house GMP, while often extremely
effective, does not provide a means for outside verification of quality. In order
to provide such verification, many are now embracing to industry-standard
GMP that is usually subject to an independent outside audit for compliance.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Differentiate AOAC, USDA and FDA.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
49
Introduction to Food 2. What do you understand by HACCP? How quality assurance is achieved
Science and Technology through it?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

3.5 EXPORT PROMOTION COUNCIL

The Export Promotion Council has been constituted to check the quality of a
number of food materials meant for export. The council has powers to reject
any food item, which does not measure up to the standards prescribed for the
food. Federation of Indian Export Organizations (FIEO) is the apex body of all
Export promotion councils/Commodity Boards/Export Development
Authorities in India. There are 25 boards and export development authorities.
The main work of these authorities is to promote the export, assure the quality
of the product the international standards, formulate the standards for export
etc. List of export councils related to food products are given below.
1. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA)
2. Cashew Export Promotion Council of India
3. Coffee Board
4. Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA)
5. Shellac Export Promotion Council
6. Spices Board
7. Tea Board
8. Tobacco Board
9. Wool and Woollen Export Promotion Council

3.6 APEDA AND MPEDA

3.6.1 Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

Authority (APEDA)
APEDA is an autonomous organization attached to the Ministry of Commerce
of the Government of India. The main function of APEDA is to build links
between Indian producers and the global markets. APEDA undertakes the
briefing of potential sources on government policy and producers along with
providing referral services and suggesting suitable partners for joint ventures
besides arranging buyer-seller meets. It also provides recommendations to the
Trade and Industry.
50
APEDA offers financial assistance under various schemes, which seek to Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
promote and develop agro exports. Financial assistance under these schemes is
available to exporters, growers, and trade associations, governmental agencies.

3.6.2 Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA)

The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) was
constituted in 1972 under the Marine Products Export Development Authority
Act 1972. The role envisaged for the MPEDA under the statute is
comprehensive covering fisheries of all kinds, increasing exports, specifying
standards, processing, marketing, extension and training in various aspects of
the industry.
MPEDA functions under the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India and
acts as a coordinating agency with different Central and State Government
establishments engaged in fishery production and allied activities. The plan
schemes of the Authority are implemented under four major heads:
1. Export production - Capture Fisheries
2. Export production - Culture Fisheries
3. Induction of New Technology and Modernization of Processing Facilities.
4. Market Promotion
It implements developmental measures vital to the industry like distribution of
insulated fish boxes, putting up fish landing platforms, improvement of peeling
sheds, modernization of industry such as upgrading of plate freezers,
installation of IQF machinery, generator sets, ice making machineries, quality
control laboratory etc.

3.7 FOOD HEALTH AUTHORITY

The Food Health Authority is appointed at state level that is the Director of
Public Health and Preventive Medicine. It is responsible for the good quality
and standards of foods available to the consumers. Under FHA is the Local
Health Authority (LHA). There is a Local Health Authority appointed in each
city in every state. The food Inspector is appointed by the Central or State
Government by notification in official gazette. The main work of this
authority is to take a random sample of any food article from any person
selling such article, or who is in the course of delivering or preparing to deliver
such article to a purchaser or consignee or a consignee after delivering of any
such article to him. Then these samples are sent for analysis to the Public
Analyst (PA) of local area.

3.8 NATIONAL ACCREDITATION BOARD FOR

TESTING AND CALIBRATION LABORATORIES
(NABL)
The concept of Laboratory Accreditation was developed to provide a means for
third-party certification of the competence of laboratories to perform specific
type(s) of testing and calibration. Laboratory Accreditation provides formal
recognition of competent laboratories, thus providing a ready means for
customers to find reliable testing and calibration services in order to meet their
demands. It enhances customer confidence in accepting testing / calibration
reports issued by accredited laboratories.
51
Introduction to Food National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
Science and Technology (NABL) is an autonomous body under the aegis of Department of Science &
Technology, Government of India, as a registered Society. NABL has been
established with the objective to provide Government, Industry Associations
and Industry with a scheme for third-party assessment of the quality and
technical competence of testing and calibration laboratories. Government has
authorized NABL as the sole accreditation body for Testing and Calibration of
laboratories.
NABL provides laboratory accreditation services to laboratories that are
performing tests / calibrations in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025. These
services are offered in a non-discriminatory manner and are accessible to all
testing and calibration laboratories in India and abroad, regardless of their
ownership, legal status, size and degree of independence.
NABL has established its Accreditation System in accordance with ISO/IEC
Guide. In addition NABL has to also comply with the requirements of APLAC
MR001, which requires the applicant and the accredited laboratories to take
part in recognized Proficiency Testing Programs in accordance with ISO/IEC
Guides. NABL has been conducting Proficiency Testing with the help of
selected accredited laboratories as nodal laboratories in different fields.
NABL accreditation is a formal recognition of the technical competence of a
testing or calibration laboratory for a specific task following ISO/IEC 17025
Standard. This is based on third party assessment.
NABL Accreditation is currently given in the following fields:

Testing laboratories Calibration Clinical Laboratories

Laboratories
• Biological • Electro- • Clinical
• Chemical Technical Biochemistry
• Electrical • Mechanical • Clinical
• Fluid Flow Pathology
• Electronics
• Thermal & • Haematology
• Fluid-Flow
Optical • Microbiology
• Mechanical
• Radiological and Serology
• Non-
Destructive • Histopathology
• Cytopathology
• Photometry
• Cytogenetics
• Radiological
• Immunology
• Thermal
• Nuclear
Medicine
• Blood bank and
transfusion
services

3.9 FOOD RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS CENTER (FRAC)

The Food Research and Action Centre (FRAC) is a leading national
organization working to improve public policies to eradicate hunger and under-
nutrition in the United States. Founded in 1970 as a public interest law firm,
52
FRAC is a non-profit and non-partisan research and public policy centre that Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
serves as the hub of an anti-hunger network of thousands of individuals and
agencies across the country.
• FRAC engages in a variety of activities at the national, state and local
levels to form a comprehensive strategy for reducing hunger in this
country.

3.10 MINISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

(MFPI)
The Ministry of Food Processing Industries, set up in July 1988, is the
main central agency of the Government of India responsible for developing a
strong and vibrant food processing sector; with a view to create increased job
opportunities in rural areas, enable the farmers to reap benefit from modern
technology, create surplus for exports and stimulating demand for processed
food. The subjects looked after by the Ministry are:
• Fruits and vegetable processing industry
• Food grain milling industry
• Dairy products
• Processing of poultry and eggs, meat and meat products
• Fish processing
• Bread, oilseeds, meals (edible), breakfast foods, biscuits, confectionery
(including cocoa processing and chocolate), malt extract, protein isolate,
high protein food, weaning food and extruded/other ready to eat food
products
• Beer, including non-alcoholic beer
• Alcoholic drinks from non-molasses base
• Aerated waters / soft drinks and other processed foods
• Specialized packaging for food processing industries
The scope of the Ministry has been very much enlarged. It includes
development of fruit &. Vegetable processing and promote food-grain milling
including dairy products and processing of poultry, eggs & meat products.
Processing of fish including canning & freezing and technical assistance to the
industry also form a very important part of its activity. In addition planning &
developing of industries relating to bread, oilseeds, breakfast food, biscuits,
confectionery specialized packaging, including non-alcoholic beer, aerated
drinks also fall within the scope of this Ministry.

3.11 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Total Quality Management is a process, which explores the formation of
management and employees into a “team-concept” approach to production of
quality products. It is a structured system for satisfying internal and external
customers and suppliers by integrating the business environment, continuous

53
Introduction to Food improvement, and breakthroughs with development, improvement, and
Science and Technology maintenance cycles while changing organizational culture.
One of the keys that are most important to the successful implementation of
Total Quality Management is the idea that it is a structured system. It is
basically a strategy derived from internal and external customer and supplier
wants and needs that have been determined through daily management. The
implementation of Total Quality Management requires the help of the
following eight key elements.
1. Ethics
2. Integrity
3. Trust
4. Training
5. Teamwork
6. Leadership
7. Communication
8. Recognition
Total Quality Management is built on a foundation of ethics, integrity and
trust. It fosters openness, fairness and sincerity and allows involvement by
everyone.

3.12 PRODUCT CERTIFICATE AND LICENSING

Product certification and licensing in India is done by number of organization.
BIS operate product certification under the rules and regulation of BIS Act
1986. A manufacturer is granted license to use the standard mark after
assessment of his infrastructure facilities for manufacturing and quality control
checks to produce goods in consistent with quality control. The conformity to
standard is further ensured by regular surveillance at licensee’s performance by
surprise inspections and testing of samples from the factory and market. BIS
offers certification schemes to food industries on
1. Food safety certification against IS 15000:1998
2. HACCP based quality system certification for two certification
a) Audit certification of quality system against IS/ISO 9000, and
b) Certification of HACCP against IS 15000:1998.
The BIS has brought 1435 items and over 7500 factories under its fold. Items
affecting health and safety of consumer have been enforced through
compulsory certification. In 1991 Government of India introduced “ECO”
mark for environmentally friendly products.
The Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) issues “AGMARK”
certificate to the notified food products. It enforces the Agriculture Produce
Grading and Marketing Act 1937. Grading under this provision is voluntary. It
involves sorting of commodities according to their quality followed by
inspection to verify the correctness of grade assigned to them. It is also
enforcing MPO.
Ministry of Civil Supplies, Consumer Affairs and Public Distribution is
responsible for standardization of weight and measures. They regulate the
quality of the vanaspati vegetable oils and fats through solvent extraction
54
plants. The new act contains provision for regulation to pre-packed Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
commodities, which are intended to establish fair-trading and price discipline
for commodities sold to consumers in packed form with levelling.
For export materials, APEDA issues the certificate. . The authority feels that
the products complying with the basic quality and safety requirements should
carry a mark that remains sacrosanct across categories and communicates the
adherence to quality assurance measures. With this in view, a system for grant
of the Certification mark i.e. “Quality Produce of India” has been developed by
APEDA for agricultural products being exported. The Certification Mark will
be granted on the basis of compliance with hygiene standards, implementation
of Quality Assurance System such as ISO 9000, Food Safety System such as
HACCP, backward linkage, residue testing of pesticides and contaminants,
laboratory facilities and nature of complaint etc. Initially, the proposal is to
launch this scheme for few products like meat, rice, fruits and vegetables. This
Certification Mark is owned by APEDA. Only such exporters whose produce/
products conform to the prescribed parameters are allowed/ licensed to use the
trademark for exports.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are APEDA and MPEDA and what are their functions?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Why accreditation is required? Define the role of NABL.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. What do you understand with Total Quality Management?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
55
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 3.13 LET US SUM UP
Consumers expect certain qualities from their food. To arrive the quality
character tics, different types of standards are made. Food science determines
and uses methods to measure food quality factors. Number of agencies and
organizations are involved at national and international level to make the
standards implement and regulate them.
PFA is implemented in 1955 to ensure that food articles sold to the consumers
are pure and wholesome. FPO and MPO were also enforced to lay down
statutory minimum standard for fruits, vegetables and meat. BIS is a body
responsible for laying down policy guidelines for formulating standards.
International agencies like AOAC are involved in promoting methods
validation and quality measurement of food products. USDA and FDA are the
agencies for formulating and implementing standards. ISO is the organization
on managing quality and standards codex Alimentarius was established to
implement the food standard programme into member countries in post WTO
era. HACCP and GMP are quality assurance systems.
Different export promotion councils are constituted in India to promote export
like APEDA, MPEDA etc. NABL was developed to provide means for
ratification of the competence of laboratories to perform specific type of
works. MFPI is the main control agency in India for food processing.

3.14 KEY WORDS

AOAC : Abbreviation for Association of official
Analytical chemists.

Certificate : A document providing evidence of status of

qualification.

Critical control point : Any point in the process where loss of control
may result in a heath risk.

Food safety : A judgment of acceptability of the risk involved

in eating a food; of risk is relatively low, a food
substance may be considered.

GMP : Good manufacturing practices guidelines that a

company uses to evaluate the design and
constriction of food processing plants and
equipment.

HACCP : Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; a

preventive food safety system.

Standards : Set up and established by authority as a rule for

the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value, or
quality. Set by different agencies to specifically
describe a food; to be labelled as such, a food
must meet these specifications.

TQM : Total quality management.

56
NABL : National Accreditation Board for Testing and Food Laws and
Associated Bodies
Calibration Laboratories.

FRAC : Food Research and Analysis Centre, an

organization to improve public polices in USA.

3.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
"
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Definition
• Legal, company, industry, and consumer standards

2. Your answer should include following points:

• BIS
• Function of BIS
• Formulation process

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Associations information, functions

• Status and regulations

2. Your answer should include following points:

• Quality assurance system, need

• Principles, tasks

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should include following points:

• Purposes, structure
• Functions

2. Your answer should include following points:

• Concept of accreditation
• Need, functions of NABL

3. Your answer should include following points:

• Need, importance
• Key elements

57
Introduction to Food
Science and Technology 3.16 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Fellows, P.J. (1998) Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practices.

Woodhead Publishing Limited. Cambridge, England.

2. Parker, R. (2003) Introduction to Food Science. Thomson Learning Inc.

New York.
th
3. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H. (1995) Food Science, 5 Edition.
Chapman & Hall Publishing Inc, New York.

4. Potter, N.N. (1987) Food Science. S.K. Jain for CBS Publishers &
Distributors, New Delhi.

58
 Food Grains, Pulses
UNIT 4 FOOD GRAINTS, PULSES AND OIL and Oil Seeds

SEEDS
Structure

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Production and Importance
4.3 Structure and Composition
4.4 Post Harvest Losses
4.5 Physical and Thermal Properties
Physical Properties
Thermal Properties
4.6 Water Activity
4.7 Cleaning and Grading
4.8 Parboiling, Conditioning and Drying
4.9 Grain Milling and Oilseed Crushing
Rice (Paddy) Milling
Wheat Milling
Corn Milling
Pulse Milling
Oil Seed Crushing
4.10 Grain Storage
4.11 Value Added Products
4.12 By-Product Utilization
4.13 Let Us Sum Up
4.14 Key Words
4.15 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.16 Some Useful Books

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• explain importance of cereals pulses and oil seeds in our day-to-day
requirement and to national economy;
• state the important properties and primary processing methods to make
them edible and their storage; and
• describe value added products and Utilization of by products of cereals,
pulses and oilseeds.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Food grains play a major role in the Indian economy as they meet our food and
fiber requirements. Food grains are the basic need of day-to-day requirement
of human life. With the increase in population and awareness, every human
being need right quality of foodstuff at the right time. It is also our duty that
the cost of the foodstuff to meet the basic need should be affordable to every
one. Agricultural produce are seasonal, weather dependent thus their storage
for whole year and some times more than a year is required. During the
storage, the quality of the foodstuff should not deteriorate. Most of the
agricultural produce (cereals, pulses and oil seeds) is not consumed as they are
7
Characteristics of produced. These produce need to be processed. The processing should be
Edible Agricultural economically viable and the loss of energy and nutrition should be the least.
Products
Therefore, knowledge of appropriate machines and process is must.
Food processing industries have enormous significance in the national
development through linkage between two main pillars of economy namely
industry and agriculture. Growth of food processing industry means raising
agricultural yield and creating rural employment. It leads to rise in the
economic standard of large number of people through out the country.

4.2 PRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Agricultural production in India has travelled a long way in the post
independent era from scarcity to surplus. After green revolution the country
has become not only self-sufficient but also surplus in food grain production.
Now the country is producing about 200 million tonnes of food grains (90
million tonnes of paddy, 75 million tonnes of wheat and other coarse grains)
15 million tonnes of pulses and 23 million tonnes of oil seeds. In spite of such
huge production, our population have per capita availability is less than the
dietary requirement given by Indian Council of Medical Research. Therefore,
nation has to import edible oil from other countries.
Post harvest technology of food grains have also had a paradigm shift in the
last 50 years. At the time of independence most of post harvest operations were
carried out by small scale processing units. These units were operated by
human or animal power. There recovery was less and losses were high. Now
many modern processing units comprising primary to tertiary processing are
working. These units not only process the material but also process the
byproducts into value added products.

4.3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Wheat is a single seeded fruit consisting germ and endosperm enclosed by
epidermis and seed coat. Paddy, pulses and other crops consist an outer husk
cover in addition to above parts. The husk consists of silica acts as a barrier to
moisture migration, insect infestation and fungal damage.
The germ is the principal part of the seed. It is rich in fat and is heat sensitive.
The endosperm is full of starch granules and works as reservoir of food for
developing embryo.
The chemical composition of the seed is widely dependent upon the
environment in which crop is produced, the variety, soil and fertilizer
application. In general, cereals are rich in carbohydrate; pulses are in protein
and oilseeds in fats and lipids. The proximate composition of important
cereals, pulses and oilseeds are given in Table 4.1. In general outer layers
(pericarp) contains cellulose, endosperm is rich in carbohydrate and small
amount of proteins, germ contains the highest amount of fat, protein, enzyme
and small amount of sugars.
Protein present in the cereals gets denatured above 50oC. Thus, their water
absorbing and swelling capacity decreases. It affects the quality of dough. The
starch is insoluble in cold water. Its quality is not affected even if the
temperature is raised to 60oC. However, at temperature higher than 70oC
8
geletinization of starch takes place. It leads to deterioration in the colour. Fats
are heat resistant up to an extent. However, at higher temperature (above 70oC) Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
partial decomposition starts and increases the acid numbers. Vitamins present
in the germ are destroyed with the heat treatment.

4.4 POST HARVEST LOSSES

With the green revolution and support of farmers the country has increased its
food grains production to four fold between 1950’s and 1970’s. Though the
rate of increase in production has declined after 1980’s but still it is more than
our country’s requirement. It is also estimated that about 8 to 12% of the
produce is lost in various post harvest handling and storage practices. The loss
amounts to be Rs. 20,000/- crores annually.
The traditional processing of dal and oilseeds results in poor recovery. In most
of the pulse mills in India has the dal recovery of 65 to 70 % against maximum
possible recovery of 81 to 84 %. Similarly oil remains in the residual oil cake
which is about 10 to 15 % of total available oil in the oilseed.
The maximum loss of food grain occurs during storage. As you know, in India
major portion of food grains (more than 75%) is stored in large number of
small capacity rural godowns. These godowns have free access to insect-pest,
rodents and also affect the quality of the grains by the change of environment.
It is estimated that in some of the godowns the losses are as high as 30 % in
humid region if grains are stored for 8-10 months.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Name two main pillars of Indian economy.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. “Whole world is looking towards India as a big market”. Give reasons?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

9
Characteristics of 3. List the factors, which affects the chemical composition of the grains?
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. What happen to the solubility of starch when temperature increases?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
5. Post harvest losses in the pulses are mainly during ………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

Table 4.1: Average composition of food grains, pulses and oil seeds
Commodity Moisture Calories Protein Fat Fiber Ash Mineral Thia- Ribo- Niacin
(%) (Cal/ (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) mine flavin (mg/
100g) (mg/ (mg/ 100g)
110g) 100g)
Wheat 12.5 330 12.3 1.8 2.3 1.7 1.5 0.52 0.12 4.3
Paddy 12.0 360 7.5 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.7 0.34 0.05 4.7
Corn 13.8 348 8.9 3.6 2.7 1.2 1.5 0.37 0.12 2.2
Bajra 12.4 360 9.5 5.0 1.2 2.5 2.7 0.73 0.38 2.3
Ragi 13.1 332 7.1 1.3 3.3 2.7 2.0 0.42 0.12 1.1
Bengalgram 9.8 361 17.1 5.3 3.9 - 2.7 0.45 0.21 2.6
Blackgram 10.9 350 24.0 1.4 - - 3.4 0.45 0.22 2.0
Cowpea 12.0 327 24.6 0.7 3.8 - 3.2 0.50 0.21 1.5
Greengram 10.4 350 24.0 1.3 - - 3.6 0..46 0.21 2.0
Soyabean 8.1 432 43.2 19.5 3.7 - 4.6 0.73 0.32 2.4
Mustard 7.9 549 26.7 40.1 4.1 - 1.9 0.90 0.13 14.1
Source: NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad 1999
10
 Food Grains, Pulses
4.5 PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES and Oil Seeds

The knowledge of properties of grains such as size, shape, surface area,

different densities, colour, frictional properties, thermal properties, diffusivity,
equilibrium moisture content etc. are important for designing the various post
harvest handling, storage, separation and drying systems. Some of the
properties are discussed hereunder in this unit.
• Physical properties
• Thermal properties

4.5.1 Physical Properties

Accurate measurement of size and shape of the individual grain are important
engineering data. These data helps in designing of machines for the post
harvest handling and processing. The size and shape of the grain helps in
designing cleaner, grader and if grains are to be passed between two rollers for
shelling, milling or crushing. The terminal velocity of the grain helps in
designing pneumatic conveyor, winnower etc. The geometry of the grain
provides the surface area, which helps in moisture migration (absorption or
drying). In general three major axis are measured and denoted as dimension a,
b and c of the grain. The sphericity is defined as the ratio of geometric mean
of 3-major axis to the largest axis dimension. It represents degree of closeness
of the grain with the sphere.
Size of the grain = (a × b × c)1/3
Sphericity of the grain = (a b c )1/3 / a
Where, a: is the largest dimension of the grain.
b: is the medium dimension perpendicular to the largest dimension of
the grain.
c: is the smallest dimension perpendicular to above two of the grain.
Some dimensions and sphericity of the grains is given in Table 4.2
Table 4.2: Major dimensions and sphericity of the grains

Grains Longest Medium Smallest Sphericity

dimension (a) dimension (b) dimension (c) 1/3
(abc)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
a
Rice, IR-8 8.68 3.02 1.97 0.427
Wheat, PB593 6.43 3.55 3.09 0.652
Maize, Ganga 5 8.92 8.33 6.89 0.901
Bengal gram 8.56 6.25 5.96 0.801
Black gram 4.87 3.90 3.37 0.762
Green gram 3.86 3.18 3.11 0.865
Pea,VRS-6115 6.89 6.43 6.04 0.945
Pigeon pea 6.56 5.30 4.63 0.895
Groundnut kernel 14.45 8.74 7.50 0.685
Soya bean 7.02 6.29 5.05 0.874
Source: Engineering Properties of Food Materials (1980) CIAE, Publication /80/15

11
Characteristics of The bulk density, specific gravity and porosity plays an important role for
Edible Agricultural designing the storage structures, specific gravity separator, pneumatic
Products
conveyor and other handling equipments. The bulk density is defined as the
weight of grains per unit volume. The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of
true density (mass of the grains per unit solid volume) to the density of water.
The true density of the grains is calculated by fluid displacement method using
pycnometer. The density of the grains varies with the variety and moisture
content. The porosity is calculated from the true and bulk density of the grains.
The porosity is affected by degree of compaction. Some properties of the
grains are given in Table 3.
Angle of repose and frictional properties of grains plays an important role in
designing hoppers, discharge chutes, elevators, dryers, storage bins and other
equipments for grain flow and handling. The frictional coefficient depends
upon the shape of the grain, surface characteristics and moisture content of the
grains. The angle of repose of the grains is the angle between the base and the
slope of the cone formed, when grains are freely dropped on the horizontal
plane. The frictional properties and angle of repose of some grains are given in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Some physical and mechanical properties of the grains

Grains Moisture Bulk True Porosity Angle of Friction

content Density Density repose coefficient
(%, wb) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Degree) on sheet
metal
Wheat 8-14 790-700 1390- 40 26-28 0.40
1400
Rice 9-11 610-580 1200- 54 27-30 0.48
1240
Corn 10 820 1393 41 26-28 0.23
Soya 10-11 680 1180 42 24-25 0.34
bean
Pigeon 9-10 815 1330 39 19 0.29
pea
Gram 8-9 815 1340 39 17 0.35
Source: Engg. properties of Food material (1980) CIAR Publication /80/15

4.5.2 Thermal Properties

Cereals, pulses and oilseeds are harvested at higher moisture content in order
to reduce shattering losses and safety against untimely rains or weather. These
grains are to be dried to safe moisture level for marketing, processing or
storage. For that heating, drying and cooking may be involved. Therefore,
thermal properties namely, conductivity, diffusivity etc are required to be
known for designing the dryers, cookers etc. Thermal properties of some grains
are given in Table 4.4.

12
 Food Grains, Pulses
Table 4.4: Thermal properties of grains
and Oil Seeds
Grains Moisture Specific Thermal Thermal
content heat conductivity Diffusivity
(%, db) (KJ / Kg K) (W / m K) (10-7 m2 /s)
Wheat 10-20 1.09 0.139 0.91
Rice 10-20 1.33 0.087 1.00
Corn 10-20 1.20 0.165 0.89
Pigeon pea 8-22 1.50 0.153 0.94
Soyabean 8-10 2.01 0.116 0.54
Bengal 10-20 17.1
gram
Mustard 8-12 2.56 0.175 0.73
Sorghum 8-12 1.69 0.124 0.85
Source: Engg. properties of Food materials (1980) CIAE Publication /80/15

4.6 WATER ACTIVITY

Water activity is an important characteristic of food grains. It influences odour,
flavour, texture, colour, enzymatic activity and microbial load on the food
product. Therefore, for safe keeping the food grains its knowledge and
relationship with the atmosphere is must.
Water activity is a ratio of partial vapour pressure in a food product over the
equilibrium vapour pressure of the product at the same temperature. In general
for safe storage of food grains water activity should be below 0.6. However, to
avoid lipid oxidation (which leads to rancidity in fats) water activity should be
below 0.3. The most congenial atmosphere for growing the bacteria is when
water activity is above 0.8 and for yeast and molds above 0.7.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why do we require to measure the size of the grains?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Name two machines in whose designing terminal velocity is used?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
13
Characteristics of ……………………………………………………………………………….
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Define angle of repose of the grains.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. Name the instrument used for measurement of true density of the grains.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
5. List the characteristics of the grain influenced by the water activity of the
storage.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
6. For safe storage of oil seeds, what is the water activity recommended.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
14
 Food Grains, Pulses
4.7 CLEANING AND GRADING and Oil Seeds

Cleaning is the first unit operations in any grain-processing unit. As the name
explains, the purpose is to remove unwanted materials like chaff, stone, dust,
and metallic pieces. In general, it is done with the set of sieves arranged one
above other. The top sieve will have openings just equal to the size of the
grains. The impurities bigger than the grain size are rolled above the screen
and discarded. The grains and smaller impurities pass through the first sieve;
fall on the second sieve, which have the openings smaller than the grain size.
Here dust and smaller impurities pass through the sieve and collected
separately. Clean grains roll over the screen and are collected. In general a fan
is also attached with the cleaner. The fan blows/sucks the sufficient air to
throw/carry away the finer impurities of the grains. Usually fan blows the air
beneath the sieve. Thus, it helps in cleaning the screen to avoid choking of
sieves. An oscillating screen cleaner with aspirator is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Oscillating screen cleaner with aspirator

In some cleaners, near the discharge end, a magnet is fitted. This magnet
attracts the metallic impurities, which are removed manually at short intervals.
Sieves may have round, oblong, rectangular or triangular openings depending
on the requirement of the grains (Figure 4.2). In most of the cleaners, sieves
are changeable to accommodate large variety of grains for cleaning. The
oscillation speed of the sieve, feed rate and impurities composition decides the
performance of the cleaner. In the modern cleaner, screen-cleaning brushes are
fitted, which clean the screen to overcome problem of choking. Higher airflow
of fan may carry away the grains and lower airflow may leave the impurities in
the grain. So airflow based on terminal velocity of grains must be used.

Grading of grains is necessary as it aids to the value of the grains and helps in
improving the performance and efficiency of processing machines. Grains,
which are produced and harvested in the field, vary in their appearance, size,
and location in the plant within the farm. If seeds sown are mixture of few
varieties, the final produce may differ in the grain characteristics. The grading
is defined as separation of the mixture in to separate sections based on their
common quality characteristics. Grading is done based on size, wholesomeness
15
Characteristics of of the grain, test weight, varietal purity, oil content, protein content, colour,
Edible Agricultural hardness etc.
Products

Figure 4.2: Different types of perforation on the sieve

4.8 PARBOILING CONDITIONING AND DRYING

Parboiling
Parboiling is a hydrothermal treatment given to grains specially paddy and
wheat in order to make grain harder. In paddy, rice kernel become harder so
that it could withstand the milling stresses and result in higher head yield.
Parboiling is conducted in three steps namely soaking, steaming and drying.
Soaking of paddy in the traditional method is done for 24 to 72 hours at the
ambient temperature depending up on weather. In the modern method, soaking
is done at 70oC for 3½ hours. The void space between husk and kernel is filled
with the water and moisture content of the grain is raised to 30% wet basis.
After draining the excess water soaked paddy is steamed for 20-30 minutes.
The moisture content of paddy is increased to 35% wet basis. Then paddy is
dried to 14% moisture content. Traditional parboiling method has prolonged
soaking, which imparts deep colour to the rice, off flavour, and some times in
rainy season mold growth on the grains. In the modern parboiling method
some of these defects are eliminated. In the process of soaking and steaming
rice starch get gelatinized, protein get expanded and occupies the air space
with in endosperm. It increases the cohesion and adhesion between starch
granules and protein bodies. It also checks the cracks in rice kernel and it
become stronger to withstand milling stresses.
During the process of parboiling vitamins of outer layer moves inside starchy
endosperm and oil globules moves outside in the bran layer. Thus, after milling
parboiled rice has more vitamins than raw rice and its bran has move oil
content than raw rice bran. It is also found that due to heat treatment total
water uptake, swelling index of parboiled rice is more than raw rice. Energy
required in dehusking and loss of solids in the gruel is less in parboiled rice.
The total rice turn out of parboiled rice is 70-73% which is 2-8% higher than
raw rice and whole rice turn out is 60-65% which 20-30% more than raw rice.
16
 Food Grains, Pulses
Conditioning
and Oil Seeds
Conditioning of grains specially pulses and oilseeds is done in order held or get
better dal and oil recovery. Pulses are scratched, smeared with oil and water,
dried in order to loosen the husk. Oilseeds are smeared with hot water prior to
crushing to improve the oil recovery. Excess of wetting and drying of pulses
affects their cooking quality as protein enclosed in the complex form, which
changes its behaviour when hydrated and dehydrated.
Drying
Drying of grains is an important unit operation as it affects the ultimate quality
of the grains. Grains {cereals 12-14%, pulses 10-12% and oil seeds 8-10%}
moisture content is considered to be safe for storage.
Traditionally grains are dried in the drying yard with sun’s energy. The grains
are spread 5-10 cm thick layer and frequently turn to have uniform drying.
The limitations of the sun drying are:
• Weather dependent process
• Require more human energy for turning during drying
• Non-uniform drying
• Slow drying affects the quality of the product and increases the microbial
load on the grains.
Thin layer drying through mechanical dryers with 10-15 cm thickness of the
grain layer are the most common dryers used in the grain processing industry.
Burning agricultural waste generates the heat, which is passed through heat
exchanger. The hot air is blown and mixed with a falling bed of grains to get
them dried. The main advantage of these dryers is the uniformity in drying and
the drying time is reduced. These dryers are weather independent; require less
space and energy.
In general drying air temperature depends on the type of grain, their moisture
content and end use. For cereals, to be used for consumption, drying air
temperature is to be limited to 70oC, whereas for seed purpose it should be
45oC. For oil seeds and pulses it should be 50-55oC. Rapid drying develops
fissures in the grain results in poor milling quality of paddy, affects, storability
of wheat.
There are only few dal mills in the country where mechanical dryers are used.
In general, sun drying is done for drying pulses in the process of dal milling
(specially for pigeonpea the milling process takes 2-4 days longer depending
on the weather.). Oil seeds are threshed/decorticated when fully dried.
Conditioning is done to get maximum oil recovery. Generally dryers are not
used in the oil industry.

4.9 GRAIN MILLING AND OIL SEED CRUSHING

Milling of cereals and pulses is a series of processing treatments prior to its
conversion into edible form. These treatments vary from grain to grains. Flow
chart for milling of paddy, pulses and oil seed given in Figures 4.3, 4.6 and
4.7.

17
Characteristics of 4.9.1 Rice (Paddy) Milling
Edible Agricultural
Products
Paddy raw or parboiled is cleaned to remove all the impurities. Cleaned paddy
fed in a sheller / dehusker. Traditional dehusker is an Engleberg rice huller. A
huller is small mill operated by motor with a capacity 500-750 kg/h. The mill
consists a cast iron roller, where shelling and polishing is done simultaneously.
Therefore, bran, brokens are mixed with the husk, which is difficult to
separate. As the moving part is cast iron roller, it results higher broken pieces
during milling. Though, the machine is simple in operation, low in cost but
results poor milling yield (total yield 62-64%, Head rice 40-50%).

The other low capacity paddy milling machines are centrifugal sheller and
under runner disc sheller. A mini modern rice mill (Fig. 4.4) consists of feed
hopper, rubber roll sheller, husk aspirator and a polisher in a single composit
unit. The modern paddy sheller is rubber roll sheller. In it two rubber rolls are
rotating in opposite directions at different speeds. Difference in surface speeds
of rollers develops shearing action and results in removal of husk. Using
rubber rollers only husking is done, in the machine. A blower sucks the husk
and paddy-rice mixture is fed on a separator. In general, there are two types of
paddy separator namely compartment type or deck type separators are used in
the rice mills. Both the separators work on the principle of gravity separation.
The heavier material rice remains in touch with the surface and moves along
with the separator surface and carried against the gravity to upper side and
discharged. Paddy being lighter moves with the gravity down and recycle to
the sheller for shelling. Paddy rice mixture is recycled back to the separator.
Only rice is fed in the polisher, where due to abrasion rice are polished and
upper aleurone layers are removed. These layers are rich in oil content
(14-26%). Rice bran is collected through cyclone separator and rice is fed in
the grader. Whole rice are separated from the brokens parts through a grader. A
typical flow diagram of modern rice mill is shown in Figure 4.5.

4.9.2 Wheat Milling

Traditionally wheat is milled in an attrition mill, where or (Break rolls) grains

are fed in the center, moves radially out, between two emery/stone discs.
Grains are compressed and sheared. The clearance between stones/is gradually
reduced and whole grain flour is obtained. As the size from whole grains is
reduced to fine in one go, there is significant rise in the temperature. It affects
the quality of flour.

18
 Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
PADDY

CLEANER IMPURITIES

STORAGE DRYER

DEHUSKER PARBOILING PLANT

HUSK RICE PADDY

HUSK ASPIRATOR SEPARATOR

BRAN POLISHER
ASPIRATOR

CYCLONE SEPARATOR GRADER BROKEN RICE

BRAN AND GERM HEAD RICE

Figure 4.3: Process Flow Chart of Modern Rice Milling

Modern wheat mill consists of series of reduction rollers (about 15 to 18)

where different fractions, Suji, maida etc are separated. Since size is reduced
gradually, rise in temperature doesn’t take place and quality of the constitutes
is better.

19
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural
Products

Figure 4.4: Mini modern rice (paddy) mill

Figure 4.5: Typical Flow Diagram of Modern Rice (Paddy) Mill

4.9.3 Corn Milling

Corn can be milled by dry milling or wet milling. In dry milling moisture is
raised to 24-25% and germ is separated by Beall degermer. Rest grain is dried
20
and milled. In wet milling, corn is soaked in water (50oC) for 1-2 days. Germ Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
is separated for oil extraction and rest is centrifuge to make starch, dextrin,
sugar syrup etc. The water used for soaking is also drained and concentrated to
35-55% solids to be used for pharmaceuticals.

4.9.4 Pulse Milling

Pulses are rich source of protein. They are traditionally milled dry. Except
pigeon pea, milling of pulses is easy as binding between husk and cotyledon is
poor. For pigeon pea it is most difficult.

RAW PULSE

CLEANING IMPURITIES

GRADING

PITTING FINE DUST AND HUSK

WATER AND /OR

OIL MIXING CONDITIONING

DRYING/ HEATING

TEMPERING

DEHUSKING

UNHUSKED PULSE SIEVING HUSK AND FINE POWDER

DEHUSKED SPLIT / DAL DEHUSKED WHOLE / GOTA

SPLITING

SIEVING POWDER AND HUSK

FINES DAL

Figure 4.6: Process flow chart of improved pulse milling

21
Characteristics of Traditional milling of pigeon pea includes cleaning, scratching, treating with
Edible Agricultural oil, and wetting, mixing with red earth, conditioning, scratching and splitting.
Products
In general, it yields 65-70% of dal recovery against potential of 81-84%. In
modern pigeon pea milling, which includes cleaning, preconditioning,
dehusking separating and splitting. It provides 72-78% dal recovery. The
preconditioning includes addition of moisture, oil and drying in LSU dryer. In
the modern method dal can be prepared in 1-2 days from pulses whereas in the
traditional process it takes 5-10 days. A process flow chart of improved pulse
milling as shown in Figure 4.6.

4.9.5 Oil Seed Crushing

Oil seeds like groundnut, castor etc are decorticated in manual or motorized
decorticator. Clean seeds are crushed either in ghani operated by bullocks or
mechanical power or in screw press oil expeller.
Ghanis are made of wooden taper barrel, where pestle is rotated in it. In
general, 6-12 kg oil seeds are fed and hot water 1-5% is added in a batch,
which takes 45 minutes to crush. A ghani recovers 60-75% of the total
available oil in the oil seeds.
A screw press oil expeller is 6 to 12 bolt expeller having series of worms of
different pitches. Due to pressure built up inside the horizontal casing, oil
oozes out. The capacity of the expellers are to crush 60 to 120 kg oil seeds/
batch and recovers 80-85% of total available oil in two to three passes.
Commercially 8 power ghanis with one mechanical oil expeller are in practice.
Firstly, oil seed is crushed in ghanis and residual oil cake is passed through
expeller. However, even after that 6-7% oil remains in the residual cake, which
is extracted through solvent extraction process. Process flow chart of oil seed
processing is given in Figure 4.7.
# Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Differentiate cleaning and grading.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

22
2. State merits and demerits of parboiling of paddy. Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Why conditioning of pulses and oilseeds is done during processing?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. “Rapid drying of grains is not recommended”. Why?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

23
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural
Products OIL SEED

FIELD DRYING

THRESHING CHAFF AND HUSK

MARKETING
STORAGE

CLEANING AND GRADING

DEHULLING / DECORTICATION

CONDITIONING / COOKING

GHANI EXPELLER

SOLVENT EXTRACTION

OIL FILTRATION /REFINING

CAKE

OIL

MARKETING OF OIL

FARM MANURE ANIMAL FFED

PRODUCTION OF VANASPATI

Figure 4.7: Process flow chart for oil seed processing

4.10 STORAGE OF GRAINS

Primary function of storage is to prevent food loss during the storage. The loss
means any change in the availability, edibility, wholesomeness or quality of
the food that prevents it from being consumed by people. Losses may be direct
24
or indirect. A direct loss is disappearance of food by spillage, or consumption Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
by insects, rodents, birds etc. An indirect loss is lowering of quality to the
point where people refuse to eat it. All the types of losses could be
conveniently categorized into two categories i.e. quantitative and qualitative.

Causes of deterioration of food grains are:

A) Environment
i) Temperature
ii) Ambient RH
iii) Gaseous composition {O2:CO2:N2}

B) External Micro-organisms
iv) Insect
v) Pest (birds, rodents)
vi) Mites, fungi, bacteria, yeasts

C) Biochemical composition of the grain

vii) Moisture content
viii) Fat content

Changes occurring during storage on the grains are:

A) Wholesomeness/purity
i) Excreta
ii) Dockage-impurities
iii) Damage grains

B) Quality of the grains

iv) Weight loss
v) Taste
vi) Colour
vii) Odour
viii) Nutrition
ix) Fat acidity
x) Toxicity
xi) Germination
xii) Moisture content
xiii) Post harvest quality: Milling and baking quality
Moisture is the most important factor, if taken care can limit development of
bacteria, fungi, mites and insect attack which cause the spoilage of the grain
during storage.
Some tips are:
1. Uniformly dried grains below 13% moisture content usually do not have
growth of most of the microorganisms and mites.
2. Insect cannot attack the grains having moisture content below 10%.
3. In bulk storage, moisture content of the grain seldom remains uniform.
Relative humidity of store, outside environment condition develops air
currents. Thus within the bulk storage high and low moisture pockets
develop. To check them, periodic inspection at these points is a must.
25
Characteristics of 4. It is desired that relative humidity of the store should be 50-60%. Lower
Edible Agricultural humidity results in over drying of the grains and develop fissures which
Products
affects milling, baking, cooking quality of the grains.
5. Higher humidity will increase the moisture content and grains are likely to
be attacked by insects-pests and microorganisms.
6. Grains should be stored in dry and cool place. As the moisture content of
the grains is directly proportional to the respiration of the grains.
7. The increase in respiration increases the temperature, growth of
microorganisms and enzymatic activity of the bulk grain up to certain
temperature.
8. Mites do not develop if the storage temperature is below 5oC, insects do
not grow if the storage temperature is below 15oC and fungi do not develop
if the storage temperature is below 0oC.
9. Most favourable temperature for insect growth is 25-30oC.
An ideal storage structure should:
• have adequate protection against insect-pest.
• maintain wholesomeness and purity
• be air tight during fumigation and allow air movement during ventilation
• be easy to inspect and clean.
In India, major portion of produce is stored in a large number of small capacity
rural godowns. These godowns are neither air tight nor safe from insect-pest
and rodent. It is estimated that the losses in such rural godowns is as high as
30 % in humid conditions if stored for 8-10 months. The grains with scientific
storage are stored in the bulk either in bag storage or in silos. The bag storage
has following advantages:
9 Small lots of a number of crops or varieties can be stored in the same space
9 Infested bags can be easily segregated and fumigated.
9 Each bag can be handled independently
After the green revolution our food grain production has increased many fold.
However, the warehouse capacity is limited. Therefore, for short period food
grains are stored in CAPS (cover and plinth storage). The maximum safe
storage period for CAPS is only 6 months under ideal conditions, but in
practice grain is stored in CAPS even up to 2 to 3 years. It is mainly due to
poor infrastructure facility for storing food grains in bulk or godowns.
The most modern and safe method of storage of single type food grains is silo.
The advantages of storing in silos are:
™ Greater storage capacity per unit volume of space,
™ Loading and unloading is easier and cheaper as mechanical handling
devices do it.
™ No cost of purchasing gunny bags and dunnage
™ No danger of rodents as they are metal or RCC bins/silo

26 ™ Insect infestation is considerably less and if required easy to fumigate.

™ Minimal effect of outside environment on food grains and if required easy Food Grains, Pulses
and Oil Seeds
to turn with the help of mechanical handling devices.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the causes of food grain deteriorations?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. List the characteristics of ideal storage structure for food grains.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Compare the bag storage and silo storage methods.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. What is the temperature, relative humidity of the environment and moisture
content requirement of the grain for safe storage.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
27
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural 4.11 VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS
Products
There is a great scope for diversification and value addition to cereals, pulses
and oil seeds. Consumer preferences especially in urban areas for processed,
fast foods have gained significantly. Media and television have played a
significant role for domestic market. Even developed and other countries are
looking towards India as a big market for processed foods. Now–a-days time is
the biggest constraint with the urban people. So ready to eat, fast to cook,
extruded, puffed, baked snacks are convenient have great potential in the
market. Some of the possible products are listed in Table 4.5.
Besides these blended products as functional foods have domestic and export
market. Functional foods are modified foods that help to improve health
(provide specific health benefit) and prevent diseases when ingested. Some
examples are:
¾ Energy bars: Constitute simple sugar to complex, contain about 12 % fat;
8-20 % protein and can be fortified with vitamins and minerals. It is
specially made for athletic group.
¾ Weight loss bars: Balance nutrition with control calories intake and
fortified with vitamins and minerals.
¾ Breakfast bars: High carbohydrate, low protein and fortified with
vitamins and minerals.
¾ Nutrition bars: High protein content (15-27 g per serving) for body
builders and fortified with vitamins and minerals.
Containing essential vitamins and amino acids for heart patient, diabetic
patient, obey people etc.
Table 4.5: Value added products from cereals, pulses and oilseeds

Grains Existing products Newer products

Paddy Raw and parboiled rice; Quick cooking rice; pasta
puffed and flaked rice and rice products; rice based snacks and
flour rice bran oil
Wheat Flour; maida; suji; dalia; and Durum wheat; puffed product
noodles and extruded products
Corn Flour; flakes; popcorn; starch; Corn oil and degermed corn
dextrose and dextrin flour corn chips
Pulses Dal; Powder; roasted grains; Mixed flour; blended products;
animal feed (husk) fortified products; instant dal
and dal analog
Millets Flour and puffed Blended products and baked
products
Oil seeds Oil and cake for feed and Edible deoiled cake as flour;
fertilizer protein isolate from soy flour
and blended flour

28
 Food Grains, Pulses
4.12 BY-PRODUCT UTILIZATION and Oil Seeds

In the present day competition an industry has to use every source of earning
from the product and by-products. Moreover, unutilized by-products are an
effluent to the industry. As per the environmental regulation these effluents
had to be safely disposed off so that they do not pollute the environment or
surroundings.
In general grains, pulses and oil seed milling units have solid by products.
Some of these by-products if properly processed and used can become more
profitable than the main product. A list of some by-products of cereals, pulses
and oil seed milling and their possible value added products or utilization is
given in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: By-products and their utilization in the vale added products

Grain By-product Utilization

Paddy Husk Fuel: Heating value 3000-3500kcal/kg.
Insulating, packaging and building material.
Husk ash mixed with hydrated lime
produces cement like material.
Husk as an abrasive.
Producing activated carbon, sodium silicate
for soap industry.
Pure silicon can be produced from rice
husk.
Silicon carbide and silicon nitride can also
be produced.
Rice Rice bran Rice bran oil as edible oil.
Defatted bran as cattle feed.
Defatted bran as fertilizer.
Defatted bran contains vitamins like B
complex, B1, B6, amino acids, phosphoric
acid compounds etc. for medicinal and
dietetics use.
Defatted bran for bakery purposes.
Crude rice bran oil is used in industries, for
soap, cosmetics, plasticisers, emulsifiers,
protective coating, synthetic fibre etc.
Rice Broken rice Pasta products, rice flour, production of
starch, and alcohol.
Soya Defatted soya cake Defatted soya flour for soya nuggets, soya
bean laddu, soya granules and blended flour, soy
isolates & concentrates.

4.13 LET US SUM UP

Food grains play an important role in the national economy and a day-to-day
requirement of human being. Post harvest handling, storage and processing of
29
Characteristics of food grains is an important operation, which can create large amount of
Edible Agricultural employment at all the sectors. Moreover, it has scope to reduce the post harvest
Products
losses, which amounts to be Rs. 20,000/- crore annually. Indigenously
designed food processing machines based on the properties of the grains has
another employment avenue. Traditional processing technologies and
machines are consuming more energy, producing poor quality turnout and
results in high losses. Therefore, improved machines and technologies can
solve some of these problems. However, their capacity of processing is high.
There is a need to develop proper storage techniques to reduce the loss of
quality and quantity of the grains during storage. Food grains can be used to
produce many value added convenience products to meet special requirements.
Utilization of the by-products can make food-processing industry more viable.

4.14 KEY WORDS

Sphericity : It is the ratio of the geometric mean of 3-major
axis with the largest axis dimension of the grain.
Angle of repose : It is the angle between the base and slope of the
cone formed, when grains are freely dropped on
the horizontal plane.
Cleaning : Removal of impurities from the grains.
Grading : Separation of the grains based on their value.
Parboiling : It is hydrothermal treatment given to cereals in
order to improve their milling quality.
Silo : Modern bulk storage structure where single type
of grains can be stored for longer duration.
Functional foods : Modified food that help to improve health and
prevent diseases when ingested.

# 4.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Industry and agriculture are two pillars of Indian economy.
2. “Whole world is looking towards India as a big market” because of large
population (more than 1 billion) and unorganized food processing sector.
3. The chemical composition of the grains depend upon the crop, variety,
environment in which crop is grown, type of soil, water and fertilizer
applications while raising the crop.
4. The solubility of starch increases with the increase in the temperature.
5. Post harvest losses in the pulses are mainly during milling. Theoretical
expected dal yield is 81-84% but actual recovery is 68-72%.

30
 Food Grains, Pulses
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
and Oil Seeds
1. The size of the grains helps in designing the cleaner, grader and some other
processing machines.
2. Winnowing and pneumatic conveying are two machines, in which terminal
velocity is used for designing.
3. The angle of repose of the grains is the angle between the base and the
slope of the cone formed, when grains are freely dropped on the horizontal
plane.
4. Pycnometer is used for measuring the true density.
5. Water activity influences odour, flavour, texture, colour, enzymatic activity
and microbial load of the grain.
6. For safe storage of oil seed the water activity of the store should be below
0.3.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Cleaning is to be done in the beginning of the processing, where grading is
done either in between or at the end to improve the economic value,
performance of processing, or storage as the case may be.
2. In parboiling the grain become harder and can withstand the milling stress.
Therefore, milling improves the yield. The process of parboiling involves
partly fermentation so that the parboiled rice develops off flavour and dark
colour.
3. Conditioning of pulses help in loosening the husk. So milling becomes
easier. Conditioning of oil seed improves oil recovery.
4. Rapid drying develops fissures on the grain. Thus during milling it breaks
and its storability is poor.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. The causes of food grain deteriorations are:
(A) Environment: Temperature, Ambient RH, Gaseous composition
{O2:CO2:N2}
(B) External Micro-organisms: Insect, Pest (birds, rodents), Mites, fungi,
bacteria, yeasts
(C) Biochemical composition of the grain: Moisture content, Fat content
2. Characteristics of ideal storage structures are:
¾ Adequate protection against insect-pest.
¾ Maintain wholesomeness and purity.
¾ Sufficient air tight during fumigation and air tight during ventilation.
¾ Ease in inspection and cleaning.

31
Characteristics of 3. The comparison of bag storage and silo storage system:
Edible Agricultural
Products Bag storage Silo storage
Small lots of a number of crops Only one commodity can be stored.
or varieties can be stored in the However, Greater storage capacity
same space per unit volume of space is available

Infested bags can be easily Insect infestation is considerably less

segregated and fumigated and if required easy to fumigate. No
danger of rodents as they are metal or
RCC bins/silo
Each bag can be handled Loading and unloading is easier and
independently cheaper as mechanical handling
devices do it.

4. Ideal storage temperature below is 15o C, Relative humidity 50-60% and

moisture content of the grain between 10-13% for safe keeping of the
grains.

4.16 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Chakraverty, A. (2000) Post Harvest Technology of Cereals Pulses and
Oilseeds (3rd Edition) Oxford and IBH Publication Co. Pvt. Ltd. New
Delhi.
2. Chakraverty, A.S. Mujumdar, G.S., Raghavan, V. and Ramaswamy, H.S.
(2003) Hand Book of Postharvest Technology of Cereals, Fruits,
Vwegeatbles, Tea and Spices. Marce; Dekker Inc., New York.
3. Hall, C.W. (1957) Drying Farm Crops. Lyall Book Depot, Ludhiana.
4. Hall, D.W. (1980) Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and
Sub-tropical Areas. FAO, Rome.
5. Sahay, J. (1977) Elements of Agricultural engineering (Vol. I). Agro Book
Agency Patana.
6. Kuprits, Y.N. (1967) Technology of Grain Processing and Provender
Milling. Israel Programme for Scientific translation, Jerusalem.

32
 Fruits and Vegetables
UNIT 5 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Structure

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Production and Importance
5.3 Type of Fruits and Vegetables
5.4 Composition and Food Value
5.5 Physiology of Fruits and Vegetables
Physical Methods
Chemical Methods
Biochemical Methods
5.6 Cultural Practices
5.7 Pre-harvest Treatments
5.8 Safe Harvesting
Identification
Clipping / Cutting / Picking
Collection
Do’s and Don’ts of Quality Harvest
5.9 Post Harvest Treatments
Pre-cooling
Disinfections of Produce
5.10 Post Harvest Management
Sorting
Cleaning
Trimming / Chopping
Waxing
Grading
Packaging
Labelling
Storage
Transportation
5.11 Processing of Fruits and Vegetables
Reducing Chemical Potential of water
Fermentation
5.12 By- product Utilization
5.13 Techno Economic Feasibility
High Moisture Products like Fruit Jam, Jelly, Preserve, Canned Slices etc.
Intermediate Moisture Products Raisin, Figs, Fruit Bar etc.
Dehydration Plant
Tomato Processing (Juice, Sauce, Ketchup, Puree)
Fruit Juices, Concentrates and Beverages
5.14 Let Us Sum Up
5.15 Key Words
5.16 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
5.17 Some Useful Books

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• know production, composition, properties and factors responsible for
determination of quality of fruits and vegetables and their control;
• describe post harvest handling, processing and storage of fruits and
vegetables and by-product utilization of fruits and vegetables; and
31
Characteristics of • explain techno-economic feasibility of some small-scale fruits and
Edible Agricultural vegetable base processing industry.
Products

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Fruits and vegetables have an important place in our day-to-day life. Being rich
in minerals and vitamins they are called protective foods. India’s economy is
based on the agriculture. India is one of the largest producers of fruits and
vegetables in the World play a very significant role in the national economy.
India’s geographical location and topography provides an excellent
opportunity to produce every thing in our country. However, round the year
availability of fruits and vegetables provides passive response towards
commercial processing of fruits and vegetables. The people also have poor
acceptability of processed foods. This often led to glut, more post harvest
losses besides less contribution of processed foods in the national economy.

5.2 PRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Fruits and Vegetables play an important role in agriculture, human health and
national economy. In India, a decade back production of fruits and vegetables
was just 50% of food grains production but it has been raised to 66% and
anticipated that by 2010 it will be 80%. India is the second largest producer of
fruits and vegetables in the world. India produces about 100,000 corers of
rupees worth fruits and vegetables every year. However, a considerable
amount of this produce in lost due to negligence and improper post harvest
handling, which amounts to be 25 to 30%. Besides, this huge financial loss the
wastage also affect the per capita availability of fruits and vegetables. It results
in quality of health and life of majority of the people of the country.
You know, India with round the year sunshine, variate soil type, climate and
topography produces variety of fruits and vegetable. Our nation is the largest
producer (Table 5.1) of mango, banana, papaya, sapota, cashewnut, coconut,
cauliflower, okra, capsicum, pea etc.
Though, our country is one of the highest producer of the fruits and vegetables
but productivity is significantly lower in most of the fruits and vegetables as
per the international bench mark (Table 1). The lower yields are mainly due to
poor quality of planting material including varieties, unplanned farm
management practices like fertilizer, water management and small from
holding. However, some farmer have obtained better yield with competitive
quality of international standard.

32
 Table 5.1: Area, production, productivity of some fruits and vegetables Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits or International Area Production Productivity Percent

vegetables benchmark (‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (t / ha) world
(t / ha) contribution
(%)
Banana 35.5 491 16813 34.3 29 (I)
Mango 30.0 1487 10504 7.1 44 (I)
Papaya - 60.5 1666.2 27.5 30 (I)
Citrus 24.5 527 4651 8.8 3
Guava - 151 1711 11.3 - (IV)
Pineapple 60.0 76 1025 13.6 8 (III)
Sapota - 64 800 12.4 - (I)
Coconut - 1778 8429 4.7 18 (I)
Cashewnut - 686 520 0.76 44 (I)
Cauliflower - 248 4718 19.0 34 (I)
Pea - 273 2712 9.9 38 (I)
Okra - 349 3419 9.8 - (I)
Tomato 25.9 457 7427 16.3 9 (III)
Potato - 1341 25000 18.6 8 (III)
Cabbage - 258 5909 22.9 12 (II)
Brinjal - 500 8117 16.2 38 (II)
Onion - 493 4899 9.9 11 (II)
Source: NHB Data Book 2002

In spite of huge production, India shares only 2.3% of the world trade of fruits
and vegetables. It also process only 2.5% of the total produce in a organized
sector whereas Thailand 30%, Brazil 70%, Philippines 78% and Malaysia
80%. One of the reason is the varieties have poor recovery of process product
for i.e. Indian tomatoes have 4 ob of total solids whereas varieties in European
countries have 6 ob. Thus, to produce same quantity of tomato end product
50% more tomatoes are required in our country.
Fruits and vegetables processing industry ranks 5th in its size and employees
19% of work force which is about 1.6 million people. It accounts for 14% total
industrial output against 5.5% industrial investment and contribute 18% to the
GDP. Annual turnover of fruit and vegetable industry is Rs. 1800 billion and
out of which Rs. 1400 billion are from unorganized sector.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Name three fruits and three vegetables in whose production our nation
ranks first in the world.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
33
Characteristics of ……………………………………………………………………………….
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Give two reasons for huge post-harvest losses of perishables.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. List the reasons for low farm yield as compared to the international
benchmark.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

5.3 TYPE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The fruit is derived from the Latin word “fructose” which means to enjoy,
produce. The fruit is a product of fertilization and is a ripened ovary. Fruits are
classified into pome (apple and pear); stone (mango, peach, plum, cherry),
berry (strawberry, tomato); nut (walnut, cashewnut); hesperidium (citrus);
synconium (fig), sorosis (mulberry); coenocarp (jack fruit) and syncarp
(custard apple).
The vegetables develop from variety of plant parts (cabbage pea, potato). On
the basis of plant parts used as vegetables they are grouped as fruits (gourds,
brinjal, capsicum); stem (asparagus, amaranths), leaves (cabbage, lettuce,
spinach) flowers (broccoli, cauliflower) and underground portion (radish,
carrot, potato, onion, garlic).
For processing or storage purpose fruits are also classified as climacteric and
non-climacteric fruits. The climacteric fruits are those, which develop total
senescence sometime after the harvest during storage. For e.g. apple, banana,
ber, fig, guava, mango, pear, peach, papaya, sapota, tomato. Whereas non-
climacteric fruits ripen on the plants. for i.e. citrus, grape, litchi, pineapple,
pomegranate, strawberry etc. The climacteric fruits have high rate of
34
respiration and production of carbon dioxide and ethylene than the non- Fruits and Vegetables
climacteric fruits during the process of ripening. It leads to change in colour,
flvaour, texture and some chemical changes.

5.4 COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE

You know that fruits and vegetables are considered as protective foods as they
are major source of nutritients such as vitamins and minerals. The quantity and
quality of these nutrients vary with the variety, pre-harvest practices and
maturity. These nutrients imparts their colour, flavour, and texture. Colour of
the fruits is basically due to sugar derivatives of anthocynidins. Flavour in the
fruits depends on the proportion of sugars and acids. Besides that there are
some volatiles flavouring compounds. The texture of the fruits is governed by
polysaccharides. Fruits are also containing phenolics compounds. They impart
astringency, bitterness and aroma, which provide resistance to pathogens and
stress.
Food value namely major constituent, vitamins and minerals of some important
fruits and vegetables have been given in Table 5.2 A, B and C at their maturity
stage.

5.5 PHYSIOLOGY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Physiological maturity is the state of harvest of fruits and vegetables, which
provides some flexibility of time for marketing the produce, so that produce
attain desirable eating quality when it reaches the consumer. The produce
harvested prior to attainment of physiological maturity exhibit lack of flavour
and loose moisture rapidly. If harvested late may be overripe and have very
short post harvest life.
Objective and subjective methods for assessing the maturity of fruits and
vegetables have been standardized. They are classified as :
• Physical methods
• Chemical methods
• Biochemical methods
Table 5.2a: Food values of fruits and vegetables

Name of Major constituents (percent)

produce
Moisture Protein Fat Mineral Fiber Carbohydrate
matter

Fruits
Apple 85.9 0.9 0.1 0.3 - 13.4
Aonla 81.2 0.5 0.1 0.7 3.4 14.1
Banana 61.4 1.3 0.2 0.7 - 36.4
Guava 76.1 1.5 0.2 0.8 6.9 14.5
Lime 84.6 1.5 1.0 0.7 1.3 10.9
Mango 86.1 0.6 0.1 0.3 1.1 11.8
Orange 87.6 0.9 0.3 0.4 - 10.6

35
Characteristics of Papaya 89.6 0.5 0.1 0.4 - 9.5
Edible Agricultural
Products Pear 86.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 1.0 11.5
Pineapple 86.5 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.3 12.0
Tomato 94.5 1.0 0.1 0.5 - 3.9
Leafy vegetables
Cabbage 90.2 1.8 0.1 0.6 1.0 6.3
Drum stick 75.0 6.7 1.7 2.3 0.9 13.4
Radish leaf 87.4 2.2 0.5 2.6 2.2 5.1
Spinach 91.7 1.9 0.9 1.5 - 4.0
Roots and Tubers
Carrot 86.0 0.9 0.2 1.1 1.2 10.7
Onion 86.8 1.2 0.1 0.4 - 11.6
Potato 74.7 1.6 0.1 0.6 - 22.9
Radish 94.4 0.7 0.1 0.6 - 4.2
Sweet 68.5 0.7 0.2 1.0 - 38.7
Potato
Yam 78.7 1.2 0.1 0.8 0.8 18.4
Other
Vegetable
Brinjal 91.5 1.3 0.3 0.5 - 6.4
Ash gourd 96.0 0.4 0.1 0.3 - 3.2
Cauliflower 89.4 3.5 0.4 1.4 - 5.3
French been 91.4 1.7 0.1 0.5 1.8 4.5
Cucumber 96.4 0.4 0.1 0.3 - 2.8
Lady Finger 88.0 2.2 0.2 0.7 1.2 7.7
Pea 72.1 7.2 0.1 0.8 - 19.8
Pumpkin 92.6 1.4 0.1 0.6 - 5.3
Snake 94.1 0.5 0.3 0.7 - 4.4
gourd
Source: NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad, 1999

Table 5.2b: Food values of fruits and vegetables

Name of Minerals, (mg /100 g)

Produce
Cal- Phos- Iron Magne- Sod- Pota- Copper Sul- Chlo-
cium phorus sium ium ssium phur rine
Fruits
Apple 10 20 1700 7 28 75 0.13 7 1
Aonla 50 20 1200 - 5 225 0.18 - -
Banana 10 50 400 34 36.6 88 0.40 7 8

Guava 10 40 1000 8 5.5 91 0.34 14 4

36
 Fruits and Vegetables
Lime 90 20 300 - - 270 0.16 - -
Mango 10 20 300 27 26 205 0.20 17 3

Orange 50 20 100 9 4.5 93 0.58 7 5

Papaya 10 10 400 11 6 69 0.20 13 11
Pear 10 10 700 - - - - - -

Pine- 20 10 900 20 34.7 37 0.36 20 13

apple
Tomato 10 20 100 12 12.9 146 0.14 11 6

Leafy Vegetables
Cabbage 30 50 800

Drum 44 70 7000
stick
Radish 12 90 4800
leaf
Spinach 60 90 5000

Roots and Tuber

Carrot 80 40 1500
Onion 180 30 700

Potato 10 50 700
Radish 50 30 400

Sweet 30 40 900
Potato
Yam 50 20 600

Other Vegetable
Brinjal 20 60 1300
Ash 30 20 500
gourd
Cauli- 30 60 1300
flower
French 50 30 1700
been

Cucu- 10 30 1500
mber

Lady 90 80 1500
Finger
Pea 20 80 1500
Pumpkin 10 30 700

Snake 50 20 1300
gourd
Source: NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad, 1999

37
Characteristics of Table 5.2c: Food values of fruits and vegetables
Edible Agricultural
Products Vitamin
Name of Calorific Vitamin A Vitamin Vitamin Nicotinic Riboflavin
Fruit/ value (IU/100g) B C acid (mg/100g)
Vegetable (cal/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)
Fruits
Apple 56 - 0.03 2 0.2 0.03
Aonla 59 - 0.03 700 0.2 0.03
Banana 153 - 0.04 19 0.3 0.03
Guava 66 - 0.03 300 0.2 0.03
Lime 59 26 0.02 63 0.1 0.02
Mango 50 4800 0.04 24 0.3 0.05
Orange 49 350 0.05 68 0.3 0.06
Papaya 40 2020 0.04 46 0.2 0.05
Pear 47 14 0.02 - 0.2 0.03
Pineapple 50 60 0.03 63 0.2 0.04
Tomato 21 320 0.04 32 0.4 0.05
Leafy Vegetables
Cabbage 33 2000 0.06 124 0.4 0.12
Drum stick 96 11300 0.06 220 0.8 0.12
Radish leaf 33 6700 0.05 65 0.5 0.12
Spinach 32 5500 0.05 48 0.5 0.11
Roots and Tubers
Carrot 47 2000-4300 0.04 3 0.4 0.02
Onion 51 - 0.08 11 0.4 0.01
Potato 99 40 0.10 17 1.2 0.01
Radish 21 - 0.06 15 0.4 0.02
Sweet 159 - 0.05 - 0.3 0.01
Potato
Yam 79 434 0.06 - 0.7 0.08
Other Vegetables
Brinjal 34 5 0.05 23 0.8 0.06
Ash gourd 15 - 0.06 5 0.4 0.01
Cauliflower 39 38 0.10 66 0.9 0.08
French been 26 221 0.08 14 0.3 0.06
Cucumber 14 - 0.03 7 0.2 0.02
Lady Finger 41 58 0.06 16 0.6 0.06
Pea 109 139 0.25 9 0.8 0.01
Pumpkin 28 84 0.06 2 0.5 0.04
Snake gourd 22 160 0.04 - 0.3 0.04
Source: NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad, 1999

38
5.5.1 Physical Methods Fruits and Vegetables

In the physical method, the maturity of the fruit is judged by visual

observations or by simple methods. They are size, shape, colour, weight,
specific gravity, firmness, juice content, total soluble solids (TSS), and
produce holding strength by the pedicle of the plant.
Usually size and weight of individual fruit depends on several factors so they
can be considered only when such factors are known. For ex. Cultivar, planting
material, nutritive available, soil type and climatic condition effect the size and
weight of individual fruit. Some fruits develop colour, angularity and their
specific gravity changes with the maturity. In general fruit and vegetable when
they attain maturity do not develop enough force required to detach them from
plant. Table 5.3 provides some indices of maturity of fruits and vegetables.
Colour charts are used for determing the maturity of some fruits, which
changes the colour on maturity like stone fruits, tomatoes and banana. Colour
charts or photographs can be provided to the worker engaged in harvesting to
make the process effective.
Firmness is measured as degree of softness of the fruit and measured by the
penetrometer. After choosing an appropriate plunger, hold the fruit against
firm surface. Press the plunger with the uniform speed till it punctures the fruit
peel.
In some fruits like grapes, citrus, mango, muskmelon etc sugar is the main
soluble solids in the fruit juices. Thus, total soluble solids (TSS) measured by
the hand refractrometer can considered as index for degree of maturity of these
fruits. In juicy fruits like citrus, juice content can be an index of maturity.

5.5.2 Chemical Methods

The fruit maturity is judged by the chemical analysis of the constituents. They
are titrable acidity, TSS/acid ratio, sugar/acid ratio, starch content, tannin
content etc. In many fruits acidity decreases with the maturity. It can be
determine by titrating fruit juice with 0.1 normal sodium hydroxide and
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Some fruits acidity alone cannot be taken as index of fruit maturity. However,
a ratio of TSS to acid provides better judgment. We have already read that TSS
can be measured by hand refractrometer.
Sugar either free or as derivative play an important role in imparting taste,
flavour and texture to the fruits. It is considered as reliable index of maturity of
fruits. As the fruit ripens, its starch is partly converted into sugar. Thus,
measurement of starch by colorimetric method or by iodine reaction method
can also provide an index of maturity.
Table 5.3: Maturity indices for fruits and vegetables

Fruits/Vegetable Maturity Indices/Characteristics

Mango Specific gravity 1.01-1.02, fullness of checks and
roundness of shoulders
Banana Angularity to round shape change of colour in some
cultivars

39
Characteristics of Citrus TSS:acid =12
Edible Agricultural
Products Grapes TSS: acid=20
Apple TSS 12; Firmness 7kg
Peaches/Pears Colour change from green to yellow, TSS=12
Plums/ber Skin colour change
Custard apple Turning of skin as creamy white between segments
Pomegranate TSS = 16
Brinjal Glossy skin and seeds are not hardened
Cabbage Solid
Carrot Size
Brocoli/cauliflower Compact flower
Cucumber/Gourd Tender, before hardening of seed coat
Lady finger Non-fibrous, tips of pods pliable
Onion 40-50% tops fall
Peas Shining green, filled
Capsicum Green and shining
Chilli (hot) Dark red colour
Potato Foliage get dried
Tomato For processing : Red
For medium distance market : turning stage (pink)
For distant market : breaker stage (green ripe)
Source: Research compilation from different papers and reports of PHTS (Post Harvest
Technology Subject)

5.5.3 Biochemical Methods

Evolution rates of carbon dioxide and ethylene are considered as the most
reliable methods to judge the maturity index of the fruits. In the climacteric
fruits, carbon dioxide evolution increased during ripening stage. Ethylene is
considered as ripening hormone and is also a good indicator for judging
maturity, suitability of storage and other end uses. However, for non-
climacteric fruits their suitability has not been established.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why fruits and vegetables are called protective foods?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
40
2. Name the instrument used to measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and Vegetables

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Name the instrument used to measure total soluble solids of fruit juices.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

5.6 CULTURAL PRACTICES

Soil type and climate do affect the quality of the end produce. But these are not
in the hands of the growers. The cultural practices like soil-water management,
canopy management, fruit thinning, doze and time of mineral application
chemical sprays, pest management, affect the quality and quantity of
horticultural produce not only at the time of harvest but also during storage. It
is difficult to analyze the effect of each one of them individually. Affect of
cultural practices on citrus fruit is shown in Table 5.4.

41
Characteristics of Table 5.4: Cultural practices affecting the quality of citrus fruit
Edible Agricultural
Products Cultural Size Weight Maturity Rind Soluble Acidity Juice Ascorbi Colour
Practices thickness solids content c acid yellow
Excess + + + - - - +
irrigation
Girdling + + + - +
Mineral
Nutrition
Nitrogen - - - + + + - - -
Phosphorus - - - - - + -
Potash + + - + - + - + -
Magnesium + + + - + +
Zinc + + - +
Chemical
Sprays
Oil emulsion - -
Lead - + + + - +
arsenate
2,4-D + + - - - + -
GA - - + + - + - +
Source: Research compilation from different papers and reports of PHT (Post Harvest Technology
Subject)
Blank space shows no information available
+ : indicates positive effect; increase, hasten, thick, hard, smooth or good flvaour
- : indicates negative effect; decreases, delays, thin, soft, rough and poor flavour

5.7 PRE-HARVEST TREATMENTS

It is well known that mineral content greatly affect the fruit quality at harvest
and changes after harvest. Post harvest shelf-life is mainly dependent upon
level of calcium in the fruit. Usually application of higher level of nitrogen,
phosphorous and magnesium and lower level of potash and boron leads to
calcium deficiency in fruits and reduces the post harvest shelf-life. Pre-harvest
treatments of calcium delays ripening and senescence and improves the quality
of produce. Low calcium content in tissues lead to physiological disorders such
as : (i) bitter pit in apples ; (ii) cork spot in pears; (iii) end rot in tomatoes ; (iv)
tip burn in lettuce and (v) hollow heart in potatoes.
Application of zinc and boron improves the mobility of calcium in the leaves
and to the fruit. It increases firmness, soluble solids, organic acids, and
ascorbic acid and reduces disorders. Chemicals used to extend the shelf life of
fruits and vegetables are listed in Table 5.5.

42
Table 5.5: Chemicals and their schedule of pre-harvest application to Fruits and Vegetables
enhance
Post Harvest Shelf-life of Horticultural Produce
Fruit/ Chemical & Time of application Response
Vegetable concentration (Days before
harvest)
1. Apple Boric acid (0.1-0.2%) 60 and 45 Improve calcium mobility
silver-nitrate, 75 ppm 45 Enhance shelflife
2. Mango Calcium nitrate (1%) Enhances shelf-life
Or Calcium chloride
(0.6%) Controls anthracnose and
Bavistin 0.1% Stem end rot
3. Mango Thiaphenate methyl Post harvest losses
0.05% Delayed ripening
Gibberllic acid 10-15 10 High TSS
ppm
Phosphonomethylcin
5%
4. Guava Calcium 0.6% 20 and 10 Delayed ripening
5. Ber Calcium compound 10 Delayed fruit ripening
1.79/litre Hasten maturity
Ethereal, 750 ppm
6. Grape Calcium nitrate 0.75% 10 Reduces weight loss & decay
7. OnionMeleic hydrazide 15 Reduces sprouting during
2000-3000 ppm storage and reduces losses
Source: Research compilation from different papers and reports of PHTS (Post Harvest
Technology Subject)

5.8 SAFE HARVESTING

Harvesting is an important unit operation in horticultural crop production.
Though, it appears simple but it does require certain skills. Harvesting period
is usually short. Improper harvesting may result in poor quality produce and
also damage the plant. Therefore, the harvesting is further subdivided in
following sections:
• Identification
• Clipping / Cutting / Picking
• Collection
• Do’s and don’ts of Quality Harvest

5.8.1 Identification
Identification of properly mature fruits based on the parameters studied earlier
i.e. size, shape, colour, acidity, TSS, firmness etc is the first most important
task of the person engaged in harvesting.

5.8.2 Clipping / Cutting / Picking

Identified fruit which is separated from the plant is called
clipping/cutting/picking. Improper harvest not only damages the produce but
also causes injury to the plant. Manual method of harvesting includes holding
the fruit, twisting it and pulling it. It damages the fruit as thumb impression
43
Characteristics of and due to the pressure some times it injures the fruit near the pedicle and also
Edible Agricultural plant stem. On such fruits mould growth is observed after 48-72 h. So they are
Products
not suitable for long distance transport.
Clippers and knives provide smooth cut with the desired length of pedicle.
Long pedicle is likely to damage neighbouring fruits during transport. It is
preferred to have as small a pedicle as possible. Some times fruits are not
accessible. Pricking poles attached with collecting bags can be used without
climbing on the tree. Tripod ladders could also be used, which are stable and
person can reach the fruits.

5.8.3 Collection
In general harvested fruits are dumped on the ground. Where these fruits come
in contact with soil. Impact by which it is dropped on the ground and microbes
present in the soil contaminates the fruits. Therefore, harvested fruits are to be
collected in cloth bags, put on shoulder. These bags are to be carefully
unloaded in the plastic crates kept under shade. Plastic crates may be expensive
in the beginning but they are reusable. They help in reducing post harvest
damage during transport and provide sufficient ventilation to remove field
heat. They can also be stacked easily.

5.8.4 Do’s and Don’ts of Quality Harvest

i) Harvest as per the market need and proper maturity stage of produce.
ii) Use proper tool to harvest, bag-to collect and crate during handling.
iii) Containers used should be clean, smooth, free from rough edges.
iv) Avoid hand touching of the fruits.
v) Train pickers for harvesting, handling the produce.
vi) Keep produce free from soil contamination.
vii) Keep produce in shade.
viii) Harvest early morning or late evening as these are low temperature at that
time.
ix) Field sorting and packing is to be promoted.
x) Cure the roots and tubers before storing.

5.9 POST HARVEST TREATMENTS

On-farm post harvest treatments are basically into two:
1. Removal of field heat by cooling
2. Disinfections of the produce

5.9.1 Pre-cooling
Cooling of fresh produce means removal of the field heat. You remember that
in article 2.8.4 it was mentioned “harvesting/picking should be done in the
early morning or late evening during low temperature”. It is well proven that if
the fresh produce temperature is lowered by 10oC in first hour, its shelf life is
44
doubled. You know fruits and vegetables are living. They respire if the Fruits and Vegetables
temperature is more, their respiration rate increases. Thus, during handling it
releases more heat and deteriorates the quality of the produce. The fresh
produce can be cooled by:
• Natural cooling
• Forced air cooling
• Hydro cooling
Natural Cooling
The natural cooling is the simplest method in which harvested produce is to be
kept in shade on a pucca floor or polyethylene sheet. It is the slowest method
of cooling and sometimes time taken to remove the field heat is so high that
spoilage of produce starts during cooling itself. Some people misunderstood
this and kept the freshly harvested produce in cold room. It may cause harm to
the produce as warm fresh produce releases water which when condenses and
spoils the produce. Thus, such places should be equipped with good ventilation
to remove the field heat.
Forced Air Cooling
Cold air is blown above the freshly harvested produce. It is many times faster
than the natural cooling. It suits most of the fruits, which cannot be dipped
inside the water for hydrocooling for i.e. strawberry, grapes etc. The main
advantage of forced air cooling is that it not only carried heat librated but also
carries the moisture evaporated from the fruits. The only disadvantage is if
excess air is blown. Then loss of weight of fruit is high.
Hydro Cooling
It is the most effective method in which freshly harvested produced are dipped
in cold water or cold water is sprayed over them. The advantage of this method
is that it is fastest method of cooling and washing the produce. However, it
requires more energy because surface water of the fruit is to be removed before
packaging is done by forced aeration. The temperature of water should not
cause cold injury or the shower pressure shouldn’t damage the produce.

5.9.2 Disinfections of Produce

Fruit and Vegetables are exposed to nature, which is a vast ocean of microbial
load. As long as they are on the plants, there resistance power is more. Once
detached, the produce needs to be disinfected. The produce can be disinfected
by treating with the hot water or chemicals (fungicides).
Hot Water Treatment
Most of the microorganisms and heat sensitive. Thus by dipping the produce
for 1 to 5 minutes (depending on type of produce) in hot water (50-55oC)
checks the microbial load. In some of the produce time-temperature
combination for disinfection is carried out this is given in Table 5.6. After the
hot water treatment produce is kept in a cool room and gentle air is to be
blown. It removes surface moisture and cools the produce.
The heat treatment temperature and time depends on the type of
fruit/vegetables, and their microbial load. Care should be taken that it should
not affect the quality of fruit.
45
Characteristics of Chemical and Fungicidal Treatments
Edible Agricultural
Products Dipping in aqueous solution of some chemicals reduces the physiological loss
in weight and microbial load and enhances the shelf-life of the fruit and
provides uniform ripening. Some chemical treatments are given in Table 5.7.
Table 5.6: Hot water treatment to horticultural produce

Fruits/ Temperature Time controls (sec/min)

Vegetables (oC)
Mango 52 oC 5 min Controls anthracnose
Mango 46oC 65 min Anthracnose and fruits fly

Citrus 50 oC 2 min Enhances post harvest shelf-life

Capsicum 55 oC 12 ± 2 sec Checks respiration, PLW and
shriveling during storage. Enhances
Post harvest shelf-life and capacity to
with stand thermal stress.
Source: Research compilation from different papers and reports of PHT (Post Harvest
Technology Subject)

Table 5.7: Post harvest applications of chemicals / fungicide

Fruit Chemical / fungicide and Treatment Effect

doze
Mango CV. Wax, 6% 1 min Reduces PLW
Banganapally
Mango Ethylene 10-100 ppm 21-25oC for Uniform ripening and
Ethepon/ Etheral 500 ppm 12-48 h colour development
hot water
Mango Calcium chloride solution Dipping Delayed ripening
less than 4%
Banana Waxol –12 Dipping Delayed ripening
Potassium permanganate
Banana Sulphur 0.1% Pasting Control crown fungi
Grape Sulphur oxide fumes or Fumigation Reduces respiration,
0.5% water spray enhances shelf-life and
control growth and
spread of rot
Citrus Waxing bavistin or GA3- Dipping/spra Control spoilage,
200 ppm or Cytokine 20 ying enhances shelf-life
ppm
Guava GA 200 ppm Sealed PLDE Enhances shelf-life
bags
Peaches Potassium permanganate Paper soaked Enhances shelf-life
1000 ppm lined CFB
Apples Calcium chloride 2-3% Dipping Helps in ripening
Cabbage Alum 15% or lime powder Treating Controls Bacterial soft
at butt end rot
Source: Research compilation from different papers and reports of PHT (Post Harvest
Technology Subject)
46
Check Your Progress Exercise 3 " Fruits and Vegetables
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Name the physiological disorder occur in the potato and apples and its
cause.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. List the steps of safe harvesting of horticultural produce.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Why pre-cooling is essential in the fruits and vegetables?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

5.10 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

In our country the most (above 97%) of the horticultural produce is consumed
as fresh. The post harvest handling involves movement of the horti produce
from field to the dining table. This may be in bulk or retail. The better quality,
produce fetches better returns. Therefore, the quality of produce is to be
maintained by keeping a close eye on the movement of the produce. The steps
involves are:
• Sorting
• Cleaning
47
Characteristics of • Trimming/chopping
Edible Agricultural • Waxing
Products
• Grading
• Packaging
• Labelling
• Storage
• Transportation

5.10.1 Sorting
It is an important unit operation, which is advised to be carryout at the field
itself. Removal of damaged, diseased, immature or over mature produce are to
be rejected in the field. By removing them, the cost incurred in their
transportation and handling can be saved. Moreover, these produce have higher
respiration rate, so heat evolved by them is higher and very likely spoil the
adjoining produce.

5.10.2 Cleaning
Fruits and Vegetables are exposed to the outer atmosphere. Thus, soil, dust and
other impurities are adhered to their peel. Cleaning may be dry or wet
(washing) is required to remove the adhered impurities from the produce. It
helps in improving the appearance and also cools the produce. Some fruits,
whose peel is very soft do not require washing with water like strawberry,
kiwifruit, avocados etc. For them gentle air is blown to clean them. Fruits
whose natural wax is removed during washing is also not washed with the
water.
Spray washing or dipping in a tank with gentle brushing is done to remove
adhered impurities. The choice of brushing mainly depends upon type of
commodity and contamination.
Hygienic and sanitary conditions are to be maintained to check the spreading
of disease and microbial load of washing water. Water may be treated with
chlorine (100-150 ppm) to control spores.

5.10.3 Trimming
Some crops contain non-edible parts/excess leaves with the produce. These
unwanted portion not only creat an unnecessary bulk but also lead to microbial
infection and water loss. Thus such produce are to be trimmed/detopped before
storage and handling.

5.10.4 Waxing
Food grade waxing of green vegetable like cucumber, tomatoes and fruits like
citrus, apples, peaches is a common practice. It helps in reduction in loss of
water during handling and marketing and enhances the shelf-life. Wax coating
is done by mist applicator on a moving belt. After wax coating the produce
their surface has to be dried before further handling.

5.10.5 Grading
Grading of the produce based on size or colour often fetches premium price in
the market. Uniformly graded material provide better appearance and they are
easy to pack. Experienced person generally does the grading in India manually.
48
However, for round produce, size base grades and for some specific fruits Fruits and Vegetables
weight base mechanical graders are available in different capacity.

5.10.6 Packaging
The main purpose of packaging is to protect the produce during handling,
transportation and storage from deterioration due physical, chemical or
biological factors. Horticultural produce are highly perishables. After grading,
the produce have the uniform maturity and requirement for safely against
mechanical injury, and physiological activities like respiration. The package
should have the following features:
9 It should have sufficient mechanical strength which can withstand dead
load during transportation (including impact and vibrations).
9 It should be well aerated to remove respiration heat and humidity.
9 It should be attractive and economical.
In general horticultural produce are handled through wooden cartons,
corrugated fiberboard boxes and plastic crates. To avoid damage produce by
touching each other liners/fillers are used of corrugated fiberboard or
newspapers or grasses. Polyethylene lines are used to increase the humidity
and decrease the water loss from the fruits.

5.10.7 Labelling
Fruits and Vegetables are delicate. Labelling of packages helps the people
handling them during loading/unloading, stacking during storage or
transportation. The label should contain information regarding maximum stack
height, storage temperature and relative humidity conditions, date of packing
and best before use. It should also have name of the commodity, its net weight
and address of the producer.

5.10.8 Storage
In general fruits and vegetables are stored at low temperature and high
humidity. It helps in reduction in respiratory rate and enhances the shelf-life.
Appropriate storage conditions for storage of different horticultural produce is
given in Table 5.8.
For temporary/transit storage for 1-day produce can be kept in the evaporating
cool chamber where humidity is 90-95% and temperature is 10-15 oC lower
than the atmospheric temperature.
Horticultural produce can be stored in modified atmosphere package (MAP) or
controlled atmosphere (CA). In this storage, the oxygen concentration is
reduced (in general below 5%) and carbon dioxide concentration is increased
(3 to 7%). It helps in enhancing the shelf life and maintaining the quality for
longer period.

49
Characteristics of Table 5.8: Storage conditions for fruits and vegetables
Edible Agricultural
Products
Produce Temperature Relative Storage life
(oC) Humidity (%)

Fruits
Apples 1-2 90-95 12 months
Grapes 1-2 90-95 1 month
Citrus 3-8 80-90 3 month
Peaches 1-5 80-90 2 weeks
Pears 1-5 90-95 4-6 weeks
Strawberry 2-5 95 + 1 week
Banana 12-15 80-85 2 week
Mango 10-15 85-90 3 week

Vegetables
Cabbage 0-2 95-98 3-6 months
Cauliflower 0-2 90-95 4-6 weeks
Cucumber 10-13 95 2 weeks
Brinjal 10-12 90-95 1 week
Onion / garlic 0 to 5 or 25-28 65-70 6 months
Ginger 10-13 65 6 months
Okra 7-10 90-95 10 days
Pea (Green) 0 95 + 2 weeks
Potatoes 4-8 90-95 10 months
Tomatoes 12-15 90-95 1-2 weeks
Source: Food Preservations by modified atmosphere, By Calderon amnd Golan, CRC Press

5.10.9 Transportation
The refrigerated vans are the best method for transporting the produce from
one place to another. However, it is not common practice in our country.
Therefore, open vans with system of air movement to remove the respiratory
heat should be practiced. In the van stacks should be arranged uniformly with
thick cushioning pads (straw) to absorb the shocks.

5.11 PROCESSING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Fresh fruits and vegetables contain 70% or above water on wet basis. Large
amount of water and respiration trigger the chain reactions of microbial
activity. The purpose of processing is to develop value added products which
are stable. The stability can be obtained by:

50
 ™ Reducing the chemical potential of water by Fruits and Vegetables

Pasteurization
Canning
ƒ application of heat Dehydration (Drying & reducing aw)
Concentration

Jams, jellies, marmalades

ƒ addition of solute
Salting

Pickling
™ Fermentation Beverages (Fermented & non fermented)

5.11.1 Reducing the Chemical Potential of Water

Water present in the fresh produce can be removed by dehydration or addition
of solutes which can strongly bind the water and not allow it to take part in
deteriorating reactions.
a) Dehydration
It is the simplest and the oldest method to remove the free water from the
produce and make it shelf stable. The quality of dehydrated materials
depends upon the method of drying, temperature and rate of drying.
Natural sun drying is the oldest practice but it provides uneven drying,
sometimes gets contaminates from the atmosphere. Therefore, indirect sun
drying (solar dryer), or the dryers operated with electricity, diesel or gas
can be used to develop good dehydrated product.
Prior to drying, the product is to be blanched and exposed to sulphur fumes
which helps in drying and maintaining the colour and flavour of the dried
product Table 9 provides the temperature required for drying different
produce. Excess temperature may cause loss of nutrients and or
caramalization of sugar. Dried product can be stored for few months
without refrigeration.
Table 9: Drying air temperature and time required for drying for
different produce
Produce Drying air temperature Time required for
(oC) drying (h)
Apple 50-55 6-8
Banana 50-55 6-8
Grapes 50-55 24-48
Mango (unripe) 50-55 24-36
Garlic 55-60 6-8
Onion (slices) 50-55 8-12
Pea 55-60 12-18
Green chilli (cut) 55-60 4-5
Spinach 55-60 4-5
Cauliflower 55-60 8
Potato chips 50-55 4.
51
Characteristics of b) Solute Addition
Edible Agricultural
Products It is well known that by adding sugar or salt, fruits and vegetables can be
preserved longer. These chemicals bind the water present in the food and
thereby prevent the water to take part in deteriorating reactions. Jams,
Jelly, fruit bar, preserves are sugar-preserved products whereas pickles are
salt preserved.
The products can be made of intermediate moisture content (18-35%) by
partially drying them in air. Such products retain more nutrients, colour,
flavour and require less energy in product development.

5.11.2 Fermentation
It is an aerobic/partial anaerobic oxidation process. During the process
desirable microorganisms are produced. Some of the useful products from
fermentations are acids and alcohols.
The list of some products prepared from fruits and vegetables are given in
Table 10.
Table 10: List of some products prepared from fruits and vegetables

Produce Existing Products Newer Products

Green Mango Pickle, chutney, dried slices Drink, juice, concentrate
powder
Ripe Mango Canned slices, pulp, juices Frozen slices, concentrate
nectar, jam, bar wine, vinegar
Banana (unripe) Chips Defatted chips and powder
Banana ripe Pulp, figs Powder, bar
Grapes Raisins, juice, wine Concentrate
Guava Jelly, juice, nectar Bar, powder
Apple Juice, jam Juice concentrate, bar
dehydrated slices
Oranges Juice Juice concentrate, segments
Papaya (raw) Tuttifruity Papain
Papaya (ripe) - Pulp, slices
Aonla Preserve, pickles, juices Salted and sweet segments
power
Pea Dehydrated, brive solution -
canned
Carrot Juice, pickle, canned Dehydrated
Onion Dehydrated slices powder -
Tomato Puree, sauce, drink Powder
Chilli Dehydrated, powder, pickle Paste

52
 Fruits and Vegetables
5.12 BY PRODUCT UTILIZATION
Fruits and Vegetable processing industry is called as sunrise industry in the
country. During the processing more than 50% of the material goes as waste.
Thus, waste disposal and its utilization is a challenge.
The fruit industry waste contains mainly cellulose, starches, pectins, vitamins,
minerals and other micronutrients. These waste can be used for oil, animal
feed, fuel, manure and some value added products like pectins, tartaric acid,
citric acid etc. Table 11 gives the different waste material and their possible
value added products.
Table 11: By-products of horticultural produces and their possible uses
Produce Waste Possible uses
Mango Peel, stone, Starch, fat, vineagar kernel flour, animal
kernel feed, manure, besides medicinal use to
trimmings cure diarrhoea, piles etc.
Guava Seed, core, Ethanol, oil from seeds, pectine, animal
pomace feed
Grapes Stem, pomace, Seed oil, cream of tartar, tannin, wine
peel, seeds fertilizer
Citrus Peel, seed, Molasses, peel oil, cosmetics, soap, textile,
pomace pectine, wines, citric acid

Check Your Progress Exercise 4 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why sorting at farm level is preferred?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. How sanitary conditions are maintained during washing?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

53
Characteristics of 3. How waxing of fruits and vegetables enhances shelf life?
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. List the properties of ideal fruit package.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
5. “Moisture is torture to fruits”. Explain?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
6. Why blanching is done prior to drying?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

5.13 TECHNO-ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

Some product base techno-economic feasibility has been given. The plant
capacity can be enhanced or some other products can be taken up with the
same machines.

54
5.13.1 High Moisture Products like Fruit Jam, Jelly, Preserve, Canned Fruits and Vegetables
Slices etc.

Plant capacity 100 kg/day

Land 20 × 25 m
Constructed area 12 × 15 m
Cost of machines Rs. 5,00,000/-
Rolling capital Rs. 75,000/-
Quality control klaboratory Rs. 1,00,000/-
Essential utilities Food grade water
Liquid waste water disposal system
Electric power
Other utilities Assured quality raw material
Approachable
Telephone
Rate of return 25% +
Break even point 45%

5.13.2 Intermediate Moisture Products like Raisin, Figs, Fruit Bar etc.

Plant capacity 100 kg/h

Land 20 × 25 m
Constructed area 10 × 15 m
Cost of machines Rs. 6,00,000/-
Rolling capital Rs. 1,20,000/-
Quality control laboratory Rs. 1,00,000/-
Essential utilities Food grader water
Electric supply
Liquid waste disposal system
Other utilities Telephone
Quality raw material
Approachable
Rate of return 17% +
Break even point About 60%

55
Characteristics of 5.13.3 Dehydration Plant
Edible Agricultural
Products
Plant capacity 1000 kg/day
Land 20 × 25 m
Constructed area 15 × 15 m
Cost of machines Rs. 10,00,000/-
Rolling capital Rs. 2,00,000/-
Quality control laboratory Rs. 1,00,000/-
Essential utilities Food grade water
Electric supply
Solid and liquid effluent disposal
system
Other utilities Telephone
Quality raw material
Approachable
Rate of return 21%
Break even point 62 % (about)

5.13.4 Tomato Processing (Juice, Sauce, Ketchup, Puree)

Plant capacity 1000 kg /day

Land 20 × 25 m
Constructed area 12 × 15 m
Cost of machines Rs. 6,00,000/-
Rolling capital Rs. 1,00,000/-
Quality control laboratory Rs. 1,00,000/-
Essential utilities Food grade water
Quality raw material
Effluent disposal system
Other utilities Electric power, approachable ,
telephone
Rate of return 23 %
Break even point 65%

56
5.13.5 Fruit Juice, Concentrates and Beverages Fruits and Vegetables

Plant capacity 500 kg/day

Land 20 × 25 m
Constructed area 15 × 15 m
Cost of machines Rs. 10,00,000/-
Rolling capital Rs. 125,000/-
Quality control laboratory Rs. 75,000/-
Essential utilities Food grade water
Effluent disposal systems
Electric power
Other utilities Approachable
Assured quality raw material
Telephone
Rate of return 35%
Break even point 50%

5.14 LET US SUM UP

Fruits and Vegetables are of immense significance to man. Their nutrition,
taste helps in good health in a human being. In the present scenario where
horticultural production has increased many folds in last few decades but due
to poor post harvest management losses has also increased. It is estimated that
losses in fruits and vegetables amounts to be Rs. 67,000 crores annually. The
main places where losses or damage initiate in the horticultural produce are on
the plant itself, harvesting time, handling and storage. These losses can be
minimized by pre and post harvest treatments and post harvest management.
Surplus produce can be diverted for the processing, which will also create
employment.

5.15 KEY WORDS

Climacteric Fruits : Those fruits that develop total senescence
sometime after the harvest during storage. Fruits
having higher respiration rate, produces of carbon
dioxide and ethylene more than the non-
climacteric fruits.
Pentrometer : Instrument to measure firmness of produce
Refractometer : Instrument to measure total soluble solids in the
produce
Sorting : Removal of damaged, diseased, immature or over
mature produce.
Blanching : Heat treatment given to the produce prior to the
drying to inactivate enzymes, stabilize product
and facilitate easy drying.
57
Characteristics of Sulphiting : Soaking (30 minutes) in the solution of potassium
Edible Agricultural meta bisulphite prior to drying to maintain the
Products
colour.

# 5.16 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Any three fruits: Banana, Mango, Papaya, Sapota
Any three vegetables: Cauliflower, Pea, Okra
2. Reasons for huge post harvest losses are:
i) Poor infrastructure facility at the production site.
ii) Poor post harvest handling and transport facility.
iii) Less awareness about safe harvesting, sorting and grading at farm level.
3. Reasons for poor farm yield compare to International benchmark are:
i) Poor planting material
ii) Unplanned farm management practices.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Fruits and vegetables are major source of nutrition (minerals and Vitamins)
so they are called protective foods.
2. Penetrometer
3. Refractometer
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. In Apple – bitter pit
In potato – hollow heart
Due to low calcium content – in tissue
2. Steps of safe harvesting are:
i) Use proper tool to harvest, bag-to collect and crate during handling
ii) Containers used should be clean, smooth, free from rough edges
iii) Avoid hand touching of the fruits
iv) Keep produce free from soil contamination
v) Keep harvested produce in shade
3. Fruits and vegetables respire and release the heat. The rate of respiration is
high at higher temperature. It reduces the shelf life of the produce. So they
are cooled.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. Sorting at farm level helps in reducing the cost incurred in the transporting
and handling of unwanted produce. Moreover, damaged and immature
produce respire more and release more heat. Thus, it may spoil other
adjoining produce.
2. Sanitary conditions can be maintained by treating with water containing
100 –150 ppm chlorine.
58
3. Waxing of perishables reduces the rate of respiration and checks water loss Fruits and Vegetables
thus, it enhances the shelf life of the produce.
4. Ideal fruit package should have
i) Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand dead load during
transportation. (Including impact and vibrations)
ii) Good aeration to remove respiration heat and humidity.
iii) Be attractive and economical.
5. Moisture in the fruits triggers the chain reactions of microbial activities, so
moisture is a torture.
6. Blanching helps in drying by evacuating the air from pore spaces, and
stabilize the product from microbial load.

5.17 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Chakraverty, A., Mujumdar, A.S., Raghavan, G.S.V. and Ramaswamy,
H.S. (2003) Hand Book of Postharvest Technology of Cereals, Fruits,
Vegetables, Tea and Spices. Marce; Dekker Inc., New York.
2. Anonymous (1990) Home Scale Processing and Preservation of Fruits and
Vegetables. CFTRI Publications, Mysore.
3. Lal, G., Siddappa, G.S. and Tandon, G.L. (1986) Preservation of Fruits and
Vegetables. ICAR New Delhi.
4. Chadha, K.L. (2001) Hand Book of Horticulture. ICAR, New Delhi.
5. Kalia, M., Sood, S. (1999) Food Preservation and Processing. Kalayani
Publishing, Ludhiana.
6. Rao, M.A. and Rizvi, S.S.H. Engineering Properties of Foods. Marcel
Dekker Inc. New York.
7. Earle, R.L. Unit Operations in Food Processing. Pergamon Press, New
York.
8. Bhatti, S. and Varma, U. (1997) Fruits and Vegetables Processing. CBS
Publishers and Distributors. New Delhi.
9. Ranganna, S. (1995) Hand Book of Analysis and Quality Control for fruits
and Vegetables Products. 2nd Edition. Tata McGraw Hill Co. Ltd., New
Delhi.
10. Srivastava and Sanjeeb Kumar (1994) Fruits and Vegetables Preservation
Principles and Practice. International Book Distribution Co. Lucknow.

59
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural UNIT 6 DAIRY, POULTRY, MEAT AND
Products
FISHERIES
Structure

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Production and Economic Importance
Production
Economic Importance
6.3 Dairy
General Characteristics of Milk
Nutritional Importance of Milk
Clean Milk Production
Basic Milk Processing
Milk Products
6.4 Poultry
Poultry Production
Poultry Management
Composition and Nutritive Value of Egg
Preservation of Shell Egg
Processing of Poultry Meat
6.5 Meat
Structure and Composition of Meat
Nutritive Value
Production of Wholesome Meat
Preservation Techniques
Meat Products
6.6 Fisheries
Growth Rate
Culture Fisheries
Marine Capture Fisheries
Post Harvest Care
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Key Words
6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.10 Some Useful Books

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• state the present production status and importance of livestock products
including fisheries in national economy;
• enumerate important value added products from milk;
• indicate steps for clean milk production;
• give the basic features of poultry management and preservation of eggs and
meat;
• indicate important preservation and processing techniques for meat;
• differentiate between the culture and marine fisheries; and
• outline the principles of preservation and processing of fish.

60
 Dairy, Poultry, Meat
6.1 INTRODUCTION and Fisheries

Animal husbandry, dairying and fishery activities along with agriculture have
been an integral part of human life since the beginning of civilization. Man has
been domesticating animals either for food or for cultivation and transport.
These domestic farm animals or livestock such as, dairy cows/ buffaloes, goat,
sheep, beef cattle, horses, pigs, chicken and turkeys play an important role in
the socio- economic life of India. Livestock products play a pivotal role in
improving the livelihood of a large number of people by providing food
products and by-products for human utility. Besides providing high quality
foods such as milk, eggs, meat, fish etc; the livestock sector provides
employment to millions of rural farmers and people engaged in secondary and
tertiary business related to it. The unit gives a profile of important livestock
products in reference to food processing industries.

6.2 PRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

6.2.1 Production
India has vast resource of livestock and poultry. India ranks first in respect of
cattle and buffalo, second in goat, third in sheep and seventh in poultry
population in the world. The country has 57% of the world's buffalo
population. Table 6.1 gives the livestock population details and a profile of
livestock products, i.e. milk, eggs, meat and fish is given in Table 6.2, 6.3 and
6.4.
Table 6.1: Livestock population
(million nos.)

Sl. Species Livestock census Growth rate (%)

No. 1997 over 1992 annual
1992 1997 (comp.)

1. Cattle 204.58 198.99 -2.79 -0.56

2. Buffalo 84.21 89.91 6.77 1.32

3. Sheep 50.78 57.29 12.82 2.44

4. Goat 115.28 122.71 6.45 1.26

5. Pigs 12.79 13.29 3.91 0.77

6. Others 3.22 3.28 1.86 0.37

Total Livestock* 470.86 485.36 3.08 0.61

7. Poultry 307.07 347.11 13.04 2.48

* - excludes pack animals, yaks and mithuns
Source: Annual Report (2003-04), Dept. of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Ministry
of Agriculture.

61
Characteristics of Table 6.2: Production and availability of milk and eggs
Edible Agricultural
Products Particulars 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05
Milk 72.1 75.4 78.3 80.6 84.4 86.2 88.1 91.00
(million
tones)
Per capita 207 213 217 220 225 230 231 232
availability
(gms/day)
Eggs 28689 29476 30447 36632 38729 39823 40403 41000
(Million
numbers)
Per capita 30 30 32 36 38 39 40 41
availability
(nos./head/
annum)
Source: Compiled from Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics 2004, Dept. of Animal Husbandry &
Dairying

Table 6.3: Meat production − 1997 to 2003

(in 000 Tons)
Year Beef & Buffalo Mutton Goat Pig Poultry Total
Veal Meat & Lamb meat meat meat Meat
1997 1378 1403 222 458 533 630 4626
1998 1401 1380 226 462 543 710 4721
1999 1421 1398 228 466 560 821 4894
2000 1442 1421 229 467 578 1081 5218
2001 1452 1428 230 469 595 1251 5426
2002 1463 1443 233 470 613 1401 5622
2003 1490 1471 234 473 630 1600 5898
Source: Compiled from Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics 2004, Dept. of Animal Husbandry
& Dairying

Table 6.4: Production and export of marine products

Year Fish production (million Export of marine

tonnes) products
Marine Inland Total Quantity Value
(‘000 tonnes) (Rs. crore)
1950-51 0.5 0.2 0.7 20 2
1960-61 0.9 0.3 1.2 20 4
1970-71 1.1 0.7 1.8 40 35
1980-81 1.5 0.9 2.4 80 235
1990-91 2.3 1.5 3.8 140 893
2000-01 2.8 2.8 5.6 503 6296
2001-02 2.8 3.1 5.9 458 5815
2002-03 3.0 3.2 6.2 521 6793
2003-04 (P) 3.0 3.4 6.4 412 (P) 5739
62 Source: Economic Survey ( 2004-05)
Requirement: The per capita animal protein availability is about 10 grams as Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
against minimum requirement of 20grams (from milk 10g, meat 4g, fish 4g,
egg 2g). The estimated demand for the present population would be milk 104
million tonnes, meat 7.7 million tonnes, fish 7.7 million tonnes and eggs 4.6
million tonnes (104 million number). A significant gap exists between the
requirements and production.
Milk Production: India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the
World. The milk output during 2003-04 was anticipated to be 88.1 million
tonnes and is expected to reach the level of 91.00 million tonnes during
2004-05. The per capita availability of milk is also expected to increase to 232
g per day during 2004-05 from 207 g per day in 1997-98.
Egg Production: Poultry development in the country has shown steady
progress over the years. The current production of eggs is estimated to about
41.00 billion (in numbers) during 2004-05. Currently India ranks fifth in egg
production in the World.
Fish Production: There has been significant growth in fish production in the
country in the recent years. India is now the third largest producer of fish in the
world, and second largest producer of fresh water fish in the world. During the
year 2002-03, the total fish production was 62.00 lakh tonnes comprising 30.00
lakh tonnes of marine fish and 32.00 lakh tonnes of inland fish. The fish seed
production during the year 2002-03 was 16,333 million fry. Fish is a source of
cheap animal protein and current per capita consumption of fish in India is
around 9 kg per annum as compared to 11 kg recommended by World Health
Organization (WHO).
Meat and Meat Products: Though the country has a good livestock
population yet most animals are not bred/ reared in industrialized or
scientifically controlled methods for meat production, which is reflected by a
generally low annual slaughter rate across all species except pig. Most of the
production of meat and meat products continues to be in unorganised sector.
The share of bovine meat in the total meat production is about 60% as against
small ruminants (sheep and goats – 15%), pigs (10%) and poultry (12%).
There are about 3,600 licensed slaughter houses operating in the country, most
of them being run and maintained by local municipal bodies. Overall, the
scenario is: abattoir management is poor, technologies employed are out of
date and hygiene and sanitary conditions are not perfect. As per FAO data the
per capita / year meat consumption is 5.2 kg.

6.2.2 Economic Importance

Employment Generation: Animal Husbandry sector provides large self-
employment opportunities. According to National Sample Survey
Organization's latest survey (1999-2000), the estimate of employment in
animal husbandry sector was 11 million in principle status and 8 million in
subsidiary status, which is 5% of the total working population. Women
constitute 71% of the labour force in livestock farming. Poultry provides
employment to about 1.5 million people. The fisheries sector provides
employment to over 11 million people. About 0.5 million women are
employed in pre and post harvest operations in marine sector.

63
Characteristics of Value of Output: According to estimates of the Central Statistics
Edible Agricultural Organization (CSO), the value of output from livestock and fisheries sectors
Products
together was about Rs. 1,86,094 crores at current prices during 2002-03
(Rs.156, 080 crores for livestock sector and Rs. 30,014 crores for fisheries).
The livestock and fisheries sectors contributed 6.5 percent of total GDP( 5.4
percent from livestock and 1.1. percent from fisheries) in 2003-03.
Export Earnings: Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related
products were Rs. 4734 crores in 2003-04. Out of the total exports, leather
sector accounted for Rs. 2568 crores in value terms.
Export Potential of Marine Products: There has been steady growth in the
export of fish products. During 2001-02, the country exported 4.58 lakh tonnes
of marine products, which resulted in export earning of Rs. 5815.00 crores.
Efforts are being made to boost the export potential through diversification of
products for export. The country has now also started export of frozen squid,
cuttle fish and variety of other finfishes. During 2002-03, the country has
exported 5.21 lakh tonnes of marine products valued at Rs.6793.05 crores.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Give the milk production and per capita availability of milk for the year
2002-03.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Give the cattle and buffaloes population as per 1997 livestock census.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. List the economic importance of animal husbandry sector.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………

64
 Dairy, Poultry, Meat
6.3 DAIRY and Fisheries

We know that the milk is the lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of
animals. Milk provides both energy and the building material necessary for
growth. It also contains antibodies which protect the young animals against
infection. In short, milk is a complete food in itself and nature has designed it
as a food for the young ones during the first period of life. Let us know more
about milk.

6.3.1 General Characteristics of Milk

The principal constituents of milk are water, fat, proteins, lactose (a type of
sugar) and minerals (salts). Figure 6.1 shows the important constituents of milk
in brief.
The milk of different species, although containing- the same constituents in
general, varied in composition and properties in minor ways. Table 5 gives the
composition of milk of a few mammals. Milk constituents are divided mainly
into three groups namely, water, fat and solid-not-fat (SNF). Milk contains on
an average 87 per cent water, 3.9 per cent fat, 4.9 per cent lactose, 3.5 per cent
protein and 0.7 per cent minerals, vitamin and other constituents. Milk of
ruminants like cow, buffalo and goat is ideally suited for human consumption
and meet the basic dietary requirements of human beings.
Table 6.5: Average composition of milk from various species

Constituents %
Species Fat Proteins Lactose Ash Total Solids Water
Cow 4.0 3.4 4.6 0.74 13.64 86.36
Buffalo 7.3 3.8 4.9 0.78 16.78 83.22
Goat 4.0 3.7 4.5 0.85 13.05 85.95
Sheep 6.2 5.2 4.7 0.90 17.00 83.00
Camel 3.0 3.9 5.4 0.74 13.04 86.96
Human 3.5 2.0 6.8 0.30 12.60 87.40

Please incorporate the concept and role of co-operatives in milk production

following account may help:
In India ‘White Revolution’ was brought due to operation Flood, largest dairy
project for increased milk production in world. The key role in its success was
played by “Co-operatives” a concept introduced by Dr. V. Kurien, father of
white revolution small co-operatives at village level that involved the
participation of farmers (milk produces) and collection centre (processors) was
mutually helpful. Today almost all states have ‘Milk Co-operatives’ with
AMUL (Anand Milk Producers Union Ltd.) becoming a global brand.

65
Characteristics of Constituents of milk
Edible Agricultural
Products

Water Fat Solids-Not-Fat (SNF)

True fat Substances associated with fat

Lecithin Carotene Cholesterol Glycerides Vitamins

A,D,E&K

Protein Lactose Minerals

Phosphate, Citrate and
Chloride of sodium,
Casein Whey protein Calcium & Magnesium;
Traces of Iron, Copper
Iodine, etc.
α-Lactalbumin ß-Lacto globulin

(Albumin) (Globulin)

Minor constituents
Vitamins B1, B2 & C; Microorganisms
Dissolved gases: Enzymes, etc.
Figure 6.1: Milk constituents

6.3.2 Nutritional Importance of Milk

We know that the milk is recognized as almost an ideal food. It has high
nutritive value. It supplies body- building proteins, bone- forming minerals and
health giving vitamins. Lactose and milk fat furnish energy. Besides supplying
certain essential amino acids and fatty acids, it contains the nutrients in an
easily digestible and assimiliable form. All these properties make milk an
important food for pregnant mothers, growing children, adolescents, adults,
invalids, convalescents and patients alike. The nutritional importance of milk is
significant with reference to our country as large population is vegetarian and
for them milk & milk products are the only source of animal proteins. Besides,
human milk has immunoglobuling, lactoferried, lysozyme and bifidus factor.
These Bioprotective attributes make it a perfect food for infants. It’s been
clinically established that breast fading is best for infants.

6.3.3 Clean Milk Production

Milk is virtually sterile in the udder of a healthy animal. Milk once secreted
becomes the target for contamination during milking, milk handling, transport
and storage. The degree of infection and the composition of the bacterial
population depends on the cleanliness of the animal’s environment and the
cleanliness of the new surface with which the milk comes into contact, e.g., the
pail or milking machine, the strainer, the tanker or the tank and agitator. The
bacteria can also get into the milk via the milker, the animal, the litter and the
66
ambient air. Initially high bacterial counts and rapid growth of microorganisms Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
will badly affect the keeping quality of the raw milk and the quality of
products manufactured from such milk. Milk contaminated with pathogenic
bacteria may be harmful to human health. Therefore, all possible measures
should be taken to limit the contamination of milk and to prevent further
bacterial growth. The quality aspects are gaining importance and emphasis is
on the Clean Milk Production (CMP). The important steps for clean milk
production are:
i) Clean and healthy animals: The cow’s body especially the udder, should be
washed and brushed before milking. Diseased animals should be kept
separately.
ii) Clean Housing: Sheds, mangers, paddocks, water trough, floor should be
clean and there should be good drainage.
iii) Fly proof milking parlour.
iv) Disease-free environment: milker with clean habits (nails well trimmed).
v) Clean Utensils, Milking pails.
vi) Clean water.
vii) Clean milking: Before milking, clean the udder with a cloth dipped in
antiseptic solution such as potassium permagnate; wetting of hands with
milk should be avoided.

6.3.4 Basic Milk Processing

Milk after being received at dairy plant is subjected to various unit operations.
A few basic processing operations to which the milk is subjected are given
here.
Reception and storage of milk : Each milk processing plant or chilling centre
where milk is received in raw or chilled condition, requires a separate area for
milk reception, commonly known as Raw Milk Reception Dock (RMRD).
Milk is received at the dock either in cans directly from the producers /
collection points or in insulated tankers from the chilling centres. The steps
involved in the process are given in Figure 6.2.

Steps involved in Milk Reception at the Dock (RMRD)

In cans In tankers

1. Unloading 1. Weighing
2. Grading 2. Grading
3. Weighing 3. Sampling
4. Sampling 4. Unloading
5. Dumping 5. Cleaning of tankers
6. Cleaning of cans
Figure 6.2

The milk is chilled as early as possible in order to check the growth of

organism present and maintain the keeping quality of milk. The chilled milk is
stored in storage tanks or silos (large storage vertical tanks).
67
Characteristics of Milk separation: The process of separating out cream from milk is known as
Edible Agricultural separation. It is based on the principle of difference in specific gravity between
Products
the fat (0.90-0.93) and the serums or solid-not-fat (1.027-1.036). This can be
done either by gravity or by applying the centrifugal force. The dairy plants
use ‘Centrifugal Cream Separators’ in which centrifugal force is applied to
enhance rate of skimming, i.e. separating force is multiplied many times than
that of gravity and the separation takes place more completely and
instantaneously.
Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a process applied to a product with an object
of minimizing possible health hazards arising from pathogenic micro-
organisms associated with milk by heat treatment, which is consistent with
minimal chemical, physical and organoleptic changes in the product. The term
pasteurization as applied to market milk today refers to process of heating
every particle of milk to at least 63° C (145° F) for 30 minutes or 72° C (161°
F) for 15 seconds (or the temp-time combination which is equally efficient) in
an approved and properly operated equipment. After pasteurization milk is
immediately cooled to 5° C (41° F) or below. LTLT (Low temperature long
time) is suitable for small quantities ranging from 200-1000 litre requiring low
initial cost of production. HTST (High temperature short time) treatment is
ideal for large scale handling of 5000 litres per hour (LPH) or higher. The
complete process of preheating, heating, holding, pre-cooling and chilling is
completed in a plate type heat exchanger mounted on a compact frame with
inter connected sections to make the process continuous. Phosphatase test is
carried out to determine whether milk has been properly pasteurized or not.

6.3.5 Milk Products

We know that milk is a rich source of nutrients and is an essential part of diet.
Milk is a unique biological fluid which can be dehydrated, concentrated,
coagulated, fermented and fractionated into a vast range of milk products. The
popularity and consumption of milk products is constantly increasing in our
country. Nearly, 50% of the total milk production is converted into various
milk products. The focus is being given to value addition and international
quality assurance to the indigenous dairy products as tremendous potential has
remained untapped. A profile of few popular indigenous and western products
is given here.
Butter: A fat rich dairy product obtained from churning milk, cream or curd
and working the grains thus obtained into a compact mass. The butter making
process involves a number of stages. Churning is the key step and it involves
giving violent medium agitation which breaks the emulsion of fat in serums
and induces the clumping of fat globules. It is a perishable product, and
therefore, it should not be stored longer than necessary. For short period butter
can be stored at 4° C but if longer storage is involved it must be stored at −21
to −29° C.
Concentrated and Dried Products: Drying the milk is an efficient method of
preservation. In addition, drying also greatly reduces the volume of milk,
which is an advantage for long distance transportation and extended storage.
Alternatively, only part of the water can be removed from the milk and water
activity is further decreased artificially increasing the amount of dissolved
solids. This is done by dissolving sugar in a milk concentrate. Accordingly,
on the industrial scale milk is preserved by drying or evaporation. The
representation composition of these products is summarized in Table 6.6.
68
 Dairy, Poultry, Meat
Table 6.6: Composition of preserved milk products
and Fisheries
Product Fat% Milk solid Sucrose (%) Water (%)
not fat %
Milk powder
Skim 1 95.5 − 3.5
Whole 26.5 71.0 − 2.5
Evaporated Milk
Unsweetened 8 18 − 74
Sweetened 8 20 45 27

Cheese: It is defined as a product made from the curd obtained from milk by
coagulating the casein with the help of rennet or a similar enzyme in the
presence of lactic acid produced by adding starter culture and from which part
of the moisture (whey) has been removed by cutting, cooking and pressing.
The concentrated solids thus obtained are shaped in a mould and then ripened
by holding it at suitable temperature (8-10° C) and humidity. There are many
varieties of cheese in the world today that are differentiated by thousands of
name. Moisture content of cheese serves to distinguish various categories such
as hard, semi-hard, and soft. Cheddar cheese, processed cheese, mozzarella
and cottage cheese are quite popular in our country.
Frozen Dairy Products: Ice-cream is a popular frozen dairy product made by
rapid freezing of pasteurized mix with agitation to incorporate air and ensure
uniformity of consistency. As per PFA definition, the product should contain
not less than 10% milk fat, 3.5% milk protein and 36% total solids. It may
contain permitted stabilizer and emulsifier not more than 0.5%.
Khoa: Khoa or Mawa is an important traditional milk product of India. It is
prepared by partial desiccation of cow or buffalo or mixed whole milk in an
open fire. It is used as the base in several milk sweets viz. burfi, kalakand,
peda, milk cake, gulab jamun, etc. As per PFA rules, the khoa is the product
obtained from cow or buffalo (or goat or sheep) milk or a combination thereof,
by rapid drying. The milk fat content shall not be less than 20% of the finished
product. In our country, khoa of three varieties, viz. Pindi, Dhap and Danedar
is produced. Pindi type of khoa has lowest moisture content. Product obtained
from buffalo milk is considered superior being whiter in colour and having soft
smooth body and granular texture.
Chhana: It is a popular indigenous milk product obtained by acid coagulation
of hot milk followed by draining of whey. According to PFA, the product
shall contain not more than 70% moisture and not less than 50% fat on dry
matter basis. Chhana is used as a base and filler for preparation of a large
number of sweets such as rasogolla, sandesh, ras-malai, etc. Cow milk
chhana with moist surface, light yellow colour, soft body, smooth texture and
mild acidic flavour is more suitable for Bengali sweets preparation than buffalo
milk chhana.
Ghee: Ghee is the most important traditional Indian milk product being
extensively used for dietary and religious purposes. Cow ghee is golden yellow
in colour whereas buffalo ghee is greenish in colour. Ghee is characterized by
its pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The preferred texture is of large uniform
69
Characteristics of size grains uniformly distributed throughout the lot. Ghee produced at
Edible Agricultural different places and different conditions vary in quality. It is refined by
Products
heating in large pans at 70-80°C, the product being allowed to settle for 2 to 5
hours after removing the scum formed at the top.
Dairy By-Products: A byproduct may be defined as a product of commercial
value produced during the manufacture of a main product. Skim milk, whey
and butter milk are the industry’s principal byproducts, residues from the
manufacture of cream, cheese and butter, respectively.
# Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Give the average composition of cow milk.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Enumerate the important steps involved in clean milk production.
……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….
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3. Define pasteurization.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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………………………………………………………………………………

6.4 POULTRY
Poultry keeping in our country is as old as our civilization. Red jungle fowl
found in India and its neighbouring countries is considered to be progenitor of
all domestic breeds of fowl. Now, we include ducks, geese, turkeys,
pheasants, pigeons, peafowl, guinea fowl and chickens in the list of species
under the general term poultry. Chicken, the most popular domesticated
poultry, account for more then 90% of the total poultry population of the
country. The poultry provides us eggs and chicken.. Rural backyard poultry
70
contributes about 30% of the egg production. The Govt. of India has taken a Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
new initiative of development of rural backyard poultry with a more holistic
and self-reliant approach. Let us know more about eggs and poultry.

6.4.1 Poultry Production

The current poultry population in the country is above 435 million and
accounts for 4% of the world poultry. The common breeds are shown in
table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Common poultry breeds

S. Breed
No.
1. American Breeds Plymouth Rock,
Rhode Island Red,
New Hampshire
2. Asiatic Breeds Brahma
Cochin
Langshan
3. Mediterranean Breeds Leghorn
Minorca
4. English Breeds Cornish
Australorp
5. Indigenous Breed Aseel
Busra
Chittagong, Kadaknath

The important economic traits in reference to rearing of poultry at small scale

for egg purpose are - egg production, egg weight, egg quality, body size and
confirmation, growth, feed efficiency and fertility and hatchability. Production
economics of a commercial layer (for egg purpose) is entirely different than
that of a commercial broiler (chicken purpose). The main attributes of a
commercial layer are high egg production, low body size, less feed
consumption, optimum egg size, good egg quality and high mobility and of a
commercial broiler are high juvenile body weight especially at the marketing
age, better feed efficiency and low brooder house mortality.
Hatching of Eggs: Hatching is production of baby chicks from fertile eggs. In
early days eggs were hatched by placing them under broody hens and desi hens
were ideal for this purpose. At present, incubators are used to hatch eggs. They
provide similar environment as that of broody hens but more efficiently.
Incubators can hatch several thousands egg at a time. The physical factors
necessary for successful incubation are temperature, humidity, gaseous
environment and turning of eggs. The incubation temperature usually varies
from 37.2 − 37.8º C (99.5º F to 100.5º F). In fowls, the hatching period is 21
days. For obtaining better hatch and healthy chicks, the incubators and
hatchers should be neat, clean and free from microbial load and should
function properly.

71
Characteristics of 6.4.2 Poultry Management
Edible Agricultural
Products It refers to the husbandry practices to maximize the efficiency of production by
satisfying the basic needs of the birds. It involves the management of chicks,
layers and broilers.
a) Chick Management: It is also known as brooding management. The chicks
are transferred to a brooder house immediately after hatching and reared
there for 6 to 8 weeks of age. Brooder house should be draft-free, rain-
proof and protected against predators. Suitable litter material like saw dust
and paddy husk should be spread to a depth of 5 cm. depending upon their
availability and cost. Right temperature in a brooder house is very
essential. Too high or too low a temperature slows down growth and
causes mortality. During the first week the temperature should be 95º F
(35º C) which may be reduced by 5º F per week during each successive
week till 70º F (21º C). The behaviour of chicks provides good indication
of whether they are getting desired amount of heat. Infrared lamps are also
good for brooding. Plenty of clean and fresh water should be provided.
b) Grower Management: The objective of the growing phase is to produce a
pullet (young hen) which will come to lay around 20 weeks of age with an
average body weight of 1.2 to 1.4 kg. Grower management especially
remains the same as that of chick management except for the additional
floor, water and feeder space. The floor, water and feeder space required
for a grower are 950-2350 cm2, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. and 7.5-12.5 linear
centimeter, respectively. Water is essential and its requirement depends
upon temperature, humidity, age, dietary constituents, activity and air
movement. Deworming is essential and is done bi-monthly to keep the
birds free from parasitic diseases. De beaking is recommended between 12
and 16 weeks. Feed restriction is essential to reduce the feed cost and
productivity.
c) Layer Management: The flock should be transferred from grower to layer
house at 18 to 20 weeks of age. Floor space of 2300-2800 cm2, feeder
space of 10 cm. and water space of 2.5 cm. per bird are recommended for
egg type chicken in floor house. One laying nest for every 4 pullets is
necessary. A platform in front of the nest entrances helps the birds to have
access to the nest. From 21 weeks, the lighting should be increased
gradually till it reaches 16-17 hours per day and maintained at that level
thereafter. Correct lighting boosts up egg production by 5 to 10 percent.
d) Male Management: Breeder mate management remains essentially the
same as that of layer management except that male breeder’s diet should be
fortified with extra calcium, manganese and vitamin E to ensure proper
fertility.
e) Housing: The objective of providing housing to poultry is to protect from
sun, rain and predators. Poultry houses should be well ventilated,
reasonably cool during summer and warm in winter. In our country, open-
sided poultry houses are popular. The poultry house should not be
expensive. The floor should be moisture proof, free from cracks, easily
cleaned, rat-proof and durable.
f) Feeding of Poultry: Feeding constitutes an important concern in poultry
management since major expenditure (60-70%) in poultry raising is feed
cost. More than 40 nutrients are required. The birds should be given
72
 balanced ration, i.e. supply different nutrients – i.e. fat, carbohydrates, Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
proteins, minerals, vitamins and water in right proportion. Conventional
poultry ration include many cereals like maize, rice, wheat, barley and a
few by-products such as wheat barn or rice polish, animal and vegetable
protein sources like fish-meal, meat-meal, soyabean-oil-meal, groundnut
cake, etc. The ration is fortified with adequate quantity of minerals and
vitamins either in chemically pure form or through ingredients known to be
rich in these nutrients. Efforts are being made to use agro-industrial
products to replace more costly ingredients.

6.4.3 Composition and Nutritive Value of Egg

The main parts of an egg are shell (8-11%), albumen (56.61%) and yolk (27-
32%). Egg contains about 2 parts white to 1 part yolk by weight. The whole
mixed egg contains about 65% water, 12% protein and 11% fat. The
composition of the white and the yolk differ considerably. The yolk is rich in
fat, fat soluble vitamins A,D,E, and K and in phospholipids including the
emulsifier lecithin (Table 6.8)
Table 6.8: Chemical composition of the hen’s egg

Fraction % % of Constituents

Water Protein Fat Ash

Whole Egg 100 65.5 11.8 11.0 11.7

White 58 88.0 11.0 0.2 0.8

Yolk 31 48.0 17.5 32.5 2.0

Fraction % Calcium Magnesium Calcium Organic

carbonate carbonate phosphate matter

Shell 11 94.0 1.0 1.0 4.0

Nutritionally, eggs are a good source of fat, protein, vitamins and minerals,
especially iron. It is often used as a standard for measuring the quality of other
food proteins. Its high nutrient content, low calorific value and easy
digestibility make it a valuable protective food in human diet.
Quality Factors
The important quality attributes of eggs are: egg size, cleanliness and
soundness of shell, albumen and yolk quality, nutritive value, wholesomeness,
functional properties, etc. Egg size can be adversely affected by inadequate
level of protein and essential fatty acids in layer’s (hen’s) diet and high
environmental temperature.
The quality of egg starts deteriorating soon after it is laid unless proper care is
taken to maintain it following better methods of assembly, cleaning, grading,
packaging, storage, transport and distribution. Fresh eggs have a high yolk
rather than a flat yolk and a larger amount of thick white relative to running
thin white. This causes a stale egg to spread out over a larger area than a fresh
egg. Fresh eggs taste better, are nutritious superior, are easier to separate into
73
Characteristics of whites and yolks for manufacturing purposes, and perform better in whipping
Edible Agricultural and baking applications. Storage is best at a temperature slightly above the
Products
freezing point of the egg. For short period of storage, fresh eggs could be
stored at 12.5º C to 15.5º C (55-60º F) and 70-80% RH. For long term storage,
the room temperature should be at – 10º C (14 + 1º F) and RH 80-90% as this
relative humidity will sufficiently retard evaporation without danger of mould
growth.

6.4.4 Preservation of Shell Eggs

Preservation of shell eggs are based on simple principle of retarding the
microbial growth and sealing pores of the shell to minimize the evaporation of
moisture and escape of gases. The common methods include i) thermal
processing, ii) immersion in liquid, iii) oil-coating, iv) cold storage, and
v) pickling.
In flash heat treatment, the eggs are immersed for 2 to 3 seconds in water at
71º C. The treatment destroys bacteria present on the surface of shell and seals
the shell internally by coagulating a thin film of albumen immediately below
the shell membrane. Oil treatment preserves the egg by forming a thin film on
the surface of shell and thereby sealing the pores. This treatment should be
given preferably within a few hours of lay to retain better internal quality. The
eggs should be washed before coating. The oil used must be colourless,
odourless, less viscous and free from fluorescent materials. Eggs can be
dipped in oil or sprayed with it. Vegetable oils such as groundnut oil mixed
with 0.0125% BHT is a good sealing agent, but the mineral oils of food grade
are preferable as they are less susceptible to oxidative changes during storage.
Under village conditions, immersion in lime water and water glass is also
useful. In lime sealing, the eggs are immersed in clear lime solution (prepared
by using quick lime, water, table salt) and then taken out. Eggs are dried at
room temperature and transferred to filter flats.
Dehydration and freezing are the commonly used methods for the preservation
of liquid whole egg, albumen and yolk separately, depending upon their use in
bakery products, confectionaries and other food or non-food products.
6.4.5 Processing of Poultry Meat
Poultry meat has high nutritive value. It is easily digestible and its protein
content is in general higher and fat content lesser than in most of the red meats.
Chicken meat contains all the essential amino acids and quantitatively
compares closely with milk and egg proteins. It has less carbohydrate, but is a
good source of Vitamin B, iron and phosphorus.
The scientific and hygienic processing of poultry is must for processing the
quality of meat. Figure 6.3 gives the flow sheet for preparation of ready-to-
cook chicken. These are packed immediately either in polyethylene bags of
medium density (200 gauges) or vacuum packaged in heat shrinkable film
bags.

74
 Procurement of Birds Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
Handling period (withdraw feed only)
Ante-mortem inspection
Killing-bleeding
Scalding (58º - 60° C for 1 to 2 minutes)
Defeathering
Singering
Hand finish
Evisceration
Post-mortem inspection
Washing and cleaning
Chilling (in slush ice to 4° C or lower)
Draining
Packaging
Chill storage at 2° C (to Frozen storage at - 18° C
be sold within a week or after freezing at - 40° C
10 days) (for storage up to 9
months)
Figure 6.3: Flow sheet for the preparation of ready-to-cook chicken

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is brooding?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Give the composition of white egg and yolk.
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75
Characteristics of 3. Enumerate the methods for preservation of shell egg.
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………

6.5 MEAT
We know that the word “meat” in its broadest sense means the flesh of
animals, especially of mammals or birds rather than fish. However, the term in
reference to food processing includes all those parts of the animals that are
used as a food by man, and covers glands and organs such as tongue, liver,
heart, kidney, brain and so on besides the skeletal tissue or flesh. In our
country, sheep, goat, pig and poultry are reared primarily for meat production.
Though meat has a very high biological value, its production and processing
has always been the subject of social considerations. The per capita animal
protein availability is about 10g as against the World average for 25g.
Considering the targeted minimum requirement of 20g per capita per day for
animal protein, 4g will come from meat remaining 16g from other livestock
products. The estimated demand of meat for the present population would be
7.7 million tonnes as against the present production of 5.7 million tonnes. The
meat is not an essential item of diet for a large population of the country. The
annual meat production of the country is about 4-6 million tonnes and we are
placed at number eight position in the world. .
We export both frozen and fresh chilled meat to more than 54 countries in the
world. There is, however, very little processing of meat (1%) for ready to eat
meat products. About 40 million people are engaged in meat sector, namely,
trade of live animals, hides, bones, caesings, horns and hooves, etc. This
sector when organized on scientific lines will generate more employment in
rearing of animals on scientific lines and processing of slaughter house
byproducts for allied industries. The country is poised to achieve the Pink
Revolution through buffalo rearing for meat production. A brief profile of
meat production and meat products in reference to food technology is given
below.

6.5.1 Structure and Composition of Meat

Meat is predominantly composed of muscle tissue along with various types of
connective tissue. A cut of meat consists of lean tissue, which, aside from
water, is chiefly protein, with some fatty tissue and bone. Muscle is composed
of bundles of hair like muscle fibers. These protein muscle fibers are held
together by proteniaecous connective tissue which merges to form a tendon
which in turn connects the muscle to bone. The connective tissue contains two
proteins called collagen and elastin. Collagen on heating in the presence of
moisture dissolves and yields gelatin. Elastin is tougher and is a constituent of
the ligaments. In well fed animals, fat penetrates between the muscle fiber
bundles and this is fat marbling. There are relationships between muscle
structure and meat technology. Thinner muscles fibers are tenderer than
76
thicker muscle fibers, and thinner muscle fibers are more common in young Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
animals. Marbled fat within the muscles makes for more tenderness.
Composition of Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue contains approximately 75%
water and 25% solids, of which 19% are proteins. Lipids constitute about
2.5% to 5% of muscle. It contains Cu, Zn, Na, Hg, K, Mg and low amount of
Ca. Most of the calcium in the body of an animal is found in the bones, so the
edible portion of meat is low in this mineral. Liver is an especially rich source
of iron and a concentrated source of Vitamin A. Meats are excellent source of
niacin and riboflavin and are good source of thiamine.

6.5.2 Nutritive Value

Meat is a very nutritious food. It is almost fully digestible. The nutritive value
of meat is attributed to its abundant high quality proteins, essential fatty acids,
some important minerals and B complex group of vitamins (thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, B6, folic acid, biotin and B12). Calories
supplied by meat vary with the contents of fat. Organs such as tongue, brain,
thymus (sweet breads), heart, liver and kidney are called variety meats. They
are also excellent source of nutrients. Variety meat (organ meat) especially
liver and kidney contain appreciable amounts of vitamins A, B, C, D, E and K.

6.5.3 Production of Wholesome Meat

The essential stage requiring applications of effective measures for production
of quality meat are:
i) Animals should be given sufficient rest before slaughter.
ii) Ample drinking water should be available to them and about 1 hour before
slaughter, they should be given very little to eat but should not be starved.
iii) The weak and diseased animals should not be slaughtered. Only those
animals which produce carcasses of quality and nourishment should be
slaughtered.
iv) Slaughtering and bleeding of the animals should be done without causing
excitement.
v) The carcass unfit for human consumption should be destroyed.
vi) Ensure environmental sanitation during transportation of meat and it is
safe to the public.
vii) Ensure personal hygiene of all those engaged in slaughtering, dressing and
handling of meat.
viii) Process equipment should be kept thoroughly clean and disinfected before
use.
ix) Meat and meat products should be stored in fly-proof containers. These
must be refrigerated during summer.
Slaughter Houses or Abattoir: Slaughter houses or abattoir means any
premises that is approved and registered by the controlling authority in which
animals are slaughtered and dressed for human consumption. Abattoir may be
small, medium or large based on the number of animals slaughtered. Based on
the level of technology adopted the operations are manual, semi-mechanized or
77
Characteristics of fully automatic. The slaughter houses play an important role in the processing
Edible Agricultural of animals for production of safe and wholesome meat and in the effective
Products
recovery of by-products.
The important sections of the modern abattoir are (a) Lairage for resting the
animals prior to slaughter; (b) slaughter hall; (c) By-product room; (d) Meat
cutting room (optional); and (e) Rendering room (optional) or simple system of
treating offals or condemned carcass. The building should be furnished with
fly- proof system, sufficient lighting, ventilation and water supply (Fig.4). Let
us appreciate that application of modern scientific methods for processing of
meat in abattoirs would provide safety, value addition, convenience and
consumer satisfaction. The Govt. of India has initiated a number of
programmes for improvement and modernization of slaughter production.

5
1
1. Lairage
2. Slaughter room
3. By-product room
2 3 4. Holding room
5. Effluent room

Figure 6.4: Slaughter house

Towards this end, we as trained technicians, should ensure for humane

methods of slaughter and production of meat under hygienic conditions.
Slaughtering of animals in unconscious state will facilitate prevention of
cruelty. The essential processing steps in abattoir are: i) resting animals in
lairage prior to slaughter; ii) ante-mortem inspection; iii) stunning (depends on
religious customs); iv) slaughter and bleeding on the cradles; v) skinning,
dressing and evisceration on the overhead rail; vi) post – mortem inspection;
vii) washing; and viii) holding the carcass in chill room (optional); ix) cutting
and packing (optional).

6.5.4 Preservation Techniques

Meat is a highly perishable commodity due to nearly neutral pH (low acid
food), high moisture contents and rich nutrients. Various methods to extend the
shelf-life of meat are: i) chilling / refrigeration; ii) freezing; iii) curing;
iv) smoking; v) thermal / processing; vi) canning; vii) dehydration; and
viii) irradiation.
Refrigeration/chilling: This is the most widely used method of preservations
for short terms storage of meat. Storage of fresh meat is done at a refrigeration
temperature of 2 to 50 C. Fresh meat can be maintained in good conditions for
78
 Dairy, Poultry, Meat
a period of 5-7 days at a refrigerated temperature of 4±10 C. The cooling slows and Fisheries
down the microbial growth and enzymatic as well as chemical reactions.
Processed meat products are also stored under refrigeration till these are fully
consumed.
Freezing: It is for the long terms preservation of meat. It stops the microbial
growths and retards the action of enzymes. Large quantities of meat and meat
products are stored, distributed and marketed in frozen form. A product can be
considered frozen when its centre has a temperature of −120 C or less. The
speed of freezing is a very important factor as frozen meat quality depends
mainly on the size of the ice crystals formed. The quality of meat and meat
products can be preserved for months together during frozen storage at −100 C.
However, a storage temperature of -180 C is recommended because at this level
almost all water in meat is frozen and minor fluctuations can be taken care of.
Curing: Preservation of meat by heavy salting is an age old practice. Sodium
chloride and sodium nitrite are commonly used. Now a days curing of meat
products is mainly for specific flavour and colour development and
preservative effects of curing ingredients is an added advantage.
Smoking: Smoking helps in preservation of meat. It contains a large number
of wood degradation products such as aldehydes, ketones, organic acids,
phenols, etc. which exert bacteriostatic effect besides imparting characteristic
smoky flavour.
Thermal processing: Thermal processing as a preservative method is
employed to kill the spoilage microorganisms as against the refrigeration
methods that slows or stop microbial growth. Pasteurization and sterilization
are common heat processing operations that are generally used.
Pasteurization refers to moderate heating in the temperature range of 580 C to
750 C. The process extends the shelf life but the product needs to be stored
under refrigeration. Sterilization refers to severe heating above 1000 C whereby
all spoilage microorganisms in meat are killed. It renders the product
commercial sterile. Such meat products have a recommended shelf life of two
years in cans and one year in retort pouches at ambient temperature in tropics.
Canning: It is a process of preservation achieved by thermal sterilization of a
product held in hermetically sealed containers. The product have a shelf life of
at least 2 years at ambient temperature. The steps involved are (i) Preparation
of meat and gravy, (ii) Precooking of meat, (iii) Filling in cans, (iv)
Exhausting, (v) Seaming, (vi) Retort or thermal processing, (vii) Cooling and
(viii) Storage.
Dehydration: Removal of water from meat lowers the water activity
considerably to prevent the growth of spoilage organisms. Freeze drying of
meat is a satisfactory process of dehydration preservations due to better
reconstitutions properties, nutritive quality and acceptability. Freeze dried
products are packaged under vacuum and have very good storage stability. The
process has been largely used for preparations of the dehydrated meat soup
mixes.
Irradiation: Food irradiation is referred as cold sterilization as microbial
destruction of foods take place without significantly raising the temperature of
food. A doze of 50-100 k rad (radurisation) can enhance the shelf – life of

79
Characteristics of fresh meat cuts and poultry products by 19 days whereas a doze of 4-5 M rad
Edible Agricultural (radurisation) can sterilize pork, poultry and fish.
Products
6.5.5 Meat Products
Meat cutting: Meat cutting refers to the skill of separation of carcass into
wholesale primal cuts in order to facilitate requirements of meat trade, cater to
the consumer preference and convenient handling by the butchers. The basic
requirements in cutting are:
i) The carcass has to be essentially chilled for proper meat cutting and
trimming job.
ii) Meat cutting room should be maintained at a temperature of 15-200 C and
relative humidity of 80%. This environment is wholesome for meat and
convenient to workers.
iii) All the meat cutting equipment and machinery should be made up of
stainless steal and be sufficiently sharp.
iv) Cutting methods varies from country to country. Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), specify the division of carcass into right and left sides. In
our country, people go for six cuts only – neck, shoulder, rack, foreshank
and breast, loin and leg.
Tenderizing meat is another important operation which is done by using
mechanical methods, enzymes and salt. It affects palatability of meat.
Type of products: Meat products include a variety of products such as
sausages, cured and smoked meat products (ham, bacon), canned meat (canned
beef, luncheon meat, canned hams) and cooked meat products (patties, kababs,
meat balls, nuggets). The purpose of meat processing to products are primarily
preservations by inhibiting or preventing spoilage, improving the palatability
and providing variety for trade. Meat processing to products facilitates
utilization of certain cuts from the carcass which are having poor utility
otherwise. The processing also help in development of convenience products
for consumers. Economics of meat processing rests with the ability to utilize
fats and other carcass trimmings and low value carcass cuts and by products to
produce acceptable products.
Nature and role of ingredients: Meat quality plays an important role.
Additives such as water or ice, salt, phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, sugar and anti-
oxidants are added to improve product quality characteristics during
processing. Ice chills meat during chopping or mixing operations and prevents
mechanical over-heating, helps in dissolving salts, gives fluidity and facilitates
proper filling. Salt reduces microbial growth, solubilizes muscle protein and
imparts taste. Phosphates increase water holding capacity, fat binding,
emulsion stability and ensure decreased cooking losses. They have a
synergistic effect in improving the quality of meat products in combination
with 1 to 2 % salt, and are used at 0.5 % level. Sugar at the level of 0.5% is
added to provide flavour, mask the salt flavour and act as a preservative.
Spices and condiments such as onion, ginger, black pepper, cloves, etc. are
also used to improve flavour and taste of the meat products.
Processing methods: Processing refers to any treatment including salting
which brings about a substantial chemical and physical changes in the natural
80 state of meat. The preservatives processes such as curing, smoking, cooking,
canning, freezing, dehydration, are also used in meat product preparations. Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
Processing imparts considerably shelf stability to meat. The common
processing techniques in reference to meat product preparations include:
(i) comminution, (ii) emulsification, (iii) meat extension, (iv) pre-blending,
(v) hot processing and (vi) cooking.
Meat products: Meat products are classified into the following groups
i) Cured and smoked meats
ii) Sausages
iii) Intermediate moisture and shelf stable meat products
iv) Restructured meat products
v) Canned meats
vi) Other meat products
Ethnic meat products: The range of popular products include, meat curries
with gravy, fry or pulav (with rice) kababs (sheek kababs, shami kababs, boti
kababs), tandoor products (tandoor chicken), grilled products and pickles.
By-products: Animal by-products are available from live animals, slaughtered
animals and dead animals. The returns from the by-products are also important
as meat forms only one–third of live weight of the animal while by-products
from two–third. Utilization is important not only to ensure cost-effective
utilization process but also for proper disposal to prevent environmental
pollution and adverse effect on the main enterprise. Edible by-products from
slaughtered animals include blood, variety meat, organ meats (tongue, heart
and liver), casing and bones. Non–edible by-products include blood (blood
meal), bones (bone-meal, ossein), horns and hooves, gastro-intestinal contents
(feed, fertilizers), glands (hormones) and bile (bile salts). Dead animals are
also a significant source of useful by-products when collected and processed.
Hides and skins, horns and hooves, bones and bone – products, meat-meal and
technical fat are the useful products from dead animals.
Among the animal by-products leather and leather products, bone and bone
products, and woollen carpets are the major items of export. Other by-products
those are exported include animal casings, edible offals, bile paste, gallstones
and bristles. Animal glands and organs, viz. ovary, testis, pituitary, adrenal,
pineal, parathyroid, thyroid, thymus, spleen, bile, lungs, liver, stomach, brain,
spinal column, and seminal vesicles are utilized for medicinal and
pharmaceutical purposes.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. State the measures for production of quality meat.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

81
Characteristics of 2. List out various methods used to extend the shelf life of meat.
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Name some of the value added products prepared from meat.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………

6.6 FISHERIES
Fish is a valuable food due to presence of high quality proteins, i.e. presence of
essential amino acids and fat (high proportion of poly unsaturated fatty acids -
PUFA); rich source of B group of vitamins namely thiamine, riboflavin, niacin
and pantothenic acid and important minerals such as iodine, phosphorus, active
iron and sodium. The composition of flesh of fishes is (a) water 80%,
(b) protein 15-25%, (c) mineral matter 1-2% and (d) other constituents 1%.
The consumption of fish and fish products is continuously increasing. The
nature has bestowed on India a wide variety of fishes. The aquatic endowment
is supporting more than 2200 fishes, out of which nearly 1440 species are
marine species, 143 species are brackish species, 544 warm water species and
37 are cold water forms. Let us know more about fish production, preservation
and processing.

6.6.1 Growth rate

The country has witnessed a quantum jump in the fish production. The country
occupies third position in the world and second position in the inland fish
production. The fish production is the fastest growing sector in the agriculture.
As compared to agriculture and animal husbandry, the fish production rate per
unit area is much higher in terms of productivity as well as income. The
growth rate of 2.5 percent and 8.0 percent has been proposed for marine and
inland fisheries, respectively during the tenth plan. By the end of tenth plan,
this will enable a total fish production of about 8.2 million tonnes with
3.3 million tonnes coming from marine sector and rest from inland sector.
Fish is a highly perishable food and therefore due importance be given for
marketing, processing, preservation and keeping quality of fresh fish.
Lowering, the temperature of fish from 10° C to 0° C, delays the growth phase
of micro-organisms that are present and cuts the spoilage by a factor of 5 to 16.
Therefore, the fresh fish should be refrigerated (near 0° C) immediately.

82
 Dairy, Poultry, Meat
6.6.2 Culture Fisheries
and Fisheries
The fish culture in ponds and paddy is an age old practice. A series of
activities such as controlled breeding in captivity, production of quality seeds
in sufficient quantities, rearing of spawn to fry stage, fry to fingerling stage and
ultimately raising the table size are christened under the scientific fish farming.
The induced breeding in captivity is widely used to get adequate quantity of
quality seeds of major cultivated fishes. The process of releasing egg by
female and milt by male is called spawning. The mature fishes are induced to
breed by giving the pituitary injection. The hormone pellets are implanted into
muscle during initial period of gender development for inducing maturation
and spawning. Fishes having developed gonads are called brood stock.
Hatchery management is an essential component under scientific fish farming.
It involves supply of quality water, brood stock development, spawning
operation, incubation of eggs, rearing of larvae from egg to post larval stage,
nutrition and artificial feeding and health monitoring. The quality of water is
very vital component for the survival and growth of larvae and post larvae. It
is also important to maintain favourable temperature, water level, flow of water
and adequate level of oxygen during larval rearing.
Construction of Fish Farm
The ponds are constructed to have high survival rate. The ponds are classified
into nursery pond, rearing pond and stocking pond. The nursery ponds are
used to nurse the spawn upto fry stage and are small and shallow. The rearing
ponds are used to rear fry up to fingersling stage. The stocking ponds are used
to grow the fish to marketable size. Generally, rectangular shape ponds are
constructed with a depth of 0.5 to 0.10 m for nursery ponds, 0.6 to 1.5 m for
rearing ponds and 1.0 to 2.5 m for stocking and brooder pond. An assured
supply of good quality water free from pollution and turbidity is to be ensured.
The pH of water should in range of 6.5 – 7.5 and for correcting the pH liming
is done. The optimum concentration of dissolved oxygen (above 5 ppm) is
maintained by adequate aeration by means of aerator, paddle wheel aerators,
surface agitators and air blowers. The practice of using composite fish culture
has revolutionized the aqua food sector in the country. The feed management
and health management also play an important role in productivity.
Aquaculture has mainly contributed to the high growth of inland fisheries
(6.6% per annum) as compared to marine fisheries (2.2% per annum) during
the nineties. Indian major carps/ Labeo rohita (rohu), Catla catla (catla) and
Cirrhinus mrigola (mrigalo) contribute about 78% of the total aquaculture
production. The productivity has also gone up from about 600 kg/ha year in
seventies to about 2000 kg/ha year.

6.6.3 Marine Capture Fisheries

We know that the country has a long coastline of 8118 km and an equally large
area under estuaries, backwaters, and lagoons good for developing capture as
well as culture fisheries. After declaration of the Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) in 1997, the area available to India is about 2.02 millions sq. cm. The
harvestable potential of marine resources in EFZ has been estimated at about
3.921 million tonnes. The marine fishing fleet comprises about 0.281 million
traditional craft (including about 44578 motorized traditional craft), 53684
mechanized chained craft and about 170 large fishing vessels of 21 m overall
length (OAL) and more. The major fishing activities are concentrated in the
83
Characteristics of areas within 0 to 70-80 m depth zone. Fish production has increased over the
Edible Agricultural years with the motorization of traditional craft and introduction of mechanized
Products
boats in the traditional sector as well as diversification of fishing effort beyond
50 m depth.
As spoilage of fish starts from the time it is caught, the proper storage,
preservation and prompt disposal or transport services are essential. The
wastage is acute during monsoon when upto 30% of the catch is lost.
Therefore, strengthening of post-harvest infrastructure such as storage
facilities, ice plants, cold chains, roads and transportation etc., as well as
effective marketing system in identified areas are the key requirements for the
development of this sector.

6.6.4 Post Harvest Care

As we know fish is a highly perishable and decomposes quickly. The problem
is acute in our country as heat and moisture promotes deterioration. Bacteria
of water and air attack the flesh slowly at first and more rapidly later.
Chemical changes cause breakdown of protein and other nitrogenous matter
leading to the production of substances like hydrogen sulphate and indol. The
characteristics odour of stale or spoiled fish is due to trimethyl amine which is
formed by reduction of tri-methyl oxide. Fishes are preserved by various
methods such as drying, salting, pickling, smoking, canning, chilling and
freezing. Before preservation, fishes are washed with clean water to remove
saline, blood stains, mud and sand. Larger fishes are gutted (i.e. on the internal
organs or vice-versa are removed) and the body county is washed.
To remove natural moisture from the fish tissues, fishes are cured by means of
heat, sun dry air and salt all along the coast. Drying of small marine fishes
such as ribbon fish, silver bellies and Bombay duck in sun or shade is a very
ancient method of fish preservation. In this method fishes are spread on the
open sandy beach, mats, bamboo platform or hung on ropes/rods. Mechanical
drier are also used for this purpose and this method yields high quality
products which retains the nutritive value and flavour. Salting is a form of
pickling in which common salt is used to prevent bacterial growth and methods
of dry salting and wet salting are employed. In the dry salting method, fishes
are rubbed with salt powder and than packed in the plastic/cemented tanks. In
between two layers dry salt is applied and after stipulated period these fishes
are removed, washed in the salt water and then dried. In wet salting method,
gutted and cleaned fishes are placed in the container containing concentrated
salt solution and stirred properly. Wet salted fishes are sold in the market
without drying. In smoking, wood smoke is utilized as a preservative. In this
method, cleaned and gutted fishes are soaked in the salt or brine for a short
period and then suspended on rod in the smoke house. In chilling, fishes are
packed in ice and then saw dust or rice husk is sprinkled over it to prevent the
melting of the ice. Freezing is the most modern method of preservation. Fish
intended for long storage are frozen in large deep freezers. Individual quick
freezing method is gaining popularity. Frozen fishes retain their nutritive
values for a longer time.
Value added products: A number of value added products are available in the
market, viz. battered and breaded products like fish fillets, fish cutlets, fish
cakes, fish burgers, fish balls, fish sausages, fish noodles, fish rolls, fish
patties, stuffed squids, etc. The switch over from block freezing to individually
quick frozen (IQF) products has changed the profile of value added products.
84
IQF provides, lobster, imitation products like kamabaka, crab legs, imitation Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
shump are becoming popular. The value added products like (i) prawn and fish
pickle, (ii) fish and prawn papad, (iii) fish jhuri bhagra, (iv) fish noodles and
(v) fish pulp can be prepared dry woven fishers also. The techno-economic
advantages of the products are (i) wide acceptability (ii) greater shelf life,
(iii) more palatability, and (v) stringent quality control. There is a good
potential for export of preferred products.
By-products and other uses: Fishes are also source of numerous byproducts
such as (i) Fish oil, (ii) Fish-meal, (iii) Fish flour, (iv) Fish proteins, (v) Fish
glue and singlass. Two important fish oils are (i) Liver oil and (ii) body oil.
Liver oil is popularly known as cod-liver oil. There are numerous by-products
besides oil, which are economically useful. The most important are fish-meal,
fish-flour, fish-protein, fish-ghee and fish-skin.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is spawning?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Enumerate the methods used for preservation of fish. Name a few value
added products.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Give the nutritional importance of fish.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………

85
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural 6.7 LET US SUM UP
Products
The country has a considerable livestock population. Processing and
production of value added products hold an important place in the national
economy. We are the largest milk producers in the world. The quality of milk
plays an important role in processing of milk and milk products. The important
value added products from milk are butter, concentrated and dried milk
products, ghee, cheese, frozen dairy products, khoa, chhana and a range of by
products such as skim milk, whey, etc. The poultry provides us eggs and
chicken. The major expenditure in poultry raising is feed cost. The methods
used for preservation of shell eggs are based on retarding of microbial growth
and sealing pores to minimize the evaporation of moisture and escape of gases.
The meat production in our country is largely a byproduct system of livestock
production utilizing spent animals at the end of their production life. Meat is a
highly perishable commodity and methods to extend the shelf life are
(i) chilling/refrigeration; (ii) freezing (iii) curing (iv) smoking (v) thermal
processing (vi) canning (vii) dehydration and (viii) irradiation. The common
indigenous popular products are meat curries with gravy, fry or pulav (with
rice), kababs (sheek kababs, shami kababs, boti kababs), tandoor products
(tandoor chicken), grilled products and pickles. Fish is a source of cheap
animal protein. It is highly perishable and various methods adopted for
preservation are drying, salting, smoking, canning, chilling and freezing. Cod-
liver oil one of the important by-products.

6.8 KEY WORDS

Preservation : Aims to inhibit microbial spoilage and arrest
physio-chemical changes which bring about
deterioration in quality.
Lactose : A type of natural disaccharide consisting of
glucose glactose present in milk.
Brooding : Rearing of chicks upto 6 to 8 weeks of age.
Milk : It is the lacteal secretion of the mammary lands
of animals.
Milk separation : The separation of milk into cream and skim milk.
Pasteurization : A process of heating every particle of milk or
milk product to specified temperature and
holding at that temperature for specified period
followed by immediate cooling and storage at
low temperature.
Hatching : Production of baby chicks from fertile egg.
Abattoir : Premises that is approved and registered by the
controlling authority in which animals are
slaughtered and dressed for human consumption
Comminution : It refers to subdivision or reduction of raw meat
into meat pieces or particles.

86
Processing : Treatment or unit operations which bring about a Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
substantial chemical and physical change in the
natural state of milk/meat/fish/egg.
Post-mortem : It is the systematic exposure and scientific
examination of the tissue and organ of a dead
body to determine the cause of death, the nature
of lesions and illness.
Aquaculture : The term relates to the culture of fish in fresh
water, backlash water and sea water.
Spawning : The process of releasing eggs by female and wilt
by male is called spawning.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
"
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The milk output during 2002-03 was 86.2 million tonnes and the per capita
availability of milk during the period was 230 g per day.
2. Cattle population: 198.99 million and buffalo: 89.91million.
3. The livestock and fisheries sectors contributed 6.5 percent of total GDP
(5.4 percent from livestock and 1.1. percent from fisheries) in 2003-03.The
value of output livestock and fisheries sectors together was about Rs.
1,86,094 crores at current prices during 2002-03 (Rs.156, 080 crores for
livestock sector and Rs. 30,014 crores for fisheries). Total export earnings
from livestock, poultry and related products were Rs. 4734 crores in 2003-
04.The sector provides large self-employment opportunities.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Milk contains on an average 87 per cent water, 3.9 per cent fat, 4.9 per cent
lactose, 3.5 per cent protein and 0.7 per cent minerals, vitamin and other
constituents.
2. The important steps involved in clean milk production are:
• Clean and healthy animals.
• The cow’s body especially the udder, should be washed and brushed
before milking. Diseased animals should be kept separately.
• Clean Housing: Sheds, mangers, paddocks, water trough, floor should
be clean and there should be good drainage.
• Fly proof milking parlour.
• Disease-free environment: milker with clean habits (nails well
trimmed).
• Clean Utensils, Milking pails.
• Clean water.
• Clean milking: Before milking, clean the udder with a cloth dipped in
antiseptic solution such as potassium permagnate; wetting of hands
with milk should be avoided.
87
Characteristics of 3. The term pasteurization as applied to market milk today refers to process of
Edible Agricultural heating every particle of milk to at least 63° C (145° F) for 30 minutes or
Products
72°C (161° F) for 15 seconds (or the temp-time combination which is
equally efficient) in an approved and properly operated equipment
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Brooding is management of the chicks.
2. The composition is given in Table 6.9:
Table 6.9: Chemical composition of the white and yolk

Fraction % % of Constituents
Water Protein Fat Ash
White 58 88.0 11.0 0.2 0.8
Yolk 31 48.0 17.5 32.5 2.0

3. The common methods of preservation of shell eggs include (i) thermal

processing, (ii) immersion in liquid, (iii) oil-coating, (iv) cold storage, and
(v) pickling.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. The essential stage requiring applications of effective measures for
production of quality meat are:
a) Animals should be given sufficient rest before slaughter.
b) Ample drinking water should be available to them and about 1 hour
before slaughter, they should be given very little to eat but should not
be starved.
c) The weak and diseased animals should not be slaughtered. Only those
animals which produce carcasses of quality and nourishment should be
slaughtered.
d) Slaughtering and bleeding of the animals should be done without
causing excitement.
e) The carcass unfit for human consumption be destroyed.
f) Ensure environmental sanitation during transportation of meat and it is
safe to the public.
g) Ensure personal hygiene of all those engaged in slaughtering, dressing
and handling of meat.
h) Process equipment should be kept thoroughly clean and disinfected
before use.
i) Meat and meat products should be stored in fly-proof containers.
These must be refrigerated during summer.
2. Various methods to extend the shelf-life of meat are: (i) chilling/
refrigeration; (ii) freezing; iii) curing; (iv) smoking; (v) thermal/processing
(vi) canning; (vii) dehydration, and (viii) irradiation.
88
3. The value added products prepared from meat products are sausages, cured Dairy, Poultry, Meat
and Fisheries
and smoked meat products (ham, bacon), canned meat (canned beef,
luncheon meat, canned hams) and cooked meat products (patties, kababs,
meat balls, nuggets)
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1. The process of releasing egg by female and milt by male is called
spawning.
2. Fishes are preserved by various methods such as drying, salting, pickling,
smoking, canning, chilling and freezing. A few value added products are
battered and breaded products like fish fillets, fish cutlets, fish cakes, fish
burgers, fish balls, fish sausages, fish noodles, fish rolls, fish patties,
stuffed squids, etc.
3. Fish is a valuable food due to presence of high quality proteins, i.e.
presence of essential amino acids and fat (high proportion of poly
unsaturated fatty acids - PUFA); rich source of B group of vitamins namely
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid and important minerals
such as iodine, phosphorus, active iron and sodium.

6.10 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Ayyappan, S. and Biradar, R.S. (2004) Enhancing Global Competition.
The Hindu survey of Indian Agriculture, 2004.
2. Charley Helan, Food Science (1982) Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons,
USA.
3. Dave, B.K. (1999) Dairy Animal Management. NCERT, New Delhi.
4. Handbook of Animal Husbandry (2002) Third revised edition. ICAR, New
Delhi.
5. Khan, M.E. (1997) Milk Processing. NCERT, New Delhi.
6. Kondaiah, N. (2003) Augmenting Meat Production – Demand, Clean Meat,
Pollution and Animal welfare issues. Compendium – National workshop
on identification of technologies and equipment for meat and milk
products. IVRI
7. Panda, P.C. (1995) Textbook on egg and poultry technology. Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
8. Panda, B. and Mahapatra, S.C. (1998) Poultry Management. ICAR New
Delhi.
9. Potter Norman, N. (1973) Food Science, Second Edition. AVJ Pub. Comp.,
USA.
10. Rosenthal, Ionel (1991) Milk and Dairy Products – Properties and
Processing. VCH (Federal Republic of Germany).
11. Mendiratta, S.K., Rao, D.N. and Mahendraker, M.S. (2003) Appropriate
Technologies for Abattoirs, Compendium – National workshop on
identification of technologies and equipment for meat and milk products.
IVRI.
12. Sharma, B.D. Meat and Meat products (including Poultry product
technology), 1999-2000. Jaypee Brothers, New Delhi.
89
Characteristics of
Edible Agricultural UNIT 7 COMMERCIAL CROPS, SPICES,
Products
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC
PLANTS
Structure

7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Commercial Crops (Sugarcane and Cotton)
Importance
Processing of Sugarcane
Byproducts of Sugarcane
Processing of Cotton
7.3 Spices (Chilli, Cardamom, Pepper, Tamarind, Turmeric and Ginger)
Importance
Proximate Composition of Spices
Harvesting and Drying of Chilli
Processing and Uses of Cardamom
Post Harvest Technology of Pepper and its Products
Products and Byproducts of Tamarind and Their Uses
Processing of Turmeric and its Uses
Post Harvest Technology of Ginger
7.4 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Uses of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Processing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.8 Some Useful Books

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• state the importance of commercial crops, spices, medicinal and aromatic
plants in the national economy;
• know about post harvest processing of these crops into value added
products; and
• describe the by products and other uses of these crops.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Commercial crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants are high value
crops. These crops require special attention during production and also during
post harvest processing, handling and storage. Some of these crops play a
significant role in the national economy, export or in employing large number
of people. Therefore, the study of these crops is to be separated from the other
crops like cereals, pulses and oil seeds or horticultural crops.
The Unit 4 has been divided in three sections namely; commercial crops,
spices and medicinal and aromatic plants. Under section 4.2 mainly two main
commercial crops namely sugarcane and cotton are discussed. In the section
90
4.3, six major spices namely chilli, cardamom, pepper, tamarind, turmeric and Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
ginger are discussed. Lastly medicinal and aromatic plants are discussed. Aromatic Plants

7.2 COMMERCIAL CROPS (SUGARCANE AND

COTTON)
7.2.1 Importance
Crops, which are important from commerce points of view, are called
commercial crops. Mainly two crops are considered as major commercial crops
in India namely sugarcane and cotton.
Sugarcane is widely grown in almost every state of the country and two union
territories. Sugar industry is the second largest processing industry in the
country. There are more than 400 sugar industries in the country who receive
raw material from 35 million sugarcane growers in the country. India is the
largest sugarcane producer of the world and at one time (1975-76) it had
exported over 1 million tonnes of sugar and earned Rs. 468.5 crores.
Wealth of Sugarcane: From energy transformation points, sugarcane is the
most efficient crop. It receives the solar energy and converts it in to energy
producing substances like sugar, cellulose and non-cellulose products. Thus its
processing is valuable contribution to food and industry. Sugarcane produces
sucrose which is a direct source of food and wide range of by products as
shown in Figure 7.1. These products are useful for human and animal
consumption and also provide huge renewable energy.

SUGARCANE

BAGASSE SUCROSE MOLASSES JUICE

Jaggery
Distillery Fermented Liquid jaggery
Fuel Fibrous Other products
Products Alcohol Khandsari
Electricity Furfural Synthetic
Ethanol Vinegar
Charcoal Fiberboard α-cellulose sweetener
Spirit Acetic acid
briquettes Bleach pulp Plastic
Butanol
Produces gas Particleboard Animal feed
Citric acid TOPS / LEAVES
Paper Soil conditioner
Fodder
Protein leaf
Ethanol
Saccharina
Lignin

Figure 7.1: Products and by products of sugarcane

91
Characteristics of Cotton is the most important commercial crop playing a key role in economic,
Edible Agricultural political and social fabric of the world. In India it is the biggest organized
Products
sector which provides employment to several million people. It is the largest
industry in terms of annual value of output and labour employment. Besides
this large number of power loom and handloom have employed around
2.5 million people.
Cotton is not only known for production of lint, which is the basic raw material
of textile industry but also to produce cottonseed, which is rich in oil.

7.2.2 Processing of Sugarcane

In a typical sugar factory 100 tones of cane produces: Sugars (10 t), molasses
(4 t), filter mud (3 t), Bagasses (30 t) and cane tops and leaves 30 t. Besides
these it also can produce electricity of 1500 kW.
Juice Extraction
Sugar cane is crushed in sugarcane crusher (IS:1973-1973) in general where
first dry crushing is done and about 73% of total available juice is recovered.
Then wet crushing is done to recover remaining juice. IS-6983-1973 is the
specification of rollers and axles for sugar cane crusher. Extracted juice is
acidic (pH 5.2-5.5) in nature. It is neutralized to pH 6.4 by the addition of lime
solution. In general in 100 kg juice, 1 kg lime (80-90% purity) is mixed with
4 litre of water and 60-75 ml of milk of lime is sufficient to bring desired
neutralization.
Juice boiling: To avoid sugar inversion, the boiling should be done within
8-12 h of juice extraction. A traditional furnace, where bagasse is used as fuel
should have high heat utilization efficiency and Juice clarification.
Jaggery
Jaggerry and Khandsari are ancient sweetners and still popular among masses
for its high food value and medicinal properties. In India about 40% of
sugarcane produced is used for making jaggery in the organized and
unorganized sector. The jaggery is considered to be diuretic, refreshing tonic
and cooling. Table 7.1 provides the comparison of composition of sugar,
Jaggerry and Khandsari.
Table 7.1: Proximate composition of sugarcane sweeteners (100g)

Sweetener Sucrose Reducing Protein Fat Moisture Ca P Fe Energy

(g) sugar (g) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (Kcal)
(g)
Sugar 99.5 - - - 0.4 - - - 398
Jaggery 60-85 5-15 0.4 0.1 3-10 8 4 11.4 383
solid
Khandsari 96 - - - 0.5 100 - - 398
Bura 90-95 1-3 - 0.5 1.5 100 - - 395
Misri 99.5 - - - 0.2 - - - 402
Source: Annual report of ISARI< Lucknow 1999-2000

The traditional process of jaggery preparation is shown in Figure 4.2.

Sugarcane is crushed in sugarcane crusher. About 48 % of sugarcane mass as
juice goes to clarifier. The clarified juice is boiled. To neutralize the juice lime
92
is added and concentrated juice is put in the moulds (1, 5, 10 and15 kg). After Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
cooling moulds are stored. Bagasse, which is a byproduct, is used as source of Aromatic Plants
fuel in the jaggery preparations.

Sugar cane (100 kg)

CLARIFIER
CRUSHING
BOILING
Juice (48 kg) Additives
Jaggary moulds

Concentrated Juice

Bagassi (50 kg) STORAGE

Waste (2-3 kg) Bagassi burning
Figure 7.2: Traditional process for jaggery preparation

7.2.3 Byproducts of Sugarcane

Sugarcane plant has four major byproducts namely bagasse, molasses, sucrose,
tops and leaves.
Bagasse
Bagasses, is the fibrous residue of cane stalk after crushing and extraction of
juice. It consists water, fibers and small quantity of soluble solids. Its
composition includes fiber 46-52%, moisture 43-52% sugar 3% and minor
constituents 0.55%. Where as the dry bagasses composition is: Cellulose
(45%), Pentosans (28%), Lignin (20%), Ash (2%) and sugar (5%).
Bagasse can also be used as –
i) Pulp: Bagasse can be converted in to pulp. This pulp can be used to make
paper for wrapping, printing, writing, toilet, tissue, corrugated medium,
linerboard etc. Fluff pulp can be used to make sanitary napkins and
absorbent disposable products.
ii) Paper Industry: Process of paper manufacturing includes digestion,
washing, screening, bleaching, dewatering and thickening. Bagasses
are digested in close units at pre-specified pressure, temperature and time
with chemicals. Later washing is done to remove the effect of chemicals.
iii) Fuel (briquettes, charcoal, produces gas)
iv) Fodder for animals
v) Production of mushroom
vi) Soil conditioner

93
Characteristics of Molasses Based Products
Edible Agricultural
Products Molasses yield is 2.2 to 3.7% of the total cane crushed. It is graded based on
total sugar content and yield of ethyl alcohol produced from it. Alcohol
producing industry consume about 80-90% of the molasses produced in the
country. The other important product is ethanol. The ethanol produced is used
for

Ethanol

Dehydration Oxidation Modification

Dehydrogenation
Polystyrene Ethyl butyl acetates Chloroform
Polyethylene Acetic anhydride Butadiene
Poly ethers Charcoal Diethyl then
Butaaraldehyde Ethylamines
Acetamide Ethyl chloride

Sucrose
Sucrose is a regenerable potential raw material obtained from sugarcane.
Though it is not as sweet as saccharin, suralose, aspartame etc, but it has wide
commercial applications. There are some added derivatives which have market
potential such as:
• Ethers and anhydro derivatives
• Esters of fatty acids as surfactant and emulsifiers
• Sulfuric acid or sulphate esters.
• Polymers and resins, acrylics, etc
The other uses of sugarcane tops press mule and waste is in animal feed,
fertilizer cane wax etc.
# Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why sugarcane is called energy efficient crop?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

94
2. Why cotton is the most important commercial crop? Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
………………………………………………………………………………. Aromatic Plants

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. How much sugar can be produced from 1000 kg sugarcane?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. Why sugarcane juice is to be boiled with in 8- 12 hours of extraction?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
5. What are the medicinal properties of jaggery?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
6. List the unit operations are to be performed in paper manufacturing.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………

95
Characteristics of 7.2.4 Processing of Cotton
Edible Agricultural
Products Ginning
It is an important unit operation in the handling cotton as a raw material from
field to the factory for processing. It is the process of separation of lint from
seed cotton. It is done either by roller gin or with saw gins.
Quality Evaluation of Cotton
The quality of cotton is judges by the quality of yarn which be spun from it.
The spinning performance in expressed as “Highest Standard Count” (HSC)
which cotton can spin. For i.e. 40 counts means one pound of a particular yarn
contain 40 lakhs of 840 yards each. Based on the end-use of the yarn, certain
strength standard have been prescribed. The maximum HSC for cotton is the
finest count of yarn, which can be spun to satisfy the yarn strength standards.
Thus important parameters are fineness, maturity and strength.
Fiber length – Longer lnited cotton provides better spinning performance
than shorter linted ones.
Short staple 19 mm or below
Medium staple 20 .0 – 21.5 mm
Superior medium staple 22.0 – 24.0 mm
Long staple 24.5 – 26.0 mm
Superior long staple 27.0 mm and above

7.3 SPICES

7.3.1 Importance
The Indian spices are perhaps older than the recorded history. India is well
known to the world as Home of spices. Spices contribute an important group
of agriculture commodity as they are considered as indispensable in the
culinary art for flavouring of foods. These crops will also show our heritage
and national wealth in utilization of them for several medicinal uses. Some are
also used as pharmaceuticals, perfumery, cosmetics etc. Besides this, spices
play an important role in the national economy.
Chilli is the dried ripe fruit of genus “capsicum” which is also called as red
pepper and it is considered as an important commercial crop used as a
condiment, culinary supplement as a vegetable. In India, chilli is cultivated in
about 10 lakh hectares with an annual production of 10 lakh tonnes, which is
about one fourth of the world’s chilli production. The annual Indian export of
chilli in recent times is around 13000 tonnes valued about Rs. 500 million.
Together with whole chilli, the value-added products like chilli powder, curry
powder, chilli oleoresins etc. add a major share to our export earnings.
Among the various spices cultivated in India, cardamom is called “Queen of
spices”. It is native of India; enjoys a unique position in the International spice
market. At present, India is the second largest consumer of small cardamom in
the world after Saudi Arabia. The cardamom growing tracts in the country are
facing severe ecological degradation due to diminishing forest cover, leaving
96
the region open to devastation by floods and droughts. As cardamom requires Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
tropical forest conditions for better growth, both the area and production of Aromatic Plants
cardamom in the country are declining.
Pepper (Piper nigrum) popularly known as the King of spices. It is the dried
fruit of perennial climbing vine, mostly found in hot and moist parts of
Southern India. Kerala alone contributes 96% of the total production in India.
Apart from Kerala, pepper is also cultivated in the hill districts of Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu. Mostly pepper is cultivated as intercrop with other plantation
crops.
Pepper is widely used as a condiment, preferred for its characteristic aroma,
pungency and biting taste. It is used to garnish culinary preparations, ketchups,
sauces pickles and in pharmaceutics. Indian pepper, commonly known as
“Malabar pepper” is considered to the best in the world for its excellent aroma
flavour and pungency. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of
black pepper. India contributes about 35 to 40 percent to the total world
production and thus occupies the unique position in the international trade of
pepper. The annual production of pepper in India is in the range of 60,000-
85,000 tonnes.
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica Linn) is one of the important economic trees of
India. Tamarind is a much-loved tree throughout the semi-arid regions for its
deep, cool shade and for its valuable fruit. It is an ideal plant for optimum use
of wastelands. It is a regular bearer and provides assured returns to the farmers
even under extreme soil and climatic conditions.
Turmeric adds typical flavour and colour in curries and makes them the best.
Turmeric is also used as dye in textile industries, it is also used for medicinal
purposes and cosmetics. India exports only 5-8 % of its turmeric produce and
ranks 6th in spice export and earns over Rs. 100 million annually.
India is the largest producer and exporter of pepper, chilli, ginger and turmeric.
It also exports substantial amount of cardamom and black pepper. India alone
contributes 50% of the world ginger requirement. Ginger is used principally as
an ingredient in various spices blends, food processing and beverage industry.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the indices to evaluate quality of the cotton?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

97
Characteristics of 2. What should be the best quality fiber length?
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Name the following
i) Home of spices : ………………………………
ii) Queen of spices : ………………………………
iii) King of spices : ………………………………

7.3.2 Proximate Composition of Spices

Spices are an important group of agriculture commodity as they are considered
indispensable in the culinary art for flavouring of foods. These crops also show
our heritage and national wealth. Some are also used as pharmaceuticals,
perfumes, cosmetics etc. Proximate composition of spices is given in
Table 7.2.

7.3.3 Harvesting and Drying of Chilli

The crop becomes ready for harvesting in about 105-120 days after planting.
The picking of ripe fruits continues for about 2 months. Chilli is picked in
about 6-10 pickings with an interval of 7 or 8 days. Some traditional varieties
require only 5-6 pickings; while the hybrids may require up to 12 pickings.
Harvesting is done after 1 or 2 days of irrigation and picked fruits are kept in
shade to avoid sunscald.
Chilli is harvested at moisture content of around 60-70% (w.b.) and need to be
dried for further preservation and storage. In the absence of efficient
mechanical drying systems, currently all the chilli produced in the country is
sun dried.
Table 7.2: Nutritional constituents of spices per 100 g

S. Nutrient Green Red Cardamo White Turmeric Ginger

No. Chilli Chilli m pepper
1. Carbohydrate 3.0 31.6 45.4 68.6 66.5
2. Proteins 2.9 15.9 10.3 10.4 8.6 8.6
3. Fat 0.6 6.2 8.3 2.1 8.9 6.4
4. Fiber 6.8 30.2 9.2 4.3 6.9 5.9
5. Moisture 85.7 10.0 8.3 11.4 58 5.9
6. Minerals 1.0 6.1 6.8
7. Calcium 0.03 0.16 0.3 0.45 0.2 0.1
98
 Commercial Crops,
8. Phosphorous 0.08 0.37 0.21 0.2 0.26 0.15 Spices, Medicinal and
9. Sodium 0.01 0.05 0.03 Aromatic Plants
10. Potassium 1.2 2.5 1.4
11. Iron 0.0044 0.0023 0.012 0.017 0.05 0.011
12. Ash 5.0 1.6 5.7
13. Vit.A (IU) 454 576 175 1800 175 175
Vit – C 111 50 12 49.8 12
Vit – B1 0.18 0.09 0.05
Vit – B2 0.23 0.19 0.13
Niacin 2.3 4.8 1.9
14. Calorific 390 360
value
Source: NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad

7.3.4 Processing and Uses of Cardamom

As the flowering continues over a long period, cardamom capsules ripen
successively over an extended period. Thus, it requires several pickings. In
most of the areas, the peak harvesting is continued at an interval of 15 days and
completed in 8 to 10 rounds
Harvesting should be taken up only at a time when seeds inside the capsules
have become black in colour. It is the index of maturity stages of the fruit. At
this stage the pericarp (the seed cover or skin of the capsule) will still be green.
When light picking is done, great care is to be exercised to harvest only the
green and mature capsules. This process will naturally give a lower green crop
per picking. When the hard picking is done, semi-mature crop is also removed.
While this process could reduce curing percentage, it could increase the
picking average and ensure green coloured capsules.
Bleaching is an important pre-treatment given to either dried cardamom or
freshly harvested capsules as starting material. The bleached cardamom is
creamy white or golden yellow in colour. The advantages of bleached
cardamom are white appearance and their resistance to weevil infestation due
to sulphur dioxide content. Different methods to achieve bleached cardamom
and are given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Treatments for bleaching of cardamom
Treatment Concentration Contact Remarks
of content time (min)
bleaching agent
Steeping in H2O2 6% H2O2 15 For dry
containing 0.5% cardamom
sodium silicate
Bleaching with H2O2 0.3% 60 Dry cardamom
and SO2 fumigation
Steeping in acidified 20 g/l 75 Fresh
powder solution cardamom
Subsequent steeping in 1% H2O2 30 Fresh
H2O2 containing 0.5% cardamom
sodium silicate
99
Characteristics of Cardamom capsules should be dried within 24 to 36 hours of harvest to avoid
Edible Agricultural deterioration. Drying is one of the important unit operations as it determines
Products
the colour of the end product, which is the attractive and most important
quality character. The retention of green colour is very important in cardamom
drying as green coloured cardamom fetches premium price in the export
market.
Cleaning of cardamom by removing the discoloured ones, split capsules and
other impurities is done by manual method. The grading of dried capsules as
per AGMARK specifications is generally carried out using round sieves.
Mostly 7 mm round holes sieves are used for grading.
Mainly cardamom has three products namely decorticated seed or seed
powder, essential oil and oleoresin. The decorticated seed or its powder has
poor storability, as volatiles are lost during the storage. Thus it is stored in
pods. Cardamom oil is produced by steam distillation of crushed fruits.
Cardamom is used as flavouring material as whole, decorticated seed and
ground powder. It has medicinal value for scanty urination, diarrhoea,
dysentery, and exhaustion due to over work, depression.

7.3.5 Post Harvest Technology of Pepper and its Products

The stage of harvest is very important for the production of black pepper.
Well-matured but unripe berries are harvested. Pepper becomes ready for
harvest in about 6-8 months after flowering, during November-December and
harvest continues up to March-April. The spikes are picked when they are
blackish green and most pungent.
Harvesting is done manually, by climbing on the ladders. The well-matured
spikes, of dark green colour are picked by the person standing on the ladder
and dropped. The person standing on the floor will collect the spikes in the
bags. A pair of women will be able to pick about 90 to 100 kg of spikes and
paid @ Rs. 1 per kg of berry picked.
The harvested green spikes are some times heaped for a day, before threshing
for easy separation of the berries. In few estates, mechanical threshes are used
for separating and cleaning the berries. However, the threshing efficiency of
these machines is only about 90 percent. The freshly harvested berries contain
moisture of above 70% (w.b.). The berries as soon as they are harvested are
separated from spikes and spread out on mats for drying. In about 2 days, the
moisture content decreases to 20-25%. Due to enzymatic oxidation of
colourless compounds present in the skin, the colour of pepper fruits turn black
and masks the green colour after drying. The subsequent operations involve
further drying of safe moisture level below 11% (w.b.)
Since drying with periodic turning is commonly adopted, since it is feasible
when the quantity is small and monsoon does not interfere. But for large scale
drying, artificial drying is preferred. The moisture in partially sun-dried pepper
is brought down from 25 to 11 % in two stages in a counter current hot air flow
system. After one pass in dryer, the pepper is stored for 24-48 hours, after
which it is dried again to safe moisture level.
The dried pepper is cleaned for removal of extraneous matter such as dirt, girt,
stones, stalks leaves, etc. Magnetic separator is used to remove metallic
contamination such as iron fillings and stray nails. Vibration conveyors with
inclined decks in combination of air classification are used for efficient de-
100
stoning of spices. The composition of the dried black pepper is given in the Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
Table 7.4. Aromatic Plants
Table 7.4: Composition of the dried black peppe

Composition Value in per cent

Moisture Content 8.7 – 14.1
Total Nitrogen 1.55- 2.60
Nitrogen in non volatile 2.7 – 4.22
ether extract
Volatile ether extract 0.3 – 4.2
Non-volatile ether extract 3.9 – 11.5
Alcohol extract 4.4 – 12.0
Starch (acid hydrolysis) 28 – 49
Crude fibre 8.7 –18
Crude piperine 2.8- 9.0
Ash 3.6 –5.7

The ungarbled black pepper contains pinheads, immature pepper and large
berries. Broken pepper and light pepper grades are separated pneumatically;
pin heads which come along with garbled pepper are separated by sieving. As
the export market potential for pepper is more, the market value can be
increased by the removal of unwanted foreign materials.
Grading is done by a combination of size sieving and weight classification by
air blast. The major grade is the average sized black pepper known as Malabar
Garbled (MG), which constitutes 95% of India’s export. Tellichery Garbled
(TG) is another bold grade of black pepper. The recovery of black pepper from
fresh berries is 33-36%. According to Agmark grading, grades have been
formulated as given in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5: AGMARK specification of pepper

Pepper grade Diameter (mm)

Tellichery Garbled Black pepper Special Extra Bold >4.75
(TGSEB)

Tellichery Garbled Extra Bold (TGEB) 4.25

Tellichery Garbled (TG) 4.0-4.25
Malabar Garbled Black Pepper (MG) 3.75
Malabar Ungarbled Black Pepper (MUG) <3.75

Pungent principle
The alkaloid piperine (melting point 130oC) is considered to be the major
constituent responsible for pungency. It is not present in the leaves and stem. It
is also not soluble in the water, readily soluble in alcohol and on hydrolysis
splits into piperdine and piperic acids. Major adulteration in the black pepper is
done with the papaya seeds. The best method to identify them is cut the seed in
101
Characteristics of to two pieces. Papaya is a dicot, so it will show a line. Black pepper berries are
Edible Agricultural monocot, have a hollow cavity in the center.
Products
Processing of White Pepper
White pepper is the white inner corn obtained after removing the outer skin or
pericarp of the pepper berries. It is preferred over black pepper in light-
coloured preparations such as sauces, cream soups etc., whereas dark coloured
particles are undesirable. White pepper imparts pungency and a modified
flavour to food. White pepper is liked for its mellow flavour, mild pungency,
low fiber, high starch content and above all the white colour itself is liked.
Varieties like Balankotta and Panniyur-1, are ideal for making white pepper
owing to their large sized berries. The composition of white pepper is given in
Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Composition of white pepper

Constituent Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash

Content, (%) 11.4 10.4 2.1 68.6 4.3 1.6

Packaging
Black pepper berries are hygroscopic, so have to stored in cool, dry
atmosphere away from sunlight. For retail packaging in 200 gauges HDPE
pouches are used. Ground powder is packed in laminated heat sealed
aluminium foil.
# Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. In India, chilli is mainly dried by …………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. To get quality product of cardamom it should be dried with in …………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Pungent principal in the pepper is due to …………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

102
4. Main adulterant in the whole pepper is …………………………………….. Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
………………………………………………………………………………. Aromatic Plants

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

7.3.6 Products and By-Products of Tamarind and their Uses

Tamarind is a forest tree. It is rarely grown as orchards. However, it is planted
as social forestry. Every part of the tamarind is useful for human being as
culinary or medicinal purposes.
Root: The root of tamarind is bitter and used in controlling the dysentery. It is
cleaned, boiled and consumed or the powder is taken with water.
Stem bark: The stem bark is an astringent and a tonic. The bark is also used
medicinally for loss of sensation in paralysis. The ash of the bark with salt is
used as a remedy for colic and indigestion. A gargle of bark ash with water is
used in sore throat to heal aphthous sores. The ash is given in urinary
discharges and gonorrhea. The dry bark of the tree is peeled off for medicinal
purposes. Usually it is done after the flowering season. The bark contains
about seven percent tannin and is used in tanning industry.
Timber: The wood is hard, close-grained, yellowish white with red streak. The
heartwood is small, near the center of the old trees and is dark purplish brown.
It is a most valued timber for making tool-handles, agricultural implements,
wheels, mallets, planks, furniture, rice-pounders, and oil and sugar crushers. It
is also priced much higher as a fuel as it has high calorific value (4980) and
chiefly used for making gun-powder, charcoal, and in brick kilns where great
heat is required for brick-making.
Leaves: The tamarind leaves contain tartaric and malic acids. The latter is
being found in excess and increasing with the age of the leaves. The leaves
also contain certain enzymes. The leaves are astringent and the tender leaves
are cooling and anti-bilious. A poultice of leaves is used as for inflammatory
swellings and in rheumatism to relieve pain. Decoction of leaves is used for
gargle, and juice is used in dysentery bilious fevers and in urinary troubles.
The leaves yield a reddish yellow dye, which is used locally in colouring
woollen and silk fabrics. The leaves and flowers are also used as auxiliaries in
dyeing.
Flowers: The flowers of tamarind are also cooling and antibilious. Poultice of
flowers is used in inflammatory affections of the conjunctiva. The juice
extracted from flowers is used in cases of internal bleeding of piles.
Fruits: The fruits contain 55% pulp, 33.9% seeds and 11.1% shell and fiber. In
India, the production of pulp is estimated at about 3,00,000 tons per year. Dry
pulp of fruits yield about 16% of free tartaric acid and its salts along with
Citric, Malic acids. Two kinds of pulp are known, the red coloured and the
brown coloured. The former is having the superior quality. The pulp is non-
proteinaceous and the pulp of tender fruits contains far less nitrogen than the
ripe fruits. The pulp consists of crude protein 3.1%, carbohydrate 67.4%, fiber
5.6%, and minerals 2.9%. Chemical analysis of pulp give tartaric acid with
potassium bi-tartarate 10-12%, moisture 20-30%, reducing sugars 25-30%,
other solubles 3-4%, and the rest insoluble cellulose. Its vitamin contents are as
103
Characteristics of follows: riboflavin 0.07mg, niacin 0.7mg and vitamin 'C' (3mg/100 g) and
Edible Agricultural carotene (60 µ per 100 g). Of the reducing sugars present, about 70% is
Products
glucose and 30% fructose.
The pulp is edible and largely used for culinary purposes. The pulp contains
tartaric acid, which is used as acidulent for soft drinks and fruit jellies. It is
refrigerant, carminative and antibilious. It is also useful in preventing and
curing scurvy and in sobering the intoxicating effects of alcohol and Ganja
(Cannabis sativa Linn.). The pulp with wood-ash is extensively used for
cleansing and brightening brass and copper vessels.
During storage, the reddish-brown colour of the pulp becomes darker and in
about a year it is almost black. This is mostly due to the onset of Maillard
reaction, since, free amino acids and reducing sugars are present in the pulp.
The pulp also becomes soft and sticky as pectolytic degradation takes place
and moisture is absorbed, especially in humid climates. The pulp could be
preserved well for 6-8 months without any treatment, if packed in airtight
containers and stored in cool and dry place.
Seeds: The seeds are used as famine food and for cattle in several districts in
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere. The hard kernel
is dried, roasted and powdered into flour and used for making cakes and
chappatties, either alone or with flour of other edible kinds. The tamarind
kernel powder can be fortified up to 15% in the preparation of bread and
biscuit.
Industrial Uses
Tamarind Kernel Powder (T.K.P): Tamarind kernel powder is about 50% of
the weight of the seeds. Commercial samples of T.K.P has the composition of :
polysaccharides 48.7%, albuminoids 18.9%, fatty matters 7.5% moisture 8.8%
ash 1.6%, soluble matters 3.2% and insoluble matters 11.3%. The commercial
TKP finds extensive use as a sizing material in the textile industry. The sizing
properties of TKP are due to the presence of a polysaccharide (called jellose)
which is present to the extent of 6 percent.

7.3.7 Processing of Turmeric and its Uses

After harvesting the turmeric fingers are separated from mother rhizomes.
Mother rhizomes are usually kept as seed material. Curing of green turmeric is
done by boiling in the water with 20 g of sodium bi sulphite and 20 g of hydro
chloric acid per 45.3 kg of tubers. It provides a yellow tint. The cured tubers
are sun dried for 10-15 days till they become hard, brittle and produce metallic
sound on breaking. Thereafter they are cleaned and then polished in a metallic
drum rotated manually or by power. Generally dried cured turmeric is 20% of
freshly harvested green rhizomes. It is also recommended that to develop
attractive colour, half polished 100 kg turmeric rhizomes are mixed with the
alum (0.040 kg), turmeric powder (2 kg), castor seed (0.14 kg), Sodium
bisulphite (30 g) and concentrated hydrochloric acid (30 ml). After thoroughly
mixing it is again dried in the sun.
Common products of turmeric are its powder, volatile oil and oleoresin. It is
mainly used as food flavourant and colourant, cosmetics and as dye. It is used
as medicine for stomachic, carminative, tonic, blood purifier, vermicide and
antiseptic. Its powder is also used in tooth powder for relieving dental problem.
It is also used as a face pack as it helps in clearing pimples and unwanted hairs.
104
 Commercial Crops,
7.3.8 Post Harvest Technology of Ginger
Spices, Medicinal and
Freshly harvested ginger is cleaned with water to remove adhered soil, and Aromatic Plants
then dried in the sun for 7-10 days. During drying, regular turning is required
for uniform drying. After drying rhizomes are rubbed with the gunny bag to
remove the remnants of the skin which results in smooth finish of the final
product. In some places raw rhizomes are soaked in water and thick milk of
lime (1kg slaked lime per 120 kg water). Some times the dried rhizomes are
exposed to the sulphur dioxide fumes (3.2 kg of sulphur per tonne of rhizomes
for 12 hours). It helps in bleaching the colour and results in white polished
rhizomes.
The polished rhizomes are graded as per IS specification IS: 1908-1968. In
general, indian ginger is graded in three grades namely (1) 3 fingerd rhizomes;
(2) 2 fingered rhizomes and (3) pieces.
For the good quality of ginger its appearance, volatile oil content, fibre content,
pungency, aroma and flavour are evaluated and compared with the standards.
In the rural India, ginger is heaped covered with the soil and ginger leaves in a
shade. The heap may be plastered with the mud or cow dung. It can be stored
well between 21-30oC with 60-90 % relative humidity for two months.
Scientifically ginger is stored in cold store at 2-5oC with 90 % relative
humidity for 4 months.
There various ginger products available in the market namely ginger oil,
oleoresin, dehydrated ginger, bleached ginger, preserve, drinks, candy, pickle
and wine. Besides this as a medicine it is considered as a stimulant and a
carminative. It is also given in dyspepsia and flatulent colic.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the use of tamarind flower juice?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Name the acid which tamarind pulp has?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
105
Characteristics of 3. Why the tamarind pulp becomes black during storage? How it can be
Edible Agricultural checked?
Products
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. What is the industrial use of TKP?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
5. What is the use of turmeric base face packs?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

7.4 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

7.4.1 Uses of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Medicinal plants are the local heritage with global importance. Indian herbs are
principal form of medicine and presently popular throughout the developed
world. Basically herbs work in combination with the body’s own defense
system. The human body is much better suited to treatment with herbal
remedies than with the isolated chemical medicines. The chemical medicines
after expiry may cause harm to the body whereas the natural products that have
lost their active qualities are not harmful to the system. The digestive systems
and physiology of human evolved utilizing capacity of plant based foods and
medicines. Many plants provide food as well medicines for i.e.
i) Lemon improves resistance to infections.
ii) Papaya is used for expelling worms in stomach.
iii) Onion relives bronchial infections.
106
iv) Oats support convalescence. Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
v) Burdock herbals are helping in removing toxins from the body. Aromatic Plants
vi) Comfrey encourages blood clotting and help in healing the wounds fast.
It also plays an important role in the rural areas, particularly in remote places
with fewer medicinal facilities.
It is estimated that about 70000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes.
In Ayurveda about 2000 plant species are considered to have medicinal values,
while, Chinese list over 5700 as traditional medicines. The Indian traditional
medicine the Charak Samhita (1000 BC) records the use of over 340 drugs of
vegetables origin.
Medicinal plants have curative properties due to the presence of various
complex chemical substances of different composition, which are found as
secondary plant metabolites in one or more parts of these plants. The plant
metabolites are grouped as alkaloids, glycosides, cortico steroids, essential oils
etc. Table 7.7 indicates name of some herbs useful to cure some diseases.
Table 7.7: Medicinal use of herbs

System/Disease Plant/Herbs Uses

Skin
(a) Antiseptic Tea tree Disinfect the skin
(Melaleuca attemifolia)
(b) Emollients Marigold (Calendula Deduce itchiness,
officinalis) edness and soreness
Comfrey Blood cotting, fast
(c) Healing
(Symphytum offcinale) healing of wounds
Respiratory system
(a) Antiseptic Garlic Helps the lungs resist
(Allium sativum) infection
(b) Spas molytics Visnaga (Ammi Relax bronchial
visnaga) muscles.
Urinary system
(a) Antispectic Buchu Disinfect the urinary
(Barosma betulina) tubules
(b) Astringents Horsetail (Equisetum Tightness & protect
arvense) the urinary tubules
Musculo-
skeletalsystem Yellow Jasmine Relieve joints and
(a) Analgesics (Gelsemium sempervirens) nerve pain
White willow Reduce swelling and
(b) Antiinflammatories (Salixalba) pain in joints
Cinchona Relax tense and
(c) Antispasmodics (cinchona spp.) cramped muscles.
Nervous system
(a) Relaxants Lemon balm Relax nervous system
(Melissa officinalis)
107
Characteristics of (b) Sedatives Mistletoe Reduce nervous
Edible Agricultural (Viscum album) activity
Products
(c) Stimulants Kolanut Increase nervous
(Colaacuminata) activity
Oats Improve nerve
(d) Tonics
(Avena Sativa) function and tone
Circulation and heart
(a) Cardiotonics Ddanshen Improve the regularity
(Salvia mittiorrhiza) and strength of the
heart contractions
Cayenne Improve circulations
(b) Circulatory
(Capsicum frutescens) of the blood to the
stimulants
extremities.

(c) Diaphoretics Juhua Promote sweating &

(Chrysanthemum × lower blood pressure
morifolium)

(d) Spasmolytics Cramp bark Relax the muscelers &

(Viburmum opulus) helps to lower blood
pressure
Digestive organs
(a) Antiseptics Ginger Protect against
(Zingiber officinalis) infections
(b) Astringents Bistort Tighten the inner line
(Polygenum bistorta) of intestines and
provide protecting
coating over them.
(c) Bitters Wormwood Stimulate secretion of
(Artemisia absinthum) digestive juices
(d) Laxatives Senna Stimulate bowel
(assia senna) movements
(e) Stomachs Cardamom Protect and support
(Eletterio cardamomum )

Aromatic plants have been of great interest to mankind from the beginning of
civilization. Aromatic plants and their products, particularly the essential oil,
are now becoming one of the most important export items from many
developing countries. The upswing trends basically is due to raising the
standard of living of the people and technological advancement in the
production and processing of these essential oils.
Essential oils are complex mixtures of odours and steam-volatile
compounds which are deposited by plants in the sub-cuticular space of
glandular hairs, in cell organelles (oil bodies of Hepaticae), in idioblasts, in
excretory cavities and canals or exceptionally in heartwoods.
The main aromatic plants are mint (mentha oil), cymbopogons. turpentine,
sandal wood, vetiver, eucalyptus and ocimum. The other aromatic plants are
celery, jasmine, rose, dill, geranium, hops, cinamomum, cedar wood, cyperus
etc.
108
 Commercial Crops,
7.4.2 Processing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Spices, Medicinal and
The unit operations involving processing of plants based medicinal or aromatic Aromatic Plants
constituents are:
1. Comminution: It is the process of size reduction. So that the surface area
of the produce increases and solvent can easily interact with the produce.
Most of the natural produce is to be dried. Drying can be done in sun or
shade or in the protected area depending upon the type of the constituents.
It is preferred that drying should be slow at low temperature. The dried
material is to be crushed or broken into small parts before extraction/
distillation. During crushing/grinding temperature of the produce should
not be increased. Some of the volatiles get evaporated even at 45oC. The
homogeneity of the ground particle shows the efficacy of the extraction of
active ingredient
2. Extraction of active ingredient: Extraction is the process of separation of
the active constituents from the plant material using a solvent. Firstly plant
produce is pre-treated with the solvent outside the extractor. It facilitates
the breaking of the cell walls to release the extractable component. The rate
at which the solvent reacts with the solute depends upon solute solvent
ratio, pH, particle size and temperature. Alcohol is the widely used solvent.
It has the ability to extract many soluble constituents. Most of the alkaloids
are soluble in acids.
For extraction of essential oil, steam distillation process in widely used. In this
the steam is produced and passed through the bed of plant material. The steam
carries the volatiles, which generally boils at a temperature lower than steam. It
condenses and most of essential oils are insoluble in water. They are separated
in the aqueous phase, forming two layers, then they can be easily separated.
The factors, which influence the quality and quantity of extraction, are; size of
load, steam pressure, density of packing of planting material in the bed,
duration of distillation and rate of steam injection.
The aroma constituents are heat sensitive. So the technique must be carried out
with pure and low boiling solvents such as pentane or hexane. Extraction with
super critical solvents generally carbon-di-oxide is the most effective but
capital intensive.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5 "
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why herbal-based medicines are suitable to the human body?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

109
Characteristics of 2. What is the need of comminution in the medicinal and aromatic plants?
Edible Agricultural
Products ……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Efficacy of extraction mainly depends upon ……………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

7.5 LET US SUM UP

The knowledge of commercial crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants
is necessary. It provides ample employment opportunity. India is known for its
knowledge in their cultivation and quality processing since ages. Indians were
deployed to other countries to teach cultivation of sugarcane. The merchants
traded Indian spices many centuries ago. The ancient herbal medicines suits
human bodies as they do not have any side effect.
The production, processing of each of the crop is different. The process
technology depends up on the active constituent which is to be extracted. Its
purity decides the price.

7.6 KEY WORDS

Molasses : A by-product of sugarcane industry and base
material for distillery and fermented products.
H.S.C. : Highest Standard Count (HSC) is a unit to
express and evaluate quality of the cotton.
Pungent principal : The main constituent responsible for pungency.
For i.e. pepper it is alkaloid piperine.
T.KP. : Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP) is the powder of
dried tamarind kernel seeds. It is used as material
in textile industry.
Essential oils : It is a complex mixture of odours and steam-
volatile compounds, which are deposited by
plants in the sub-cuticular space of glandular
hairs, in cell organelles or in canals of woods.
110
Comminution : It is the process of size reduction of any Commercial Crops,
Spices, Medicinal and
substances so that surface area is increased. Aromatic Plants
Steam distillation : It is the process of boiling the substances with
water, so that water soluble volatiles oils are
carried away by the steam. Then steam is to be
condensed so that oils being lighter can be easily
separated.

7.7 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS "

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Sugarcane plant harnesses solar energy and converts it into sugar,
cellulosic and non-cellulosic energy producing substances. So it is called as
energy efficient crop.
2. It provides huge employment, produces lint as well as oil seed.
3. About 100 kg sugar
4. To avoid inversion of sugar.
5. It is diuretic, refreshing and cooling.
6. Digestion, washing, screening, bleaching, dewatering and thickening are
the unit operations in paper manufacturing.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Fineness, maturity and strength are the indices to judge quality of cotton.
2. 27 mm and above
3. i) India ii) Cardamom iii) Pepper
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Sun
2. 24-36 hours
3. Alkaloid piperine
4. Papaya seed
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. To check internal bleeding of piles.
2. Tartaric acid.
3. It is due to Millard reaction. It can be prevented by storing in airtight
container at cool and dry place.
4. Tamarind kernel powder (TKP) is used in the textile industry.
5. It clears the pimples and unwanted hairs.

111
Characteristics of Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Edible Agricultural
Products 1. Herbal based medicines work in concert with the body’s own defense
system.
2. It increases the surface area so that solvent can easily interact with the
active constitute.
3. Homogeneity of the product after comminution.

7.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Anonymous (2003) Post Harvest Technology of Chilli, Pepper, Cardamom
Pubilaction No 6,7, 8 /2003 TNAU, Coimbatore.
2. Atal, C.K. and Kapur, B.M. (1982) Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic
Plants CSIR, Jammu Tawi.
3. Babu, C.K., Kumar, M.V. and Rangana, B. (1999) Post Harvest
Management of Tamarind Published by PHTS, UAS, Bangalore
4. Babu, C.K., Rangana, B. and Kumar, M.V. (1999) Status Report on
Processing of Pepper Published by PHTS, UAS, Bangalore.
5. Chomchalow, Narong and Henle, H.V. (1995) Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants in Asia. Oxford and IBH Publishing N. Delhi.
6. Prajapati, N.D., Purohit, S.S., Sharma, A.K. and Kumar, Tarun (2003) A
Hand Book of Medicinal Plants. Agrobios (India) Agro House, Jodhpur.
7. Purthi, J.S. (1993) Major Spices of India. Published by ICAR, New Delhi.
8. Tata, S.N. and Wadhwani, A.M. (1992) Hand Book of Agriculture
Published by ICAR, New Delhi.

112
 Loss of Food Value in
UNIT 10 LOSS OF FOOD VALUE IN FRESH Fresh Produce and
Processed Products
PRODUCE AND PROCESSED
PRODUCTS
Structure

10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Assessment of Loss
10.3 Factors Causing Spoilage: Physical, Physiological, Thermal, Microbial,
Chemical, Insects, Pests Diseases
10.4 Post-Harvest/ Slaughter – Biochemical Changes
Post-Harvest Biochemical Changes
Post-Slaughter Biochemical Changes
10.5 Handling and Transport
10.6 Cold Storage
10.7 Protection and Preservation Techniques
10.8 Evaporative Cooling and Storage
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 Key Words
10.11 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
10.12 Some Useful Books

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the protection and preservation techniques;
• explain biochemical changes after harvesting and slaughter; and
• discuss the handling, transport and safe storage of fruits and vegetables.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable commodities. These are affected by
a number of factors leading to post harvest spoilage and hence, post harvest
losses are the major source of food loss. Besides, packaging, transportation,
and marketing of these perishables also contribute to post harvest losses. These
are passed through a long channel before their use, which may lead to a
number of undesirable physico-chemical changes in their composition. The
losses may take place further, if the produce is not processed following the
scientific methodology. In order to reduce the losses and maintain the quality
to a maximum extent, effective post harvest management of fruits and
vegetables during handling, transportation, marketing, and storage of fresh and
processed products is of great importance.

10.2 ASSESSMENT OF LOSS

Fruits and vegetables respire even after harvesting and undergo biochemical
changes. Their condition and marketable life are affected by temperature,
humidity, composition of the atmosphere which surrounds them, level of
43
Nutrition damage that has been inflicted on them before, during and after harvest, and
the type and degree of infection with microorganisms, insects etc. Fruits and
vegetables will deteriorate during storage through loss of moisture, loss of
nutrients, physical loss through pest and disease attack, loss in quality from
physiological disorders, fibre development, greening (potatoes), shoot growth,
seed germination etc.
Various loss assessment methods have been used in practice for perishable
commodities. In a study of apples arriving at a central market in Mexico over a
period of one year, various measurements were made using European
Community (EC) Standards (Table 10.1).
Table 10.1: Quality standards and losses of apples at wholesale market
level in Mexico

Quality rating Reasons for being unmarketable Percentage

Extra 0.2
1 11.0
2 29.6
3 25.7
Below 3 15.5
Unmarketable 18.0
Physiological (dehydration, over- 9.0
maturity, physiological disorders)
Fungal diseases (Penicillium, 10.0
Gloeosporium, Phytophthora)
Insect infestation 2.1
Bitterpit 1.4
Freezing injury 0.2
Mechanical damage 6.8

Source: Noon R.A. (1979). Report on an assignment as Plant Pathologist to

CONAFRUTA, Mexico City, March 1977-September 1979. Tropical
products Institute Report R923, 34 pp.

The factors in the life cycle of fresh fruits and vegetables, which can influence
their post-harvest losses, are crop production factors (temperature, nutritional
status, light, day length, chemical treatments, infections or infestations etc.),
maturity level at harvesting, method of (manual or mechanical) harvesting,
removing crops from the field, treatments (pesticides, heat, sprout
suppressants, curing), storage and transport conditions, packaging, type of
transport, type of store, temperature (pre-cooling, store temperature), humidity,
and atmospheric gases.
Losses occur at different times during the production and post harvest cycle of
crops, and have a variety of causes. If it is clear that the losses are due to
infections caused by microorganisms the control measures will depend on the
type of microorganism, the time of infection, the reason for the success of
infection and permissible control measures. It follows that effective and
44
sustainable control of post harvest losses should be an integrated approach Loss of Food Value in
Fresh Produce and
taking into account health, economics and practicality of the situation. It is Processed Products
important to know the time in marketing chain when losses occur. Losses are
usually higher when the crop enters the marketing chain (particularly during
wholesale marketing) than in crops consumed by the producer.

10.3 FACTORS CAUSING SPOILAGE: PHYSICAL,

PHYSIOLOGICAL, THERMAL, MICROBIAL,
CHEMICAL, INSECTS, PESTS, DISEASES
Factors causing spoilage often do not operate in isolation. At one time, many
forms of deterioration may take place, depending on the type of food and the
environmental conditions that its exposed to.
Physical Factors
Storage conditions like temperature, oxygen, light, duration of storage etc are
the important factors that influence the type of microbial growth and spoilage.
The rate of a chemical reaction doubles itself for every 100 C rise in
temperature. Excessive heat brings about protein denaturation and destruction
of vitamins. Several fruits and vegetables deteriorate even at refrigeration
temperature (40 C) resulting in disclouration, changes in texture etc. Freezing
may also cause deterioration of liquid foods e.g. separation of fat particles
from a food emulsion.
Atmospheric oxygen brings about undesirable changes in foods such as
discolouration, flavour changes and loss of vitamin A and C. Light destroys
riboflavin, vitamin A and C and also many food colours. All the other food
deterioration factors are time-dependent. The longer the storage time, greater
the deterioration of food.
Physiological Factors
Rate at which the stored product respires is a major factor in determining the
pace of physiological ageing. Deterioration in fruits and vegetables occurs
mainly through the process of physiological ageing and water loss.
The characteristics of a food influence the type of microorganisms that can
grow in it and thus determine the changes in its appearance, flavour and other
qualities. Proteins are degraded by proteolytic organisms. Fats are digested by
relatively few microorganisms, mainly moulds. Fats become rancid due to
hydrolytic decomposition to mal-odourous fatty acids. Carbohydrates are
affected by carbohydrates fermenting microorganisms; particularly yeasts and
moulds.
Moisture is required both for chemical reactions and microbial growth. Foods
with a high percentage of moisture deteriorate fast. Variation in surface
moisture due to change in relative humidity can lead to lumping and caking,
surface defects, crystallization and stickiness in foods. Condensation of even
small amounts of moisture can result in multiplication of bacteria.
Acidity- Due to low pH, most of fruits are mainly spoiled by yeasts and
moulds. Nonacid foods (vegetables, meat, fish, milk) are particularly subject to
bacterial spoilage, but also support growth of moulds under favourable
conditions.
45
Nutrition Thermal Factors
Inappropriate temperature during food processing and storage are one of the
main causes of food deterioration. At high processing temperature proteins get
denatured and browning takes place (Maillard reaction). Water soluble
vitamins particularly vitamin C, thiamine and riboflavin are heat sensitive and
destroyed at high temperatures. Oxidative rancidity is accelerated by heat,
metallic tins and light. The rate of oxidation of fat is doubled for each degree
increase in temperature. Sugars and starches are degraded by prolonged
heating at high temperature.
Microbial Factors
Bacteria, yeasts and moulds often cause food spoilage after harvesting, during
handling, processing and storage. They attack all the food components – sugar,
starche, cellulose, fat and protein. Depending on the food and the
microorganisms, the action on food could be to produce acids, making the food
sour, or produce alcohol. Some microorganisms produce gases, making the
food foamy; still others produce unwanted pigments or toxins.
Chemical Factors
Pesticides can leave residues on plant produce much more than safe limits and
make them unfit for consumption. Poisonous chemicals may enter foods from
utensils, e.g., from cadmium plated ware or cheap enamelled ware containing
antimony. Lead and arsenic residues from fruit sprays may be on fruit surface,
but usually in harmless amounts, especially after washing. Indiscriminate use
of all plastic packaging material like polyvinyl and polyethylene material can
be a health hazard, e.g., it may lead to the reaction of acid and oil of pickles
with plastic packaging as observed in some cases.
Insects, Pests, Diseases
Insects, worms, bugs and fruit flies may damage foodstuffs such as grains,
fruits and vegetables and render them unfit for consumption. Apart from losses
due to food eaten, insects cause greater damage due to bruises and cuts they
make in foods exposing them to microbial attack resulting in total decay. Pests
such as rodents introduce high degree of filth in form of excreta, bodily
secretions and spoilage microorganisms. For example, rats can transfer the
bacteria Salmonella to the food, may cause salmonellosis.
Several types of pathogenic fungi are able to initiate an infection on the surface
of floral parts and on, developing fruits. Many fungi that cause considerable
wastage of produce are unable to penetrate intact skin of the produce, but
readily invade broken skin. In addition, the cut stem is a frequent point of entry
for microorganisms, and stem-end rots are important forms of post harvest
wastage of many fruits and vegetables.

46
 Loss of Food Value in
Table 10.2: Major post harvest diseases of some fresh fruits and
Fresh Produce and
vegetables Processed Products

Crop Disease Pathogens

Apple, pear Lenticel rot Phlyctaena vagabunda
Blue mold rot Penicillium expansum
Banana Crown rot Colletotrichum musae Arx, Fusarium
roseum, Verticillium theobromae,
Ceratocystis paradoxa
Anthracnose Colletotrichum musae
Citrus fruits Stem end rot Phomopsis citri Faw, Diplodia
natalensis, Alternaria citri
Penicillium digitatum Sacc.
Green mould rot Penicillium italicum Wehmer
Blue mould rot Geotrichum candidum
Sour rot
Papaya, mango Anthracnose Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes
Pineapple Black rot Ceratocystis paradoxa,
Potato, leafy Bacterial soft rot Erwinia carotovora
vegetable Dry rot Fusarium species
Leafy vegetables, Watery soft rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
carrot

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by spoilage?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What are different factors that can deteriorate the quality of fresh and
processed products? Explain in brief.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

47
Nutrition 3. How the pests can make the food unfit for consumption?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

10.4 POST-HARVEST/ SLAUGHTER – BIOCHEMICAL

CHANGES

10.4.1 Post-Harvest Biochemical Changes

The perishable foods like fruits and vegetables continue to undergo chemical
changes even after harvest. The changes of fruits after harvest are numerous.
Some of the very important changes include changes in (i) rate of respiration,
(ii) water content, (iii) carbohydrates and (iv) organic acids and pH.
i) A major metabolic process which takes place in harvested produce or in
any living plant is respiration. Respiration rate per unit weight is highest for
the immature fruits or vegetables and then steadily declines with the age.
ii) When fruit and vegetables are picked from the plants, water no longer
flows into the foods although the loss continues. In dry atmosphere and at
high temperatures, water loss is rapid. For e.g., apples rapidly cooled after
delivery to the storage area have a much smaller water loss than those
cooled slowly. During the ripening period of bananas, the water content in
the pulp increases and in the peel decreases. Water loss in bananas (and
probably in other fruits) is checked by waxy layer of the skin.
iii) Many changes occur in the carbohydrate fraction of fruits during ripening.
This alters both taste and texture of the produce. The green fruits usually
contain an abundance of starch, but are short on the soluble sugars that give
ripe fruit its sweetness. On ripening, however, starches decrease and sugars
increase in concentration.
One of the most obvious changes in fruit is the alteration in texture. The
breakdown of polymeric carbohydrates, especially pectic substances and
hemicelluloses, weakens cell walls and the cohesive forces binding cells
together. In the initial stages, the texture becomes more palatable, but
eventually the plant structures disintegrate. Protopectin is the insoluble parent
form of pectic substances. During ripening and maturation, protopectin is
gradually broken down to soluble pectin. The rate of degradation of pectic
substances is directly correlated with the rate of softening of fruit. For e.g.
pears are picked in the hard stage and held at low temperatures until required
for ripening. On return to room temperature they rapidly ripen and soften due
to increase in soluble pectin. Fruits like banana, peaches, plums and tomatoes
also show loss of protopectin and rise in soluble pectins on ripening.

10.4.2 Post-Slaughter Biochemical Changes

There are a series of biochemical changes occurring after slaughter. When an
animal dies, the skeletal muscles stiffen in rigor mortis and remain in this
48
condition for a period after which they soften and become flexible again. The Loss of Food Value in
Fresh Produce and
onset of rigor is quickened by high temperatures and delayed by low Processed Products
temperature. Rigor mortis is important in meat products since muscles cooked
while still in rigor are much tougher than if it is allowed to soften before
cooking. The stiffness, that develops when muscles pass into rigor, is the result
of changes in the proteins. Living muscle fibres contain protein in a soft,
pliable gel. During rigor this gel stiffens, but when rigor passes, the muscle
again becomes soft and pliable. After the passing of rigor mortis, meat
becomes progressively more tender, juicier, and more flavourful. The speed
with which this ripening or aging occurs, depends on the time and temperature
of keeping the carcass. Changes occur quite rapidly at room temperature but
more slowly at refrigerator temperatures.

10.5 HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

Fruits and vegetables continue to respire even after harvesting. We cannot
improve the quality of the harvested commodities but it can be retained till
consumption if the rate of metabolic activities is reduced by adopting the
appropriate post harvest handling operations (Fig. 10.1).
Pre-cooling
Pre-cooling (prompt cooling after harvest) is important for most of fruits and
vegetables because they may deteriorate as much in 1 hour at 320C as they do
in 1 day at 100C or in 1 week at 00C. In addition to removal of field heat from
commodities, pre-cooling also reduces bruise damage from vibration during
transit. Cooling requirement for a crop vary with the air temperature during
harvesting, stage of maturity, and nature of crop. Different methods of cooling
are given commodity-wise in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Commodity-wise cooling methods

Cooling method Commodity

Room cooling All fruits and vegetables.
Forced air cooling (pressure Fruits and fruit type vegetables, tubers and
cooling) cauliflower.
Hydro cooling Stem, leafy vegetable, some fruits and fruit
type vegetables.
Package icing Roots, stem, some flower type vegetables,
green onions and brussel sprouts.
Vaccum cooling Some stem, leaf and flower type vegetables.
Transit cooling
Mechanical refrigeration All fruits and vegetables
Top icing and channel icing Some roots, stems, leafy vegetables

Washing, Cleaning and Trimming

Before fresh fruits and vegetables are marketed various amounts of cleaning
are necessary which typically involves the removal of soil, dust, adhering
debris, insects and spray residues. Chlorine in fresh water is often used as
disinfectant to wash the commodity. Some fungicides like Diphenylamine
(0.1-0.25%) or ethoxyquin (0.2-0.5%) may be used as post-harvest dip to
control an important disorder of apple known as superficial scald. Many
49
Nutrition vegetables need trimming, cutting and removal of unsightly leaves or other
vegetables parts.

Harvesting Harvesting

Pre-cooling Pre-cooling

Sorting Cleaning

Washing
Trimming

Waxing/Chemical treatments
Grading

Sizing
Sorting

Packaging Curing

Storage Sizing

Transportation Waxing

Wholesaler Packaging

Storage
Restoring, Resizing and Repackaging
Transportation

Transportation Wholesaler

Retailer
Transportation

Consumer
Retailer

Consumer

(a) (b)

Figure 10.1: Post-harvest handling operations of a) fruits, and b) vegetables

50
 Loss of Food Value in
Sorting, Grading and Sizing
Fresh Produce and
Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits, which are unsuitable to market or Processed Products
store due to damage by insects, diseases or mechanical injuries. The remainder
crop products are separated into two or more grades on the basis of the surface
colour, shape or visible defects. For example, in an apple packing house in
India 3 grades viz. extra fancy, fancy and standard may be packed for
marketing. After sorting and grading, sizing is done either by hand or machine.
Sizing on the basis of fruit shape and size are most effective for spherical
(oranges, tomato, certain apple cultivars) and elongated (delicious apples,
European pears or of non-uniform shaped commodities, respectively. Grading-
packing line machines with facilities of washing, waxing and drying in
addition to sizing are now days available in the market.
Curing
Curing is an effective operation to reduce the water loss during storage from
hardy vegetables viz. onion, garlic, and other root vegetables. The curing
methods employed for root crops are entirely different than that from the
bulbous crops (onion and garlic). The curing of root and tuber crops develops
periderm over cut, broken or skinned surfaces for wound restoration. It helps in
the healing of harvest injuries, reduces loss of water and prevents the infection
by decay and attack by pathogens. Onion and garlic are cured to dry the necks
and outer scales. For the curing of onion and garlic, the bulbs are left in the
field after harvesting under shade for a few days until the green tops; outer skin
and roots are fully dried.
Waxing
Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration rates, but other
chemicals such as fungicides, growth regulators, preservative can also be
incorporated specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout inhibition etc.
However, it should be remembered that waxing does not improve the quality of
any inferior horticulture product but it can be a beneficial adjunct to good
handling. Some of the commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, carnauba wax,
bees wax, wood resins, shellac, etc.
The majority of quality contributing factors as affected by wax application
includes reduction in the physiological loss in weight (PLW), delay in
respiration rate, reduction in post-harvest spoilage and maintenance of
improved quality of commodity intended for storage to increase the shelf life.
The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the development of off flavour if
not applied properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed to O2 and
CO2 exchange, thus resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and
acetaldehyde contents.
Packaging
Proper or scientific packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables reduces the
wastage of commodities by protecting them from mechanical damage,
pilferage, dirt, moisture loss and other undesirable physiological changes and
pathological deterioration during the course of storage, transportation and
subsequent marketing. For providing uniform quality to packed produce, the
commodity should be carefully supervised and sorted prior to packaging.
Packaging cannot improve the quality but it certainly helps in maintaining it as
it protects the produce against the hazards of transportation.
51
Nutrition Transportation
Mechanical damage to packages occurs particularly during handling and
transportation. Rail, road, sea and air transport may all be used to move
produce to its destination. Air-transport relies on short journey time to
maintain produce quality. The packaging requirement during surface transport
are generally greater than by air owing to longer time taken for the journey,
higher humidity and usually greater stack heights. The use of pallets and
mechanical aids can reduce handling damage to the package considerably. It is
very important that the package maintains its integrity throughout the journey.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain briefly the important changes take place in harvested fruits and
vegetables.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Why pre-cooling is important for harvested fruits and vegetables?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Discuss the unit operations, which are important for handling of fruits and
vegetables.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

52
 Loss of Food Value in
10.6 COLD STORAGE Fresh Produce and
Processed Products
Fresh produce changes in quality and quantity between harvest and
consumption. These losses have been observed to the tune of 20-50 per cent
particularly in developing country depending upon the commodity. Fresh
produce like fruits and vegetables and ornamentals are living tissues, which are
subjected to continuous change after harvest due to inadequate handling,
packaging, transport and storage. Deterioration in fruits and vegetables occur
mainly through the process of physiological ageing and water loss. The rate at
which the stored product respires is a major factor in determining the pace of
physiological ageing.
The deterioration in the agricultural produce of high value (milk, meat, fish,
fruits, and vegetables) depends largely on storage temperature. One way to
minimize deterioration reduce losses consists of lowering their storage
temperature to an appropriate level. The storage of foods for extended periods
at lowered temperatures is called as cold storage.
Refrigeration or Chilling
Chilling temperatures are obtained by means of ice or mechanical refrigeration.
Fruits, vegetables and their products and other high value foods can be stored
for a few days to many weeks when kept at chilling temperature. It is necessary
to refrigerate fruits and vegetables as soon as they are harvested, fish as soon
as they are caught and meat as soon as slaughter has taken place under good
hygienic conditions, eggs recently laid, etc. to maintain the quality of the
foods. It is important to cool the produce before refrigeration, maintain RH
conditions for the food, and carry out renewal of air.
Freezing
Freezing method is most harmless method of storage of food for longer
duration. At temperature below the freezing point of water (−180 to −400 C)
growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity are reduced to a minimum.
Most perishable foods can be preserved for several months if the temperature
is brought down quickly (quick freezing) and the food is kept at these
temperatures. Quick frozen foods maintain their quality and freshness when
they are thawed because only very small ice crystals are formed when foods
are frozen in this manner.
Table 10.4: Practical storage life of some frozen products
Product Practical storage Life (in months)
−180C −250C −300C
Fruits
Peaches, apricots or cherries (sweet or 12 18 24
sour) in sugar
Raspberries or strawberries in sugar 18 <24 >24
Citrus or other fruit concentrates 24 >24 >24
Vegetables
Broccoli 15 24 >24
Carrots 18 >24 >24
Cauliflower 15 24 >24
Peas 18 >24 >24
53
Nutrition Raw meat and meat products
Beef carcass 12 18 24
Veal carcass 9 12 24
Pork carcass 6 12 15
Poultry, chicken and turkeys eviscerated 12 24 24
(packaged)
Fried chicken 6 9 12
Whole eggs, liquid 12 24 >24
Marine products
Fatty fish 4 8 12
Lean fish 8 18 24
Milk products
Butter from pasteurized and matured cream 8 12 15
Cream 6 12 18
Ice-cream 6 12 18
Bakery and confectionery
Cakes-cheese, sponge, chocolate, fruit, etc 12 24 >24

10.7 PROTECTION AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

Foods are perishable and hence cannot be stored at ordinary temperatures for
any length of time. So there comes the need of protection and preservation. It
becomes necessary to take the preventive measures to increase the shelf life, or
to treat these commodities with some life enhancer or processing them to
various products. In the preservation of food, the following methods are
involved:
I. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition
a) by keeping out microorganisms (asepsis- packaging prevents entry of
microorganisms in food, e.g. canned peas);
b) by removal of microorganisms, e.g. filtration;
c) by hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms, e.g., by low
temperature, drying, anaerobic conditions, chemicals or antibiotics;
and
II. By killing the microorganisms, e.g., by heat or irradiation.
III. Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food
a) by destruction or inactivation of enzymes, e.g., by blanching or
boiling;
b) by prevention or delay of chemical reactions, e.g., prevention of
oxidation by means of an antioxidant.
IV. Prevention of damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes, etc.
Various methods generally used for preservation of foods are as under:
I. Preservation by High Temperature: Two common methods of
preservation by high temperatures are preservation are usually:
pasteurization and sterilization.
54
 Loss of Food Value in
a) Pasteurization
Fresh Produce and
Pasteurization destroys pathogenic microorganisms and extends Processed Products
shelf life of the product by decreasing the microbial population and
inactivation of enzymes, for example, pasteurized milk and other
dairy products, beer, fruit juices and aerated drinks. Dried fruits like
raisins, apricots and dates can also be pasteurized in the package.
b) Sterilization
Sterilization means the destruction of all viable microorganisms. The
time and temperature necessary for sterilization vary with the type of
food. Vegetables like green peas, beans, okra etc being non acidic
contains more starch than sugar, require higher temperature to kill
the spore forming organisms. Continuous heating or 30 to 90
minutes at 1160 C is essential for their sterilization. Temperature
above 1000 C can only be obtained by using steam pressure
sterilizers such as autoclaves.
Aseptic Canning
Aseptic Canning is a technique in which food is sterilized outside the can
and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized cans, which are
subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment, e.g., fluid and semi fluid
products. The temperature employed may be as high as 1490 C and
sterilization takes place in 1 or 2 seconds.
Hot Pack or Hot Fill
Hot pack refers to the filling of previously pasteurized or sterilized food
while still hot, into clean but not necessarily sterile containers under
clean but not necessarily aseptic conditions, e.g. filling of hot jams in
jars. Heat of the product and some holding time before cooling render the
container sterile.
II. Preservation by Low Temperature
Microbial growth and enzymatic recitations are retarded in foods stored
at low temperatures. Low temperatures can be obtained by (a)
refrigeration or chilling (0-50C) suitable for storage of potatoes, apples
and other perishables, and (b) freezing (−18 to −400 C) suitable for
storage of most of the perishables.
III. Preservation by Chemicals
Certain chemicals when added in small quantities can hinder undesirable
chemical reaction in food by interfering with cell membrane and
enzymatic activity of microorganisms or their genetic mechanisms and
acting as antioxidants. Benzoic acid, potassium metabisulphite, sorbic
acid, calcium propionate are some of the chemicals used as preservative.
The development of off flavours (rancidity) in edible oils is prevented by
the use of butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxy toluene
(BHT) or lecithin, which act as antioxidants.

55
Nutrition IV. Preservation by drying
When the moisture content of food is brought down below a certain
level, microorganisms are unable to grow. Moisture can be removed by
heat application as in sun drying or by mechanical drying (dehydration),
e.g. dried green peas, cauliflower and raw mango, and fruit juice powder,
etc.
V. Preservation by filtration
In this method, the juices are clarified by settling or by using ordinary
filters and then passed through special filters, which are capable for
retaining yeasts and bacteria. Various types of germ proof filters are used
for this purpose.
VI. Preservation by Carbonation
Carbonation adds to the life of a beverage and contributes in some
measures to its tang. Another advantage of carbonation is the removal of
air thus creating an anaerobic condition, which reduces the oxidation of
ascorbic acid and prevents browning.
VII. Preservation by Salt or Sugar
Salt at a concentration of 15 to 25 per cent is sufficient to preserve most
products by: (i) causing high osmotic pressure resulting in the
plasmolysis of microbial cells, (ii) dehydrating food as well as
microorganisms by drawing out and tying up the moisture (iii) ionizing
to yield the chloride ion which is harmful to microorganisms, (iv)
reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing the cells against
carbon dioxide, and interfering with the action of proteolytic enzymes.
Sugar absorbs most of the available water resulting very little water for
microbial growth hence their multiplication is inhibited and even those
already present die out gradually. Thus sugar acts as preservative by
osmosis as in case of jam, jelly, candy, marmalade, etc.
VIII. Preservation by Fermentation
Decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms or enzymes is called
‘fermentation’. By this method, foods are preserved by the alcohol or
organic acid formed by microbial action. The keeping quality of the
alcoholic beverages (wine, beers), vinegar and fermented pickles
depends upon the presence of alcohol, acetic acid and lactic acid,
respectively. About 2 per cent acetic acid prevents spoilage in many
products.
IX. Preservation by Acids
Acidic conditions inhibit the growth of many microorganisms hence
organic acids are added to or allowed to form in foods to preserve them.
Acetic acid in pickles, citric acid in squashes, jam and jellies, lactic acid
are commonly used for preservation.
X. Preservation by oil and spices
A layer of oil on the surface of any food produces anaerobic conditions,
which prevents the growth of moulds and yeasts. Thus pickles in which
enough oil is added to form a layer at the top can be preserved for long
56
 periods. Spices like turmeric, pepper, and asafoetida have very little Loss of Food Value in
Fresh Produce and
bacteriostatic effect but their primary function is to impart their Processed Products
characteristic flavour to food.
XI. Preservation by Antibiotics
Certain metabolic products of microorganisms have been found to have
germicidal effect and are termed as antibiotics. Nisin, an antibiotic used
in canning of mushrooms, tomatoes and milk products. Subtilin is used
for the preservation of asparagus, corn, and peas. Pimaricin can be used
for treating fruits and fruit juices. At present these three antibiotics are
permitted only in such foods. Residual antibiotics are expected to be
destroyed during cooking as these foods are expected to cook prior to
consumption.
XII. Preservation by irradiation
The ionizing radiations (gamma rays or electro beams) can be used for
sterilization of foods in hermetically sealed packs, reducing the spoilage
flora on perishable foods, elimination of pathogens in foods, control of
infestation in stored cereals, prevention of sprouting of potatoes, onion
etc. The irradiation of food can be considered to a method of ‘cold
sterilization’, i.e. food is free of microorganisms without high
temperature treatment. This method has not yet gained general
acceptance due to the unacceptable flavour of some irradiated food and
fear of hazard.

10.8 EVAPORATIVE COOLING AND STORAGE

Temperature and moisture content are two most important parameters, which
control the rate of decay of food commodities during storage. The higher the
temperature the more is the rate of respiration and other biochemical processes,
and the food is more likely to develop abnormalities with resultant loss of
quality and nutritive value. The vital activities of the tissues such as
transpiration, respiration and ripening etc. continue even after harvest. The
high moisture content of the horticultural commodities accelerates these
reactions making them highly perishable. Very low humidity in the storage
space causes undesirable moisture loss from the commodity leading to
desiccation and shrivelling. Thus, the principal aim of storage in fresh form is
to control wilting and shrinkage alongwith the above undesirable physiological
and biochemical changes and infections. This can be achieved by maintaining
lower temperature and high humidity conditions through evaporative cooling.
Evaporative cooling is the adiabatic saturation of moist air. It is a
thermodynamic process, where a part or all of the sensible heat of moist air is
converted to latent heat, thereby, producing a reduction in temperature.
Evaporation of water produces a considerable cooling effect and the effect
increases with increase in the amount of evaporation. Theoretically, the lowest
temperature that can be achieved by the evaporation of water is the wet bulb
temperature of the moist air. Evaporative cooling has been extensively utilized
for creating a modified atmosphere in an enclosure for crop growing, livestock
housing or storage of horticultural produce. Evaporative cooling has also been
recommended for removal of field heat from produce on the farm and for short
duration storage after it is removed from the cold stores before distribution.
57
Nutrition Evaporative cool chambers maintain 10-150 C lower temperature compared to
field temperature, depending on the season and also maintain around 90 per
cent relative humidity. The fruits and vegetables can be stored in plastic crates
in the chamber. The shelf life of some fruit and vegetables in the cool
chambers have been observed to increase from 3 to 90 days as compared to
storage at room temperature.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are different principles of food preservation? List out with examples.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. How the temperature effect the storage of fruits and vegetables, explain in
brief.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

10.9 LET US SUM UP

Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable commodities. Fresh produce
changes in quality and quantity between harvest and consumption. These
changes depend upon a number of factors. The quantitative losses have been
observed to the tune of 20-50 per cent mainly because of inappropriate
handling, packaging, transport and storage of the fresh produce. Deteriorative
changes in fruits and vegetables occur mainly due to the action of
microorganisms, storage conditions like temperature, oxygen, light, duration of
storage, characteristics of the food, insects, pest, diseases etc.
Post harvest handling is one of the major factors that affect the overall quality
and losses during transport and marketing. Spoilage in fruits and vegetables
depends largely on storage temperature. Deteriorative changes and quantitative
58
losses can be reduced significantly by lowering the storage temperature to an Loss of Food Value in
Fresh Produce and
appropriate level. The storage of foods for extended periods at lowered Processed Products
temperatures is called as cold storage.
Most of the fruits and vegetables cannot be stored for too long. So there arises
the need of protection and preservation. Fruits and vegetables can be preserved
by high temperatures (as in case of pasteurization, sterilization, canning), low
temperature (refrigeration or freezing), preservatives, removal of moisture, use
of salt, sugar, acids, oils, antibiotics, and irradiation.

10.10 KEY WORDS

Canning : the process of preserving food by sterilization at
>1000 C and cooking in a sealed metal can,
which destroys bacteria and protects from
contamination.
Carbonation : is the process of dissolving sufficient carbon
dioxide in water or beverage so that the product
when served gives off the gas as fine bubbles and
has a characteristic taste, e.g. carbonated fruit
beverages.
Maillard reaction : the reaction between lysine (an amino acid in
protein) and sugars is known as Maillard
reaction. This deteriorative change takes place on
heating or prolonged storage.
Pasteurization : when food is heated in containers or by other
method to a temperature below 1000 C for a
definite period of time, the process is known as
pasteurization.
Respiration : oxidative breakdown of complex materials,
present in cells, such as carbon dioxide and
water, with the production of energy and other
molecules that can be used by the cell for
synthetic reactions.
Spoilage : is a condition produced by excessive growth of
microorganisms leading gradually to decay or
decomposition or by other physical and chemical
causes.

10.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS "

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Undesirable changes in foods.
Food spoiled due to action of microorganisms, insects, pests, enzymes and
other factors. See sub-sec. 10.3.

59
Nutrition 2. Physical factor, physiological factors, thermal factors, microbial factors,
chemical factors, insects, pests, diseases. See Sub-sec 10.3.
3. Rodents contaminate the food with their urine and droppings.
Rats can contaminate the food with microorganisms. See Sub-sec 10.3.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Respiration.
Changes in water content.
Organic acids and starch content decreases. Sugar content increases.
See sub-sec 10.4.1.
2. Reduces field heat.
Reduces the rate of deterioration. See sub-sec 10.4.
3. Pre-cooling, washing, cleaning, trimming, sorting, grading, curing, sizing,
waxing, packaging. See sub-sec 10.4.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition
By killing the microorganisms.
Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food. See sub-sec. 10.7.
2. High temperature enhances decay.
Low temperature reduces losses and enhances shelf life. See sub-sec. 10.7
and 10.8.

10.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Srivastava, R.P. and Kumar Sanjeev (2002) Fruit & Vegetable Preservation
(Principal and Practices 3rd Revised and Enlarged Edition), International
Book Distributing Co.
2. Thompson, A.K. (1996) Post Harvest Technology of Fruit and Vegetables,
Blackwell Science Ltd., London.
3. Wills, R., McGlasson, B., Graham, D. and Joyce, D. (1998) Post-harvest an
Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruit, Vegetables &
Ornamentals, CAB International, Australia.
4. Wills, R.B.H., McGlasson, Graham D., Lee, T.H. and Hall, E.G. (1989)
Post Harvest an Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruit and
Vegetables. CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.

60
 Anti-Nutritional
UNIT 11 ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS, Factors, Food
Contaminants and
FOOD CONTAMINANTS AND Toxic Elements

TOXIC ELEMENTS
Structure

11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Anti-Nutritional Factors
Anti-Nutritional Factors in Plant Foods
Toxicants in Animal Foods
11.3 Contamination of Food by Microorganism, Pathogens
11.4 Food Intoxicants
11.5 Mycotoxins
11.6 Food Poisoning and Food Infections
Food Poisoning
Food Infections
11.7 Food Born Diseases
11.8 Methods of Preventing Food Contamination
11.9 Deficiency: Protein, Vitamin and Mineral – Consequences and
Corrective Measures
11.10 Methods of Nutrient Retention during Processing and Storage
11.11 Food Analysis, Residue Analysis
Food Analysis
Residue Analysis
11.12 Let Us Sum Up
11.13 Key Words
11.14 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
11.15 Some Useful Books

11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• describe food contamination, factors contributing contamination and
methods of prevention;
• list the anti-nutritional factors in food;
• discuss food born illness; and
• state deficiency diseases.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Foods are exceedingly complex mixtures of chemicals substances. Apart from
containing nutritionally important constituents, some foods also contain
substances, which are harmful. The presence of nonnutritive constituents in
foods represents potential health risks of different characters and magnitudes to
persons consuming them. If such food is ingested, it can cause food poisoning
and infection. Food poisoning could be caused by ingestion of foods
containing certain chemicals, toxic plants or animals, toxins produced by
bacteria and ingestion of animal parasites. Pathogenic microorganisms may
enter foods through poor handling and grow in it. When such contaminated
61
Nutrition food is ingested, it could cause food infections. Hence, food safety should be a
major concern of processor for the public health.

11.2 ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS

11.2.1 Anti-Nutritional Factors in Plant Foods

Plants are capable of synthesizing a multitude of chemical that cause toxic
reaction when consumed. Pulses contain a number of toxic factors, such as
protease inhibitors, lathyrogens and favism agents, cyanogens,
haemagglutinins and saponins. Some of these toxins are also present in other
foods, e.g., protease inhibitors in cereals and potatoes. Solanine, ordinarily the
green parts of the potato are removed with the peel, is a toxicant in potatoes.
Goitrogens (cause thyroid enlargement) are present in cabbage and related
species, rapeseed and mustard. Some varieties of mushroom (e.g. Amanita) are
poisonous. Oxalic acid present in spinach, beet etc may cause oxalic poisoning.
Soybean contains trypsin inhibitor that affects protein metabolism. Cassava
and Lima beans contain linmarin, a toxic glycoside. Lathyrism is a
neurological disease caused by the ingestion of Lathyrus sativus (khesari dhal)
for a period of 6 months or more. Favism agents in fava beans, gossypol in
cottonseed are also potent toxic substances.
The active flavoring principles present in some spices may have toxic effects if
consumed habitually over long periods or in excessive amounts. Active
principles in some of the foods are allyl isothiocyanate in mustard, capsaicin in
chillies, myristicin in nutmeg and mace, etc.

11.2.2 Toxicants in Animal Foods

The ingestion of shellfish (clams, mussels) results in paralytic shellfish
poisoning. Saxitoxin, an extremely toxic metabolite, is p roduced from the
plankton. The toxin resists ordinary cooking procedures. Sea food poisoning,
for examples, ciguatera poisoning, moray eel poisoning, scombroid poisoning,
puffer fish poisoning, cephalopod poisoning, is mostly prevalent in the areas
where marine organisms constitute about 10 per cent of the diet.

11.3 CONTAMINATION OF FOOD BY

MICROORGANISM, PATHOGENS
A large number of careless practices cause contamination of food with
potentially pathogenic microorganisms. The more common ones are
unhygienic practices of food handling, personnel handling food suffer from
communicable diseases, cross contamination of food, contaminated water and
containers, soil adhering to foods, insects, droppings of rodents.
Contamination by Bacteria
Certain bacteria release poisons known as toxins. Some toxins produced by
Clostridium botulinum are often cause death of persons consuming food
contaminated with this organism. The bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus
and Bacillus cereus produce toxins in food during multiplication or
sporulation. Although cooking may destroy these bacteria but the toxin is
unaffected and can still cause the problems if food is eaten. Endotoxin are

62
generally produced by bacteria such as Salmonella in the intestines of persons Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
consuming food contaminated with such organisms. Contaminants and
Toxic Elements
Contamination by Moulds
Almost any food can be invaded by mould growth. Moulds cause various
degree of visible deterioration and decomposition of foods. Moulds may
produce abnormal flavours and odours due to fermentative, lipolytic, and
proteolytic changes caused by enzymatic reactions with carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins, respectively in foods.
Contamination by Yeasts
Food that is highly contaminated with yeasts will frequently have a fruity
odour. Yeasts can grow in a product with low sugar concentration. Most of
them do not develop in solutions containing more than 66% sugar or 0.5%
acetic acid. Boiling destroys the yeasts cells and spores completely. Foods
liable to be spoiled by yeasts are fruit juices, syrups, molasses, honey, jams and
jellies.
Contamination by Viruses
Viruses are transmitted to food by workers who are carriers. An infected food
handler can excrete the organism through the faeces and respiratory tract
infection. The inability of host cells to perform their normal function causes
illness due to viral infection.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. ‘Non-nutritive constituents of food can create potential health risks’,
justify.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Write some of the important anti-nutritional substances present in
vegetables.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
63
Nutrition 3. Define endotoxins. List the factors responsible for food contamination.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

11.4 FOOD INTOXICANTS

The undesirable constituents that affect the safety of foods include toxicants
naturally occurring in foods, toxins resulting from microbial growth,
environmental contaminants such as processing and accidental contaminants
and chemical contaminants.
Naturally occurring toxicants in plant and animal foods
Foods contain thousands of compounds that are potentially toxic. For example
protease inhibitors, lathyrogens, favism agents, cyanogens, haemagglutinins
and saponins in pulses, solanine in potatoes, goitrogens in cabbage, rapeseed,
etc., trypsin inhibitor in soybean, beta oxalyl amino alanine in khesari dhal,
linmarin in cassava and lima beans, Favism agents in fava beans, gossypol in
cottonseed are potent toxic substances. Some spices contain active principals
(e.g., allyl isothiocyanate in mustard, etc.) may have toxic effects. Paralytic
shellfish poisoning from oysters, calms, mussels, and scallops has caused
many fatal illness. Saxitoxin, an extremely toxic metabolite, is produced from
the plankton.
Microbial Toxins
Microorganisms promote desirable changes in foods under controlled
conditions. However, they also cause harmful effect and are involved in most
cases of food poisoning.
Bacterial food intoxication: Staphylococcal poisoning occurs abruptly after
ingestion of food containing the enterotoxin, produced by staphylococci
present in semisolid foods. Foods such as corn, peas, meat, fish are likely to be
contaminated with the spore of Clostridium botulinum. They act on nervous
system and are potent poisons and cause a disease known as botulism. The
food infected with Bacillus cereus, if consumed is also harmful.
Some species of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspaergillus parasiticus
(produced aflatoxins) Claviceps purpurea, Fusarium species produce toxins in
foods infected with them and make the foods unfit for consumption.
Environmental Contaminants
These include residues that become part of food as a result of processing,
handling and distribution of food. For examples, ethylene oxide used as
fumigants to sterile some food reacts with inorganic chlorides to form ethylene
64
chlorohydrin, which is toxic. During smoking of meat and fish for preservation Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
and flavouring, these foods get contaminated with polycyclic aromatic Contaminants and
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzopyrine), many of which are carcinogenic. Toxic Elements

Metals, find their way into foods through air, water, soil, industrial pollution
and many other routes, when present beyond the permissible limit, are toxic.
Mercury, cadmium, lead, tin, etc. are the toxic metals present in foods.
Other contaminants from food processing such as lubricants, boiling water
additives, packaging material, inside coating of the packaging materials, etc.
may contaminate the food and their products and make them unfit for
consumption.

11.5 MYCOTOXINS
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by various moulds when they grow
on agricultural products before or after harvest, and during transportation or
storage. Some moulds such as Aspergillus species and Penicillium species can
invade grains after harvest and produce mycotoxins, while others such as
Fusarium species, infect grains and produce mycotoxins before harvest.
Mycotoxins remain in the food long after the mould producing them has died
and can therefore, be present in foods that are not visibly mouldy. Further
many mycotoxins, but not all, are stable and survive the usual conditions of
cooking or processing.
Mycotoxins are undesirable because of their adverse effect on both human and
animal health. Many mycotoxins have been found to occur naturally in a large
number of commodities, but only few of these are widely accepted as causing
significant food safety risks. Food grains, especially rye, bajra, sorghum and
wheat have a tendency to get infected with the ergot fungus, Claviceps
purpurea. Consumption of ergot infected grains leads to ergotism. Mycotoxins
produced by certain moulds, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are
known as aflatoxins. These fungi develop in many foods particularly in maize,
sorghum, groundnut, etc. under improper storage conditions and produce
aflatoxins of which B1 and G1 are the most potent hepatotoxins, in addition to
being carcinogenic.
Moisture content of foods above 16 per cent and temperatures ranging from 11
to 370 C favour toxin formation. Fungal contamination can be prevented by
proper storage after drying the grains to 10 per cent moisture level.

11.6 FOOD POISONING AND FOOD INFECTIONS

11.6.1 Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is an acute gastro-enteritis or any other disorder caused by

ingestion of food contaminated with either living bacteria or their toxins or
inorganic chemicals and poisonous plant and animal foods.

i) Food poisoning by microorganisms

Botulism is a severe form of food poisoning caused by ingestion of

inadequately cooked canned food (beans, peas, etc.) contaminated with
bacteria; Clostridium botulinum. The symptoms of botulism occur 18 to 36
65
Nutrition hours after ingestion of contaminated food and begin in gastrointestinal
tract. The principal hazard is the effect on the nervous system. Death may
occur as a result of respiratory paralysis and cardiac failure.

Staphylococcal food poisoning is the most common form of food poisoning

which occurs after ingestion of food contaminated with Staphylococcus
aureus. Staphylococcus contamination of food may either be from human
or animal sources. Some strains of Staphylococcus aureus can produce an
enterotoxin. Staphylococcal food poisoning can be characterized by
salivation, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and diarrhoea.
Pasteurization kills all the Staphylococci that may be present in foods but
toxins may not be destroyed by pasteurization or ordinary boiling.

Salmonella food poisoning caused by the ingestion of foods particularly

commercially prepared animal foods, contaminated with S. typhimurium,
S. cholera-suis and S. enteritis besides many others. Salmonellosis may be
characterized by enteric fever, gastro-enteritis.

Clostridium perfringens food poisoning: C. perfringens has been found in

faeces, soil, water and air. The majority of this type of poisoning has been
associated with ingestion of fresh or frozen meat, meat preparations and
poultry. The common symptoms of this poisoning are diarrhoea, abdominal
cramps and fever, occurring 8 to 24 hours after consumption of the food.
The bacteria are destroyed by ordinary cooking temperature but spores
survive at this temperature and need thorough cooking.

Cereus food poisoning caused by Bacillus cereus and their toxin, found in
raw, dried and processed foods. The spores can survive at cooking
temperature and multiply rapidly when food is held at room temperatures.
The poisoning is characterized by gastro-intestinal tract symptoms.

Some of the species of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus

parasiticus, Claviceps purpurea, Fusarium species produced toxins in
foods and make those foods unfit for human consumption.

ii) Contaminants arising from processing, accidental contaminants and

chemicals

These include residues that become part of food as a result of processing,

handling and distribution of food, e.g., fumigants. Ethylene oxide is a
commonly used fumigant. Ethylene oxide reacts with inorganic chlorides
to form ethylene chlorohydrin, which is toxic. Solvents like
trichloroethylene, used for extraction of oil from oilseeds reacts with the
substances and produce a toxic product.

During smoking of meat and fish for preservation and flavouring, these
foods get contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g.
benzopyrine), many of which are carcinogenic.

Metals find their way into foods through air, water, soil, industrial
pollution and many other routes. Metals (mercury, lead, tin, aluminum,
etc.) beyond the permissible limits are toxic.

Poisoning by chemicals is not very common. Poisonous chemicals like

66 arsenic, cadmium, antimony can enter foods through improperly coated
 utensils. Insecticide and pesticides (malathion etc.) residues can also cause Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
food poisoning if contaminated food is consumed without washing. Contaminants and
Toxic Elements
iii) Poisonous plants and animals

Certain varieties of mushrooms are very poisonous and could be fatal if

consumed. Snakeroot poisoning could result from drinking milk from cows
that have fed on this weed. Seafood such as mussels and clams sometimes
contain a poisonous alkaloid. Death camas contains a poisonous alkaloid
that decrease blood pressure if consumed. Bush tea contains toxic factors,
which are known to cause occlusive disease of the liver, often leading
cirrhosis. Pulses contain a number of toxic substances such as protease
inhibitors, lathyrogens and favism agents, cyanogens, haemagglutinins and
saponins. Saponins goitrogens, oxalic acid present in some foods can cause
poisoning if consumed in large quantities. Gossypol is a toxicant found in
cottonseed. Sea foods poisoning, toxicants present in certain spices and
flavours. Toxic substances found in certain food fats cause food poisoning
when consumed in large amounts.

11.6.2 Food Infections

Pathogenic microorganisms and parasites may enter foods through poor

handling and grow in it. Food containing a large number of pathogens if
ingested can cause food infections. Food borne infections are especially
prevalent in communities with inadequate facilities for storing foods and
insanitary water supplies and lavatories. The principal types of infectious
organisms that may cause diseases are: bacteria, moulds and viruses.

Bacterial food infections result from the ingestion of large amount of viable
bacteria, which multiply inside the host and cause infections. Some of the
common infectious diseases caused by bacteria are:

• Cholera is one of the most acute and violent infections, characterized by

fever, severe diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, intense thirst
followed by collapse. Cholera spreads from infected person and faecal-
contaminated food and water.

• Bacillus cereus infection characterized by severe vomiting 1 hour after

ingestion or diarrhoea later.

• Escherichia coli food infection is spread by contaminated food and water.

It is characterized by gastroenteritis and most common infection in infants.

• Salmonellosis is characterized by diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and

vomiting, which usually lasts for 2 to 3 days. Salmonella bacteria grow
rapidly in cooked eggs, meat, custards and salads, which have been left at
room temperature for several hours.

Some other bacterial infections, which are caused by ingestion of contaminated

food, are tuberculosis and typhoid.

Many diarrhoeal diseases, viral hepatitis, gastroenteritis, etc. are transmitted

primarily by faecal-oral route. Faecal oral transmission may be water born,
food born, or direct transmission, which implies an array of other faecal-oral
routs such as via fingers, or fomites, or dirt.
67
Nutrition Parasitic Infestation of Foods

Many protozoa, helminthes (worms) gain admission to the body by means of

food and cause injury to the intestinal lining and sometimes other tissues.
Amoebiasis is a common infection of gastrointestinal tract, caused by
potentially pathogenic strain of Entamoeba histolytica. The helminthes that
frequently invade the intestinal tract include nematodes (round worms),
cestodes (tapeworms), and trematodes (liver, intestinal, and lungs flukes).
Tricinosis, one of the most serious infestation results from ingestion of raw or
partially cooked pork infected with Trichinella spiralis, a very minute
roundworm. Trichinella is destroyed by cooking pork, until no trace of pink
remains. Foods act as a carrier for the parasites but none of these organisms
grow in the food as such. Usually such contamination occurs due to poor
handling of food and preparation.

11.7 FOOD BORN DISEASES

Food borne disease is caused by agents that enter the body through the
ingestion of food. Food borne diseases may be classified as:

A) Food Borne Intoxications

i) Due to naturally occurring toxins in some foods, e.g., lathyrism,

endemic ascites, etc.
ii) Due to toxins produced by certain bacteria, e.g., botulism,
staphylococcal food poisoning.
iii) Due to toxins produced by some fungi e.g., aflatoxins, ergot, fusarium
toxins, etc.
iv) Food borne chemical poisoning
• Heavy metals, e.g., mercury (in fish), cadmium (in certain
shellfish), and lead (in canned food)
• Oils, petroleum derivatives and solvents
• Migrant chemicals from packaging materials
• Pesticide residues (DDT, BHC)
B) Food borne infections
i) Bacterial infections: typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, shigellosis, etc.
ii) Viral infection: viral hepatitis, gastroenteritis
iii) Parasitic infestations: ascariasis, amoebiasis, trichinosis, etc.
(Details about food borne diseases was covered under food toxins, food
poisoning and food infections)

68
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 " Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
Contaminants and
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer. Toxic Elements
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is food poisoning? Explain with the help of examples.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What do you understand by food borne diseases? Write the name of some
common food borne infections.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. What are mycotoxins? Write a brief note on aflatoxins.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. What are different environmental contaminants that make the food unfit for
consumption?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
69
Nutrition
11.8 METHODS OF PREVENTING FOOD
CONTAMINATION
Contamination can be reduced through effective housekeeping and sanitation,
protection of food during storage, proper disposal of garbage and litter, and
protection against contact with toxic substances.
The Environment
Only cleaned hands should touch food during handling and processing. A
processed product should be kept covered to prevent the entry of dust or other
things. If the nature of food does not permit this kind of protection; it should be
placed in an enclosed, dust free cabinet at appropriate temperature. Equipment
and utensils for food processing, packaging, preparation, and service should be
cleaned and sanitized between uses.
Storage
Storage facilities should provide adequate space with appropriate control and
protection against dust, insects, rodents, and other extraneous matter.
Organized storage layouts can reduce contamination and facilitate cleaning. In
addition storage area floors shelves and/ or racks should be cleaned regularly.
Waste materials should not be accumulated in the food storage area.
Litter and Garbage
Waste and refused materials (used packaging materials, containers and waste
products) should be placed in appropriate containers for disposal. These
receptacles should be seamless, with close fitting lids. Plastic liners are
inexpensive and provide added protection. All receptacles should be washed
and disinfected regularly. Containers kept in food processing and food
preparation areas should not be used for garbage or litter, other than that
produced in those areas.
Toxic Substances
Poisons and toxic chemicals should not be stored near food products. In fact,
only chemicals (well labelled) required for cleaning should be stored in the
same premises. Only cleaning compounds, supplies, utensils, and equipment
approved by regulatory or other agencies should be used in food handling,
processing, and preparation.

11.9 DEFICIENCY: PROTEIN, VITAMIN AND

MINERAL – CONSEQUENCES AND CORRECTIVE
MEASURES
As a consequence of dietary deficiency, several nutritional problems are
encountered namely (i) PEM (ii) vitamin A deficiency, (iii) iron deficiency
anaemia, (iv) iodine deficiency, (v) vitamin B-complex deficiencies.
Protein Deficiency
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is the name given to various degree of
nutritional disorders caused by inadequate quantities of protein and energy in
the diet of young children. This leads to various degree of growth retardation.
When growth retardation is severe, functional deficiencies, like resistance to
70
infection, poor intellectual development and body may have wasted away. Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
Kwashiorkor and marasmus are two clinical forms of PEM at opposite poles of Contaminants and
a single continuum. Kwashiorkor (growth failure, oedema, diarrhoea, fatty Toxic Elements
liver, dermatitis and other symptoms) occurs when there is a lack of protein in
the diet but calories or energy in the form of carbohydrates is available in
sufficient quantity. However, when both protein and energy are insufficient,
over prolonged periods, a condition known as marasmus (growth failure,
wasting of muscles, and dry and atropic skin and other symptoms) occurs in
children. Both kwashiorkor and marasmus can be complicated with other
infections due to intestinal parasites and bacteria.
The dietary management along with medical treatment for infection, if any is
necessary for rapid recovery of the child with PEM. The diet should be rich in
easily digestible proteins (4-5 g/ kg normal body weight of the child) of high
nutritive quality (from milk and milk product, legumes, sprouts etc.), calories
(140 Kcal/ kg body weight) and all dietary essentials (vitamin A and iron
supplementation).
Vitamin Deficiencies
Vitamin A deficiency is a major nutritional problem in young children leading
to blindness. Night blindness (inability to see in dim light), Conjuctival xerosis
(conjuctiva becomes dry and non-wettable, appears muddy and wrinkled),
Bitot’s spot (triangular, pearly-white or yellowish, foamy spots on the bulbar
conjuctiva on either side of the cornea), corneal xesosis (cornea appears dull,
dry, non wettable and eventually opaque) and keratomalacia (cornea may
become soft and burst open) are important deficiency states due to vitamin A
deficiency. The person with vitamin A deficiency should be given well
balanced diet including green leafy vegetables and yellow and orange fruits in
sufficient quantities with the vitamin A supplementation.
Vitamin D deficiency causes Rickets in children (characterized by enlarged
joint, bowed legs, knocked knees, bulging forehead, pot belly, delayed eruption
of temporary teeth, muscular hypotonia etc.) and Osteomalacia in adults, in
which bones soften, become distorted, and fracture easily. The subjects
(children or adults) should be given a well balanced diet containing plenty of
milk, ragi, and green leafy vegetables along with calcium and vitamin D
supplementation.
Vitamin C deficiency produces the disease scurvy characterized by swollen
and inflamed gums, loss of weight, anaemia, poor wound healing, pain in joint
and muscles. Severe form of scurvy is fatal. In addition to well balanced diets
with sufficient amount of locally available fruits and germinated legumes,
vitamin C supplementation is important.
Vitamin B-complex deficiencies commonly encountered are riboflavin
deficiency leading to angular stomatitis, glossitis and cheilosis; thiamine
deficiency leading beri-beri and niacin deficiency (Pellagra). Thiamine
deficiency is prevalent in areas where polished rice is the staple food. Inclusion
of under milled, or parboiled rice, whole wheat and wheat products, nuts,
legumes could help to remove thiamine deficiency. Use of milk and milk
products, eggs, green leafy vegetables could prevent riboflavin deficiency.
Groundnuts are rich in niacin. Use of combination of cereals, pulses and
inclusion of groundnuts would help in preventing vitamin B-complex
deficiency.
71
Nutrition Mineral Deficiencies
Nutritional aneamia and iodine deficiency are the major public health problems
due to mineral deficiencies. Aneamia affects all segments of population in
general and children, women and pregnant women in particular. Anaemia may
be due to deficiency of iron, or folic acid or vitamin B12. The incidence of
anaemia can be reduced by inclusion of leafy vegetables, pulses, whole grains
and vitamin C rich seasonal fruits in diet. Since change in dietary habits is a
slow process, some interim public health measures have been taken to reduce
the incidence of anaemia. These include distribution of tablets containing iron
and folic acid at primary health centers. In order to combat and prevent iron
deficiency anaemia, fortification of a universally consumed dietary item with
iron can be one of the most effective methods.
The Iodine deficiency in man leads to a number of disorders, which include
goiter, mental retardation, cretinism, myxoedema, and neuropsychic
retardation. The simplest way of eradicating iodine deficiency is by
consumption of iodized salt.

11.10 METHODS OF NUTRIENT RETENTION DURING

PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Using food preparation methods maximizing nutrient retention is most
important to maintain the quality of foods. The processing methods generally
used in food preparation; also affect the nutritive quality of various foodstuffs.
i) Nutrients retention during milling
Milling of cereals like paddy to get rice causes considerable loss of
vitamins, minerals and proteins. Parboiling of paddy can significantly
reduce the nutritional losses during milling of paddy. During parboiling of
paddy, B-vitamins present in the bran gets fixed to the grain and hence not
removed during milling. Washing of rice before cooking in limited
amounts of water also reduce the loss of thiamine due to leaching.
Nutritional loss also occurs during dehulling of pulses. The dehulling
losses, in terms of broken and powder fractions can be reduced by
following suitable pre-milling treatment (heat treatment or oil treatment
etc.) and conditioning of legume seeds before dehulling.
ii) Prevent nutrients from leaching
Water leaches out some vitamins and minerals from the foods. Presoaking
of food grains has negligible effect on nutrients such as proteins and fats
but digestibility of starch improves. If soaking water discarded, reduction
in some nutrients such as minerals and B-complex vitamins will occur.
Rice should not be washed for longer time to avoid the loss of thiamine
and niacin. The nutrients are also lost if water in which vegetables are
cooked, discarded. Vegetables and fruits should be washed before cutting
to avoid the leaching of nutrients in washing water.
iii) Avoid excessive heat treatment
Excessive heat destroys heat sensitive vitamins and decreases the protein
quality. Preparing food in smallest amount of water at optimum
temperature for the shortest time does least nutritional damage. Reheating
72
 of food products will add to the loss of nutrients. If required microwave Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
heating for a few seconds may serve the purpose. Contaminants and
Toxic Elements
iv) Save foods from exposure to oxygen and light
Oxygen in the air and light decreases the amount of vitamins A, B12, C, D,
and E, folic acid, and thiamine in foods. Light also decrease the vitamin
B6 and riboflavin. Unsaturated fatty acids are unstable in the presence of
air. Packaging of food material is an important measure to protect the
foods from losses due to exposure to air and light.
v) Avoid wide changes in pH
pH is important because vitamin A and K and folic acid are unstable in an
acidic environment, whereas, vitamin C, D, and K, pantothenic acid,
riboflavin, and thiamine are unstable in an alkaline medium.
vi) Minimize trimming and peeling
Trimming and peeling should be kept to a minimum. The skin of fruits
has valuable amounts of fibre and vitamin C. The outer leaves of
vegetables are good sources of some vitamins and minerals.
vii) Careful handling of perishable foods
Removal of diseased, damaged and scratched fruits and vegetables during
grading and post harvest treatment are highly useful in reducing the
losses.
viii) Avoid the use of sodium bicarbonate to cooking water
Addition of sodium bicarbonate to hasten the cooking of dhal or to retain
the colour of vegetables causes heavy loss of thiamin and vitamin C,
hence should be avoided.
ix) Moisture content of food
For best storage and to prevent nutritional losses in food grains and
oilseeds, these should be thoroughly cleaned, graded and dried to bring
down the moisture content below 10 per cent.
x) Packaging
Packaging of foods particularly fruit and vegetables minimize
physiological and biochemical changes. Packaging in modified
atmospheric (MA) condition reduce the losses of vital nutrients during
storage.
xi) Storage at low temperature
The loss of moisture is reduced by storing the vegetables in an atmosphere
of high relative humidity at low temperature. Canned foods retain higher
levels of vitamin C and thiamine if stored at low temperature. Roots and
tubers can be stored at a temperature between 3 to 100C to keep sprouting
minimum. Ageing of leafy and other vegetables, and fruits can be retarded
by low temperature storage.

73
Nutrition
11.11 FOOD ANALYSIS, RESIDUE ANALYSIS

11.11.1 Food Analysis

Food analysis enables us to know the composition of fresh food and food
products. A complete analysis of fruits and vegetable products includes
determination of water content, protein, fat, nitrogen-free extract, fibre and ash.
Each group is not made up exclusively of allied chemical substances, but rather
of substances that happen to have one or more properties in common. The
methods employed for the determination of these six constituents involves
precipitation, colour comparison, or centrifuging or titration.
The water is determined by drying at ≤ 1200 C (depending on the commodity)
in ovens for a certain period; the protein by calculation from the total nitrogen;
total nitrogen by digestion (of sample), distillation and titration using some
chemicals; the fat by ether extraction; the fibre by removal of all acid and
alkali soluble constituents, and weighing the residue; the ash by incineration.

11.11.2 Residue Analysis

Residue analysis is concerned with the safety of food for human consumption.
Whether applied to analysis of any kind of residue, all residue analysis has its
ultimate aim; the capacity to identify food as safe or unsafe for human
consumption. Residues analyses on food are undertaken for a very wide range
of purposes. In the development of agrochemicals and veterinary drugs, for
example, detailed studies on persistence of drugs in crops and/ or animal
tissues post-treatment are required. In addition, studies on the metabolism of
these chemicals require extensive residue analysis. For chemicals used in
farming or occurring as contaminants from the environment and/ or industrial
processes, residue analysis is undertaken as part of the monitoring programmes
of regulatory agencies to ensure that residues, where they occur in foods, are at
levels with respect to the established maximum residue limits (MRLs). In the
case of prohibited substances, residue testing is designed to monitor
compliance with the regulations. Generalized format for residue analysis is
shown in Figure 11.1.

Sample residue(s) extract Purified

Sample pre-treatment Analytical extraction from Crude clean up: extract
sample sample matrix extract separation
of residue(s)
from matrix
component

Analytical result residue

determination

Figure 11.1: Generalized format for residue analysis

Within the spectrum of residue analysis methods, including screening,

quantitative and confirmatory methods, there are methods ranging from single-
step to multi-step methods. Example of the former are the four plate test for
inhibitory substances in meat, for which all pre-determination steps are
combined into a single step of cutting disc of frozen meat from the sample,
placing them on prepared agar plates and incubating overnight, and a sol
74
particle immunoassay (SPIA) test for sulphamethazine in urine, for which all Anti-Nutritional
Factors, Food
pre-treatment steps are eliminated and the sample is applied directly to the test Contaminants and
device. At other extreme are complicated methods with multiple steps such as Toxic Elements
methods for confirming the presence of residues of anabolic agents in tissues
or bile. These methods involved weighing and homogenizing of sample, pH
adjustment of the homogenate, overnight incubation with glucuronidase/
sulphatase to hydrolyse conjugates, extraction of residues directly with solvent
or on a diatomaceous earth column, liquid/ liquid partitioning steps and
multiple column chromatography or solid phase extraction (SPE) steps to
remove co-eluting interferences, multiple evaporation of solvents,
derivatisation of the residues and clean-up of the derivatised extracts, prior to
determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In between these
extremes lie the majority of residue methods but, in general, the extent of
quantification and confirmation and the nature of the sample (solid or liquid)
determine whether simple or more complex methods are used.
Table 11.1: Categories of chemical that can arise as residue in food
Category Examples
a) Natural
Normal components in food Phytoestrogens, glycoalkaloids,
erucic acid
Natural contaminants in food Mycotoxins, phycotoxins (aquatic
biotoxins)
b) Synthetic
− Agricultural chemicals − Pesticides, fertilizers
− Veterinary drugs − Antibiotics, anthelmintics, growth
promoters
− Food additives − Preservatives, antioxidants
− Chemicals from packaging − Vinyl monomers, oligomers
− Food processing chemicals − Nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
− Environmental contaminants − Dioxins, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is malnutrition? What is the most common form of under-nutrition
prevalent amongst vulnerable group?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
75
Nutrition 2. Discuss different methods that can reduce the nutrients losses.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

11.12 LET US SUM UP

Some foods contain toxic constituents, if consumed in sufficient quantities may
prove to be hazardous. The hazardous substances include toxicants naturally
occurring in foods, toxins produced by microorganisms, and environmental
contaminants. The microorganisms most common to food are bacteria and
fungi; get their entry in food as a result of unhygienic practices during food
handling, processing and storage. Bacterial contamination is the most
significant as it may result in food poisoning. Botulism is the most fatal and
Staphylococcal food poisoning is the most common form of food poisoning
due to bacterial contamination of food. Contamination can be reduced by safe
food handling practices, processing under sanitary conditions, protecting food
during storage, proper disposal of waste materials, and protection against
contact with toxic substances. These practices will not only reduce the
contamination from toxicants but also the nutritional losses and thus prevent
food losses and nutritional deficiencies amongst population.

11.13 KEY WORDS

Aneamia : is a condition characterized by reduction in red
blood cells, packed cell volume or circulating
haemoglobin, resulting in pallor appearance and
shortness of breath especially on exertion.
Contamination : entry of undesirable organisms in some material
or object.
Endotoxins : toxins produced inside the cell wall and can only
permeate the food or the body when the organism
is killed.
Exotoxins : toxic substances produced by bacteria which
diffuse out of the cells and stimulate the
production of antibodies.
Malnutrition : is a condition result from an inadequate (under
nutrition) or excessive intake of one or more
nutrients (over nutrition) or some defect in
metabolism, which prevents the body from using
the nutrients properly, e.g., PEM, Vitamin A
deficiency, obesity.
Pathogens : disease causing microorganisms.
Toxicity : is the capacity of a substance when tested by
itself to harm living organisms.
76
 Anti-Nutritional
11.14 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
" Factors, Food
Contaminants and
Toxic Elements
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Foods contain some anti-nutritional factors.
Excess consumption over a long period can cause health problems, e.g.
lathyrism. See sub-sec. 11.2.
2. Protease inhibitor and solanine in potatoes, goitrogens, oxalic acid. See
sub-sec. 11.2
3. Some bacteria produced toxins inside the cell wall.
Unhygienic practices, cross contamination of food, contaminated water and
containers, soil adhering to foods, insects, droppings of rodents, etc. See
Sub-sec. 11.3.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Ingestion of contaminated food may result in food poisoning.
Botulism, Staphylococcal food poisoning, Salmonellosis, Clostridium
perfringens food poisoning, Cereus food poisoning, lathyrism. See
sub-sec. 11.6 and 11.7.
2. Food may be contaminated by pathogenic organisms.
Diseases caused by agents that enter the body through ingestion of
contaminated food.
Typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, hepatitis, amoebiasis, etc. See
sub-sec.11.6 and 11.7.
3. Moulds grow on agricultural products and produced toxic metabolites.
Bacteria- Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus produce aflatoxins.
See sub-sec. 11.5.
4. Residues in foods from fumigants, presence of metals beyond the
permissible limits, chemical residues See sub-sec. 11.6.1.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Undernutrition, over nutrition.
PEM. See sub-sec. 11.10.
2. Parboiling, optimum heat treatment, save from exposure to oxygen and
light, avoid wide changes in pH, careful handling of perishable foods,
minimum trimming and peeling, storage at Low temperature. See
sub-sec. 11.11.

77
Nutrition
11.15 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
1. Marriott Norman G. (1999) Principles of Food Sanitation (4th Edition),
Aspen Publishers, Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland.
2. Park, K. (1994) Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine (14th
Edition), Banarasi Das Bhanot Publishers, Jabalpur.
3. Ranganna, S. (1991) Handbook of Analysis and Quality Control for Fruit
and Vegetable Products (2nd Edition), Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi.

78
 Nutritional Aspects
UNIT 8 NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
Structure

8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Scope and Importance
8.3 Need for Energy
8.4 Basal Energy Metabolism
8.5 Energy Value of Foods
8.6 Nutritive Value of Foods
8.7 Food Pyramid
8.8 Digestive Processes
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Digestion of Proteins
Digestion of Fat
8.9 Dietary Allowances, Standards and Balanced Diets for Different Age
Groups: Children, Adults, Pregnant and Lactating Women, Old People
Dietary Allowances and Standards
Balanced Diets for Different Age Groups
8.10 Techniques for Assessment of Human Nutrition
8.11 Nutritional Labelling
8.12 Let Us Sum Up
8.13 Key Words
8.14 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
8.15 Some Useful Books

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• explain food, nutrition, nutrients, optimum nutrition, under nutrition,
assessment of nutritional status;
• describe the role of different foods in our body;
• describe balanced diets; and
• state the importance of nutritional labelling.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
We need food for growth, development and to lead a healthy life. Since all
foods are not of same nutritional quality, man’s ability to meet his nutritional
requirement depends upon the type and quantity of foodstuffs included in diet.
It is not only the purchasing power of food but also the knowledge and
awareness about nutritional needs at different stages of life, which is of
paramount importance for maintaining nutritional health. We should consider
the nutritive aspects of food from two broad points of view: first, what
nutrients do foods contain and their requirement; and second, what are the
relative stabilities of these nutrients and how are they affected by processing
and handling. A brief description of general principles underlying the
nutritional aspects is presented in the following sub-section.

5
 N
8.2 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
We require more than 45 different nutrients throughout our life. Food
materials ingested by our body are digested, absorbed and metabolized. A
number of foodstuffs have to be selected to get all nutrients. Our health
depends on the type and quantity of foodstuffs we choose in our diet. For
sustaining healthy and vigorous life, diet should be planned according to the
principles of nutrition.
Good nutrition is the fundamental basic requirement for health, functional
efficiency and productivity. Good nutritional status is achieved not through
drugs, tablets and pills but through a well and balanced diet. There is no
known nutritional deficiency disorder that cannot be prevented by proper diet.
Only the need is to provide adequate information to the common man as to
how his nutritional needs can be fully met through judicious use of foods
available at his own doorstep. The affluent sections need to be informed of the
deleterious effects of dietary excesses and errors and how these can be
avoided.

8.3 NEED FOR ENERGY

We need energy for work and different body functions. Whatever our age and
sex, we need energy for three important functions of our body.
a) Basal metabolism
b) Physical activities
c) Dietary thermogenesis
a) Basal metabolism
The energy metabolism of a subject at complete physical and mental rest
and having normal body temperature and in post absorptive state (i.e. 12
hours after the intake of last meal/ food) is known as basal metabolism.
b) Physical activity
Any movement of the body, or even a small part of it, expends energy.
Greater the movement, higher the energy requirement. The actual
amount of energy requirements of a person are determined by body
weight, age, type and intensity of activity, and duration of activity.
Table 8.1: Effect of Body weight and type of physical activity on energy
requirement (Kcal/day) of a moderately active person

Body Men Women

weight
Light Moderate Very Light Moderate Very
(kg)
activity activity active activity activity active
50 2100 2300 2700 1800 2000 2330
55 2310 2530 2970 2000 2200 2600
60 2520 2760 3240 2160 2400 2830
65 2700 3000 3500 2340 2600 3055
70 2940 3220 3780 2520 2800 3290
6
c) Dietary thermogenesis Nutritional Aspects

Thermogenesis can be induced by diet, which is called as dietary

thermogenesis, specific dynamic action or thermic effect of food. It is the
amount of energy utilized by the body to digest, absorb, transport and
store the nutrients. It is between 5-10% of the total energy intake. For
example, it was found that in a fasting dog requiring 400 kcal, feeding of
100 g carbohydrates produces 425 Kcal, 44.4 g of fat produces 416 Kcal
and 100 g of proteins produces 520 Kcal of heat. The extra heat produced
is obtained by oxidation of tissue constituents and the animal will be in
negative energy balance. This stimulating effect of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins on energy metabolism is called specific dynamic action. The SDA
of proteins is highest (about 30 %) while that of carbohydrates and fats is
only 6% and 4% respectively.

8.4 BASAL ENERGY METABOLISM

Biochemical reactions (when body is at rest) are necessary to provide energy

for maintenance of normal body temperature, breathing, heartbeat, muscle
tone and other essential activities of cells and tissues. The basal metabolic rate
is an expression of the amount of calories expended hourly in relation to the
surface area of the body (calories/ meter2/ hour).

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is influenced by following factors:

Body surface area: A person who is tall and has greater proportion of lean
tissues normally requires more basal energy than a shorter person of same
weight.

Age: Age affects BMR because it changes the lean body mass especially the
amount of muscle. BMR is highest during first 2 years of life due to rapid
growth and declines about 2 % per decade after 21 years of age.

Gender: In general BMR of women is lower (about 6-10 %) than men due to
higher body fat and other factors.

Pregnancy produces a BMR 15-25 per cent above the normal. Lactation also
increases BMR.

Sleep: BMR during sleep is about 5-10 per cent less than in waking sate.

Environmental temperature: BMR increases when environmental

temperature is low. At high temperature, BMR may decrease to lower heat
production by the body.

Recent exercise: Following a period of exercise BMR remains elevated for

some time.

Health factors: An elevation of body temperature above 98.60 F increases

BMR by 7 per cent for each degree. Prolonged undernutrition,
hypothyroidism, depression etc. tend to decrease BMR. Hyperthyroidism,
anger, fear and other strong emotions increase BMR.

7
 N
8.5 ENERGY VALUE OF FOODS
The energy yielding food factors are carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Vitamins and minerals do not provide energy, although they take part in
liberating energy. Within the body, nutrients providing energy are oxidized in
the cells with the help of catalysts. The process is one of continuous utilization
of oxygen and production of CO2, water and heat:

Carbohydrates and fats O2 CO2 + water +

heat

Proteins Oxidation CO2 + water +

urea

The energy value of foods depends on the quantity of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins present in them. This can be determined by oxidizing a known weight
of food in an instrument called bomb calorimeter and measuring the heat
produced. The energy value of foods can be expressed in terms of kilocalories
(Kcal) or mega joules (MJ).
One kilo calorie = 4.186 kilo joules
1000 kilo calorie = 4.186 × 103 kilo joules or 4.186 mega joules
1 Mega joule = 1000 kilo joules
1 Mega joule = 239 Kcal
1 Kilo calorie = 4.186 kilo joules
Addition of ghee or oil or butter to a food during preparation will increase the
calorie content of that food. The average calorific value of pure carbohydrates,
fats and proteins determined using the bomb calorimeter are:
1 g carbohydrates 4.1 Calorie
1 g fats 9.45 Calorie
1 g proteins 5.65 Calorie
The physiological energy value of carbohydrates, fats and proteins are 4,9,4
after making allowances for losses in digestion and metabolism.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by nutrition? Write the importance of different
nutrients in our body in brief.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. Why do we need energy? Explain.
8
 ……………………………………………………………………………… Nutritional Aspects

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Define basal energy metabolism. What do you understand by basal
metabolic rate?
………………………………………………………………………………
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8.6 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOODS

Foods can be broadly classified into (i) cereals and millets (ii) legumes and
pulses (iii) oilseeds and nuts (iv) vegetables (v) fruits (vi) fats and oil (vii)
egg, meat, fish and other animal foods (viii) milk and milk products (ix)
starchy and sugary foods and (x) spices and condiments.
Cereal and millets
Cereals are the main source of energy in our diet. They contribute 70-80% of
daily energy intake of majority of Indians. They also contribute significant
quantities of proteins, calcium, and vitamin B complexes. Cereal proteins are
deficient in an essential amino acid lysine. However, if supplemented with
pulses rich in lysine, biological value of cereal products increases.
Cereals contain invisible fat that can meet more than 50 percent of our
essential fatty acid requirement. Cereals are also fair source of calcium and
iron. Ragi is rich in minerals especially calcium. Millets including ragi are rich
in minerals and fibre. Millets are also rich in phytate and tannin, which bind
minerals and hence interfere with their bioavailability. Cereals do not contain
either vitamin C or vitamin A except that yellow maize and some varieties of
sorghum contain small amounts of β-carotene.
Legumes and pulses
Pulses are rich source of protein but do not contain vitamin C. They are a good
source of B vitamins also. Germinated legumes are good source of vitamin C.
Fermentation also improves the nutritive value particularly thiamin and niacin
are enhanced. Legumes and pulses are also deficient in vitamin A, D, and B12.

9
Khesari dhal, consumed in some parts of the country may cause lathyrism if N
the consumption is more than 300 gm/day for 6 months.
Table 8.2: Nutrients content of some commonly used cereals, legumes &
nuts (values/ 100 g)

Particulars Calories Protein Fat Fibre Calcium Iron Carotene

(Kcal) (g) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (μg)
Bajra or 360 11.6 5.0 1.2 0.05g 8.8 132
pearl millet
Barley 335 11.5 1.3 3.9 0.03g 3.7 10
Maize, dry 342 11.1 3.6 2.7 10 2.3 90
Rice (raw, 345 6.8 0.5 0.2 10 0.7 -
milled)
Rice, puffed 325 7.5 0.1 0.3 23 6.6 -
Whole wheat 341 12.1 1.7 1.9 48 4.9 -
flour
Wheat bread, 245 7.8 0.7 0.2 11 1.1 -
white
Bengal gram, 360 17.1 5.3 3.9 202 4.6 189
whole
Bengal gram 372 20.8 5.6 1.2 56 5.3 129
dhal
Black gram 347 24.0 1.4 0.9 154 3.8 38
dhal
Rajmah 346 22.9 1.3 4.8 260 5.1 -
Red gram 335 22.3 1.7 1.5 73 2.7 32
dhal
Almond 655 20.8 58.9 1.7 230 5.09 0
Coconut dry 662 6.8 62.3 6.6 400 7.8 0
Gingelly 563 18.3 43.3 2.9 1450 9.3 60
seeds
Groundnut 567 25.3 40.1 3.1 90 2.5 37
Source: Nutritive value of Indian Foods, 1991.

Nuts and oilseeds

Nuts and oilseeds (except coconut) are rich in proteins containing about 18-40
per cent. Soybean is the richest source in proteins (containing about 40 per
cent). They do not contain much carbohydrates but are rich in B-vitamins.
Groundnuts are particularly rich in thiamin and niacin. Sesame seeds are rich
in calcium.
Fats and oils
Fats and oils provide energy; vitamin A, E, D and K. Vegetable oils contain
vitamin E and essential fatty acids (viz. linoleic and linolenic acids) except
coconut and palm oils. Vegetable oils do not contain vitamin A and D except
red-palm oil, which is exceptionally rich in carotene, a precursor of vitamin A.
10
 Table 8.3: Nutritive values of fats (per 100 g) Nutritional Aspects

Particulars Moisture Fat Energy Vitamin Vitamin E

(%) (%) (Kcal) A (I.U.) (mg)
Butter 14 86 774 700 2.4
Ghee - 100 900 600 2.0
Vegetable oils - 100 900 - 8-140
and fats
Red palm oil - 100 900 4000- 10-15
10,000
Margarine# 14 86 774 700 10-50
Vanaspathi# - 100 900 700 10-30
# Processed fat

Vegetables
Vegetables are termed as ‘protective foods’ due to their high vitamins and
mineral content. These generally have high water content, low protein and
energy and varying amount of dietary fibre. Vegetables can be broadly
grouped into green leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, and other vegetables.
Green leafy vegetables are good source of calcium, iron, carotene, dietary
fibre, vitamin C and vitamin B-complexes except vitamin B12.
Table 8.4: Nutritional compositions of green leafy vegetables

Constituents Range of values (per 100 g)

Moisture (g) 79-92
Energy (Kcal) 32-96
Carbohydrates (g) 4-14
Proteins (g) 109-607
Fat (g) 0.1-1.7
Calcium (mg) 30-500
Iron (mg) 0.8-16.0
Carotene (μg) 1200-7500
Vitamin C (mg) 48-200
Thiamin (mg) 0.05-0.16
Riboflavin (mg) 0.11-0.34
Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.4-1.8
Folic acid (mg) 10-30
Total dietary fibre (g) 2-6

Roots and tubers are rich in carbohydrates mainly starch and provide energy.
In general, these are poor in proteins, vitamin and minerals but carrot and
yellow flesh variety of sweet potato, and yellow yam are good sources of
11
carotene. Potato is a fair good source of protein and vitamin C. Tapioca and N
yam are rich in calcium. Other vegetables (brinjal, okra, beans, all gourds,
pumpkin, etc) not only provide variety to the diet but also provide vitamin C,
some minerals, and fibre and thus add bulk to the diet.
Fruits
Fruits are priced for their vitamin and minerals content. Amla (600 mg/ 100g),
guava (212 mg/ 100g) are rich source of vitamin C. Some fruits like banana
and mango provide high calorie because of high sugar content. Eating fruits
raw and fresh makes the vitamins and minerals present in them easily
available to the body. Dried fruits like raisins, dates and apricots are good
source of iron and calcium. Fruits also contain dietary fibre.
Foods from animal origin
Milk is almost a complete and ideal food. Milk and milk products like paneer,
curd, khoa, etc. are good source of proteins, calcium, riboflavin and vitamin
B12 but very poor in iron and vitamin C content. Milk does not contain
B

vitamin E.
Eggs contain all nutrients except vitamin C and dietary fibre. Eggs contain
proteins of very high biological value. Egg white contains about 12% proteins
and some of B-vitamins but is devoid of fat and vitamin A. Egg yolk contains
about 15% proteins, 3% fat, rich in vitamin A, iron, B-vitamins and vitamin D.
Flesh foods like meat, poultry and fish are rich in good quality proteins (18-
22%) and vitamin B-complexes. Meat does not contain vitamin A, C and D.
Fatty fish contain some vitamins A and D. Liver is rich in vitamin A and
richest source of vitamin B12.
Table 8.5: Nutritive value of some commonly used foods of animal origin
(values/ 100 g)

Particulars Calories Protein Fat Calcium Iron Carotene

(Kcal) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (μg)
Milk (cow’s) 67 3.2 4.1 120 0.2 174
Curd (cow 60 3.1 4.0 149 0.2 102
milk)
Egg (hen) 173 13.3 13.3 60 2.1 600
Mutton 194 18.5 13.3 150 2.5 0
(muscle)
Pork (muscle) 114 18.7 4.4 30 2.2 0
Other foods
Foods like sugar, jaggery, glucose, honey, custard powder, sago etc. mainly
contain carbohydrates and provide energy.
Condiments and spices are accessory foods used for flavouring purposes to
enhance the palatability of products. These are used in small amounts and
their contribution to nutrient intake is very limited.

12
 Nutritional Aspects
8.7 FOOD PYRAMID
The food pyramid is an outline to show the groups of foods that make a
balanced diet. It is a general guideline that lets you choose a variety of foods
from different food groups to get the various nutrients in right proportions. Its
pyramid shape helps to explain which foods should be eaten more or less. The
foods that make up the base of the pyramid i.e. widest part should provide the
bulk of our diet. As you go up the pyramid, the amounts of different foods get
smaller. Each of these food groups provide some, but not all, of the nutrients
we need. Foods in one group can't replace those in another. No one-food
group is more important than another - for good health, we need them all. The
USDA has made some recommendation and provides a set of guidelines for
healthy eating, represented in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Food pyramid

New guidelines emphasise more as weight control, whole grains, plant oils,
vegetables & fruits and less on consumption of red meat, butter and refined
foods such as white rice, white bread, pasta, etc.

8.8 DIGESTIVE PROCESS

Food do not get absorbed into the body as such except only a few substances
namely water, simple sugars and some of mineral salts and vitamins. The
13
principal component of food namely carbohydrates, fats and proteins undergo N
digestion.

8.8.1 Digestion of Carbohydrates

Digestion of cooked starch by salivary amylase begins in the mouth. This
continues in the stomach for 10-15 minutes, till the food get mixed with
gastric juice and action of amylase ceases due to high acidity.
A greater part of starch and glycogen present in food is digested by pancreatic
amylase in small intestine.
• Starch and glycogen Pancreatic amylase Maltose + Isomaltose
• Sucrose Sucrase Glucose + Fructose
• Maltose Maltase 2 molecules of glucose
• Lactose Lactase Glucose + Galactose
• Isomaltose Isomaltase 2 molecules of
glucose

The resulting monosaccharides viz. glucose, fructose, galactose are absorbed

in small intestine. Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin etc. are not digested and
excreted as such.

8.8.2 Digestion of Proteins

Hydrolysis of proteins is accomplished by proteases secreted in gastric juice,
pancreatic juice and in the small intestine.
Gastric digestion: The proteolytic enzyme present in gastric juice is pepsin.
Since food remains in stomach for short time, pepsin hydrolyses dietary
proteins mainly into a mixture of polypeptides.

Dietary protein Pepsin Polypeptides

Digestion in small intestine: The main digestion of polypeptides produced in

stomach takes place in small intestines. The proteases involved in digestion
are trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase secreted in pancreatic juice
and amino peptidases present in intestinal mucosa.

• Protein and Polypeptides Trypsin and Chymotrypsin Peptide + amino

acids
• Peptides Carboxy peptidase Amino acids
• Peptides Amino peptidases Amino acids
• Dipeptides Dipeptidase Amino acids
• Tripeptides Tripeptidases Amino acids

The resulting amino acids are absorbed in small intestine.

8.8.3 Digestion of Fat

14
Almost all fats present in our meal are triglycerides. Only a small fraction of Nutritional Aspects
dietary fat consists of cholesterol esters and phospholipids. Fats are primarily
hydrolyzed in the small intestine. In stomach gastric lipase brings about some
hydrolysis of finely divided fats only such as egg yolk and cream. Brief
description of digestion and absorption of fat is given below.

Reaction in intestinal lumen Reaction within intestinal wall Mode of entry

into circulation

Fat (Triglyceride) 3-10% absorbed Triglycerides and diglycerides Lymphatic vessels

as micelle may be hydrolysed by intestinal (lacteals)
Lipase lipase into monoglycerides &
Diglycerides fatty acids
+ fatty acids 3-10% absorbed
Lipase as micelle

Monoglycerides
+ fatty acids 60-68% absorbed Resynthesis of neutral fat,
as micelle Phospholipids and cholesterol
Lipase esters and formation of
chylomicrons
Glycerol+ fatty acids 20% absorbed
Phospholipids as micelle
Phospholipase

Glycerol + fatty acids (choline etc.)

+ phosphoric acid Absorption
+ organic base

Cholesterol esters
Cholesterol esterase Portal blood

Cholesterol + fatty acids Absorption

Short chain fatty acids Absorption Short chain fatty acids Short chain fatty acids (C4-C10)
(C4-C10) (C4-C10)

Glycerol Absorption Glycerol Glycerol

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are different foods? Write the importance of fruits and vegetables.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
15
2. Define food pyramid. What is the importance of food pyramid in food N
selection for the diet?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Explain the term ‘digestion’. Write the different enzymes, which are
important for digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
………………………………………………………………………………
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8.9 DIETARY ALLOWANCES, STANDARDS AND

BALANCED DIETS FOR DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS:
CHILDREN, ADULTS, PREGNANT AND
LACTATING WOMEN, OLD PEOPLE
8.9.1 Dietary Allowances and Standards
Dietary allowances are measures of nutritional need in terms of specific
amount of nutrients that a person should receive every day to achieve full
growth and development potential. The Nutrition Advisory Committee of
Indian Council of Medical Research (1989) recommended the dietary
allowances of different nutrients, which are presented in Table 1.11.
Reference man is between 20-39 years of age, weighs 60 kg, free from
diseases and physically fit for active work. Reference woman is between 20-
39 years, weighs 50 kg and healthy.

8.9.2 Balanced Diets for Different Age Groups

A balanced diet is one which includes a variety of foods in such quantities and
proportion that the need for nutrients is adequately met to promote and
maintain the health. Food requirement will differ according to age, sex,
physical activity, and physiological state viz. pregnancy, lactation etc.

Balanced diets for different age groups, sex, moderate activity and
physiological state are given in Table 8.6 to 8.10. These diets are formulated
using food exchange system suggested by Gopalan et al. (1991) and
recommended dietary allowances of nutrients for Indians (I.C.M.R, 1989).
16
The food stuffs given in these tables should be considered as raw food items Nutritional Aspects
that represent a food group, for example, cereals may include wheat, bread,
rice, puffed rice, maize etc. depending upon the dietary habits of individual/
family.
Mother’s milk is the best food for newborns and infants up to 6 months of age.
Afterwards, supplementary foods along with milk, is necessary. Strained fruit
juices and soups, mashed banana, papaya, sago porridge, rice porridge, soft
boiled egg yolk, mashed and well cooked khitcheri etc. may form the
supplementary foods for the infants.
Table 8.6: Balanced diets for children (1-9 years old)

Food stuffs 1-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years

(g/caput/day)
Veg. Non- Veg. Non- Veg. Non-
veg. veg. veg.
Cereals 120 120 200 200 250 250
Pulses 20 20 40 40 50 50
Green leafy vegetables 50 50 50 50 50 50
Other vegetables 30 30 50 50 75 75
Fruits 50 50 50 50 100 100
Milk* 400 300 400 300 400 300
Fats and oils 20 20 20 20 25 30
Sugar and jaggery 20 20 40 40 30 30
Eggs or meat - 50 - 50 - 50
Approximate
nutrients
Carbohydrates 158 153 256 251 334 284
Proteins 34 36 47 49 53 57
Total fats 46 46 46 46 41 56
Energy (kcal) 1258 1228 1689 1659 1933 1946
*Buffalo milk. If cow milk is to be taken, increase the amount by one and half times

17
 N
Table 8.7: Balanced diet for boys

Food stuffs 10-12 years 13-15 years 16-18 years

(g/caput/day) Veg. Non- Veg. Non- Veg. Non-
veg. veg. veg.
Cereals 300 300 350 350 390 390
Pulses 50 50 50 50 60 60
Green leafy 75 75 100 100 100 100
vegetables
Other vegetables 75 75 100 100 100 100
Fruits 100 100 50 50 50 50
Milk 400 300 400 300 400 300
Fats and oils 30 30 30 30 30 30
Sugar and jaggery 40 40 25 25 30 30
Groundnut 25 25 25 25 25 25
Eggs or meat - 60 - 60 - 60
Approximate
nutrients
Carbohydrates 394 345 381 376 423 367
Proteins 58 63 71 75 77 83
Total fats 43 57 66 67 66 86
Energy (kcal) 2189 2182 2451 2437 2640 2635

Table 8.8: Balanced diets for girls

Food stuffs 10-12 years 13-18 years

(g/caput/day) Veg. Non-veg. Veg. Non-veg.
Cereals 250 250 250 250
Pulses 50 50 50 50
Green leafy vegetables 75 75 150 150
Other vegetables 50 50 100 100
Fruits 100 100 50 50
Milk 400 300 400 300
Fats and oils 30 30 25 25
Sugar and jaggery 30 30 25 25
Groundnut 25 25 25 25
Eggs or meat - 60 - 60
Approximate nutrients
Carbohydrates 298 293 303 299
Proteins 54 28 61 64
Total fats 56 57 51 62
Energy (kcal) 1972 1959 2083 2070

18
 Table 8.9: Balanced diet for adult man & woman (moderate worker) Nutritional Aspects

Food stuffs Man Woman

(g/caput/day)
Veg. Non- Veg. Non- Pregnancy* Lactation*
veg. veg.
Cereals 490 490 350 350 - 25
Pulses 60 50 50 40 25 25
Green leafy 100 100 150 150 50 -
vegetables
Other vegetables 100 100 100 100 - -
Fruits 100 100 100 100 50 50
Milk 300 200 300 200 200 200
Fats and oils 40 40 30 30 - 10
Sugar and jaggery 40 40 25 25 - 10
Eggs or meat - 90 - 90 - -
Approximate
nutrients
Carbohydrates 507 496 377 366 38 60
Proteins 76 82 60 65 14.5 17
Total fats 59 65 49 55 13 23
Energy (kcal) 2871 2858 2228 2215 357 554
* additional allowances (in addition to normal diet) during pregnancy/ lactation

Table 8.10: Balanced diet for an aged person (60-70 years)

Food stuffs (g/caput/day) Man Woman

Veg. Non-veg. Veg. Non-veg.
Cereals 325 325 225 225
Pulses 50 50 50 50
Green leafy vegetables 100 100 100 100
Other vegetables 150 150 150 150
Fruits 200 200 200 200
Milk 300 200 300 200
Fats and oils 20 20 20 20
Sugar and jaggery 20 20 20 20
Eggs - 50 - 50
Meat - 30 - 30
Approximate nutrients
Carbohydrates 363 358 283 278
Proteins 58 63 48 53
Total fats 40 42 40 42
Energy* (kcal) 2084 2087 1744 1747
*Due to reduced basal Metabolic Activities, energy requirement in this age group is reduced
by 20 per cent

19
 Table 8.11: Recommended dietary allowances for Indians N

Group Particulars Body Energy Protein Fat Ca Iron Vit.A Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Pyri- Vit.C Folic Vit.B
wt. kcal/d g/d g/d mg/d mg/d µg/d mg/d mg/d mg/d doxin mg/d acid mg/d
(kg.) mg/d mg/d
Man* SW 60 2425 60 20 400 28 600 1.2 1.4 16 2.0 40 100 1
MW 60 2875 60 20 400 28 600 1.4 1.6 18 2.0 40 100 1
HW 60 3800 60 20 400 28 600 1.6 1.9 21 2.0 40 100 1
Woman* SW 50 1875 50 20 400 30 600 0.9 1.1 12 2.0 40 100 1
MW 50 2225 50 20 400 30 600 1.1 1.3 14 2.0 40 100 1
HW 50 2925 50 20 400 30 600 1.2 1.5 16 2.0 40 100 1
Pregnancy +300 +15 30 100 38 600 +0.2 +0.2 +2 2.5 40 400 1
Lactation
0-6 months +550 +25 45 1000 30 950 +0.3 +0.3 +4 2.5 80 150 1.5
6-12months +400 +18 45 1000 30 950 +0.2 +0.2 +3 2.5 80 150 1.5
Infants 0-6 months 5.4 108/kg 2.05 kg 500 - - 55µg/kg 65µg/kg 710 0.1 25 25 0.2
µg/kg
6-12months 8.6 98/kg 1.65/kg - 500 - 350 50µg/kg 60µg/kg 650 0.4 25 25 0.2
µg/kg
Children 1-3 years 12.2 1240 22 25 400 12 400 0.6 0.7 8 0.9 40 30 0.2
4-6 years 19.0 1690 30 25 400 18 400 0.9 1.0 11 0.9 40 40 1.0
7-9 years 26.9 1950 41 25 400 26 600 1.0 1.2 13 1.6 40 60
Boys 10-12 years 35.4 2190 54 22 600 35 600 1.1 1.3 15 1.6 40 70 0.2-1.0
Girls 10-12 years 31.5 1970 57 22 600 19 600 1.0 1.2 13 1.6 40 70 0.2-1.0
Boys 13-15 years 47.8 2450 70 22 600 41 60 1.2 1.5 16 2.0 40 100 0.2-1.0
Girls 13-15 years 46.7 2060 65 22 600 28 600 1.0 1.2 14 2.0 40 100 0.2-1.0
Boys 16-18 years 57.1 2640 78 22 500 50 600 1.3 1.6 17 2.0 40 100 0.2-1.0
Girls 16-18 years 49.9 2060 63 22 500 30 600 1.0 1.2 14 2.0 40 100 0.2-1.0
* Reference man/ woman

8.10 TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN

NUTRITION
The nutritional status of an individual is influenced by food intake both in
terms of quantity and quality and also by physical health of the person. The
main objective of nutritional assessment is to obtain precise information on
prevalence and geographical distribution of nutritional problems of a given
community and identifying the individuals or groups of people ‘at risk’ or in a
greatest need of nutritional assistance.
The assessment of nutritional status involves various techniques viz. clinical
examination, anthropometry, biochemical evaluation, assessment of dietary
intake, vital and health statistics, ecological studies.
Clinical Assessment of Nutritional Status
There are a number of physical signs, some specific and many non-specific
known to be associated with states of malnutrition. Clinical signs, which are
useful in assessment of nutritional status are: moon face, angular stomatitis,
xerosis of conjuctiva, Bitot’s spots, magenta tongue, etc. However,
malnutrition cannot be quantified on the basis of clinical signs and many
deficiencies are unaccompanied by physical signs.
Anthropometric Measurements
Anthropometric measurements such as height, weight, skin fold thickness and
arm circumference are valuable indicators of human nutrition. In young
children, additional measurements such as head and chest circumference are
good indicators.

20
Laboratory and Biochemical assessment Nutritional Aspects

Haemoglobin estimation is, most common laboratory test carried out to assess
the prevalence of anaemia. Stools are examined for intestinal parasites. Urine
is examined to assess the presence of albumin and sugar, etc.
Biochemical tests are applied to measure nutrient concentration in body fluids
(e.g. serum iron, serum albumin, etc.) or detection of abnormal amounts of
metabolites in urine (e.g. urinary creatinine, etc.) or measurement of enzymes
in which the vitamin is a known co-factor (as in riboflavin deficiency) to
assess malnutrition in its preclinical stages.
Radiological and Biophysical Assessment
Radiological examination may help in diagnosis of rickets, osteomalacia,
infantile scurvy, beriberi, fluorosis, and protein-calorie malnutrition.
A large number of tests have been devised to assess dark adaptations of the
eye, nerve accommodation, physical performance, muscle co-ordination etc.,
in different deficiency states to assess the degree of alteration in physiological
function.
Assessment of Dietary Intake
Assessment of food consumption involves dietary surveys, which may be
household inquiries, or individual food consumption surveys. A diet survey
may be carried out by one of the methods viz. weighment of raw foods,
weighment of cooked foods, oral questionnaire method to get information
about dietary intake patterns; specific food consumed and estimated nutrient
intakes.
Vital Statistics
An analysis of vital statistics – mortality (infant mortality rate, rate of low
birth weight babies etc.) and morbidity data (hospital data or data from
community health and morbidity surveys) particularly protein energy
malnutrition, anaemia, xeropthalmia and other vitamin deficiencies, endemic
goiter, diarrhoea, measles and parasitic infestations can be of value in
providing additional information contributing to nutritional status of the
community.
Ecological Studies
Malnutrition is the end result of many interacting ecological factors. A study
of ecological factors comprises of food balance sheet, socio-economic factors
(family size, occupation, income, education, customs, cultural influences etc.),
health and educational services (primary health care services, feeding and
immunization programme), and conditional influences (e.g., parasitic,
bacterial and viral infections etc.).

8.11 NUTRITIONAL LABELLING

Labelling for nutrition information has been mandatory for (i) any food to
which a nutrient has been added – enrichment, fortification, or restoration and
(ii) any food for which a claim is made for nutritional properties either on the
label or in advertising. All food for special dietary use require labelling. At

21
 present most nutrition labelling is voluntary, but many manufacturers have N
adopted it for their products.
Reasons for nutrition labelling:
• The main reason for nutrition labelling is to make the consumer aware
about the nutritional properties of the product.
• Labelling also leads food processors to be constantly aware of the nutritive
values of foods that they produce.
• Labelling will help persons who require modified diets to select those
foods appropriate for their needs.
Regulations for nutrition labelling established by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) are presented in Figure 8.2.

NUTRITION INFORMATION
(PER SERVING)
SERVING SIZE = 8 OZ.
SERVINGS PER CONTAINER = 1
CALORIES………….….560 FAT (PERCENT OF
PROTEIN …….…………23 GM CALORIES 53%)….……..33 GM
CARBOHYDRATE …….43 GM POLYUNSATURATED*...2 GM
SATURATED …………….9 GM
CHOLESTEROL*
(20 MG/100 GM)…………40 GM
SODIUM (365 MG/
100 GM) …………………830 MG
PERCENTAGE OF U.S. RECOMMENDED DAILY
ALLOWANCES (U.S. RDA)
PROTEIN ……………………..…35 RIBOFLAVIN …….…..15
VITAMIN A ………………….…35 NIACIN …………….…25
VITAMIN C CALCIUM…………..…..2
(ASCORBIC ACID).……………10 IRON ……………….….25
THIAMIN (VITAMIN B1) ……. 15
*Information on fat and cholesterol content is provided for individuals who, on the
advice of a physician, are modifying their total dietary intake of fat and cholesterol

Figure 8.2: The nutrition label format (U.S. FDA)

# Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by dietary allowances? Write the requirements of
fruits and vegetables in our daily diet.
………………………………………………………………………………
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22
2. List the various techniques involves in assessment of nutritional status. Nutritional Aspects
What are various anthropometric measurements?
………………………………………………………………………………
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3. Nutritional labelling helps the consumer in products selection. Justify.
………………………………………………………………………………
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8.12 LET US SUM UP

Food is essential for our health and vitality. It is the food that provides us
nourishment to perform various voluntary and involuntary functions of our
body and prevents from deficiency diseases. Purchasing power of food and
nutritional knowledge and awareness about nutritional need are the most
important factors that affect the dietary consumption and nutritional health of
a person and of any community.
It is the food pyramid which is a good guide in choosing a variety of foods
from different food groups to get the required nutrients. Nutritional labelling
also makes us aware about nutritional properties of purchased products.

8.13 KEY WORDS

Absorption : Transfer of nutrients across cell membranes;
following digestion, nutrients are transferred
from the intestinal lumen across the mucosa and
into the blood and lymph circulation.

23
 Digestion : Hydrolysis of foods in the digestive tract to N
simpler substances so that they can be used by
the body.
Health : State of complete physical, mental and social
well being and not just absence of disease.
Kilo Calorie : Kilo Calorie is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through
10C.
Metabolism : Physical and chemical changes occurring within
the organism; includes synthesis of biological
materials and breakdown of substances to yield
energy.
Enzyme : An organic compound which can be protein or
RNA produced by living tissue to accelerate
certain specific metabolic reactions, viz.
hydrolases, oxidases, peptidases and others.
Cholesterol : The commonest member of sterol group;
synthesize by body and is essential for its
functions.

# 8.14 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1. We need nourishment to perform various voluntary and involuntary body
functions.
The nutrients; carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and mineral are
required by body to provide energy, development of body tissue, bones,
teeth etc. See Sub-sec. 8.1, 8.2 and 8.5.
2. Basal metabolism
Physical activities
Dietary thermogenesis. See Sub-sec. 8.
3. Some of the energy is required at rest.
Basal metabolic rate is the amount of calories required in the state of
complete rest.
Basal metabolic rate is influenced by body surface area, gender, age,
health factors, sleep etc. See Sub-sec. 8.4

24
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Nutritional Aspects

Your answer should include the following points:

1. Broadly foods can be classified in to ten different groups.
Fruits and vegetables are termed as protective foods.
Fruits and vegetables provide vitamins and minerals. See sub-sec. 8.6.
2. Food pyramid shows the food groups.
Food pyramid helps in selecting balanced amount of foods. See
sub-sec. 8.7
3. Hydrolysis of food is essential for absorption of different nutrients.
Amylase, proteases, lipase etc. are enzymes essential for digestion of food.
See sub-sec. 8.10.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Dietary allowances are measures of nutrients that we need to take daily.
An amount of 100 g of each of fruits, green leafy vegetables and other
fruits can fulfil our daily requirements. See sub-sec. 8.9.2. and Tables 8.1
to 8.5.
2. Clinical examination, anthropometry, biochemical evaluation, assessment
of dietary intake, vital and health statistics, ecological studies are
techniques for nutritional assessment.
Important anthropometric measures are height, weight, skin fold thickness,
arm circumference, head and chest circumference. See sub-sec. 8.10.
3) Nutritional labelling is helpful in selecting nutritious products from variety
of available products.
FDA has established regulations for nutrition labelling. See sub-sec. 8.11

8.15 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Gopalan, C. and Shastri, Rama, Balasubramanian, S.C. (2002) Nutritive
Value of Indian Foods, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad,
India.
2. Mridula, D. and Bisht, B.S. (2000) Food Facts and Diets, Central Institute
of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana, India.
3. Mudambi, S.R. and Rajagopal, M.V. (1982) Fundamental of Foods &
Nutrition (Third Edition), Willey Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
4. Swaminathan, M. (1991) Advanced Text Book on Food and Nutrition
Volume I, Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company, Bangalore.
5. Swaminathan, M. (1991) Advanced Text Book on Food and Nutrition
Volume II, Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company, Bangalore.

25
Nutrition
UNIT 9 FOOD FOR GROWTH AND REPAIR
Structure

9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Importance of Food for Growth and Sustenance
9.3 Food Structure, Texture, Flavour, Colour, Keeping Quality
Food Structure
Food Texture
Food Flavour
Food Colour
Keeping Quality
9.4 Degradation of Nutrients, Colour Pigments and Microorganisms during
Thermal Processing and Storage
Effect of Thermal Processing on Nutrients, Colour Pigments and Microorganisms
Effect of Storage on Nutrients, Colour and Microorganisms
9.5 Permitted Colours
9.6 Health Food, Green/ Organic Food, Traditional Foods, Designer Foods
Health Food
Organic Foods
Traditional Foods
Designer Foods
9.7 Packaging for Safety and Quality
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Key Words
9.10 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
9.11 Some Useful Books

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the effect of processing and storage on food quality and how to
prevent them;
• state safe limit of preservatives; and
• discuss the health foods.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Each food, although contains a wide range of nutrients but serves as a major
source of one or two main nutrients. Since each food has a different nutritional
profile, a judicious use of different foods is desired to maintain good health.
The health of an individual is influenced by the utilization of nutrients, called
nutritional status. The application of knowledge of nutrition in selecting food,
its combination, preparation, storage, physiological need, nutritional
knowledge; all affects the overall nutrition of a person and the community.

Food occupies the first position in the hierarchical needs of man but ignorance
of basic food facts is still widespread. Consequently, various forms of
nutritional disorders results, that can be prevented by prope r dietary
counselling. There is no known nutritional deficiency disorder that cannot be
prevented by appropriate dietary habits. Only the need is to lay adequate
26
emphasis to this fact and to provide adequate nutritional information to all of Food for Growth and
Repair
us. Food-based approach is the only sustainable way to improve the nutritional
status of all.

It is not only the foods but also the quality of foods which is of prime
importance for us. Foods if not processed properly, may loose their nutritive
properties. Even if stored under improper storage condition or handled
carelessly, they may get contaminated with microorganisms. Hence, for proper
storage of fresh produce to retain their freshness, nutritive value and
acceptability, proper handling, transport and storage of fres h or processed
products is of great importance.

9.2 IMPORTANCE OF FOOD FOR GROWTH AND

SUSTENANCE

Food provides nourishment to our body. Food is absorbed by the body and
used as an energy source. It is also used for growth and regulation. Further it
also gives protection against diseases. In short, food is the raw material from
which our bodies are made. Right kinds of food in right proportions can ensure
good health, which may be evident in our appearance, efficiency and overall
well being.

The foods which we use daily include rice, wheat, pulses, vegetables, fruits,
milk, eggs, meat, fish, sugar, oils, etc. These foods are made up of a number of
chemical substances called nutrients. According to their chemical structure,
these nutrients can be classified as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and
minerals. Water and fibre are also essential component of foods.
Carbohydrates comprise sugars, starches, fibre, and related materials and
mainly provide energy to our body. Proteins are nitrogenous compounds and
form major component of tissue in our body. Fats provide energy and fatty
acids to our body. Vitamins and minerals are required for metabolism and play
a protective role in our body. In short, nutrients are essential for each and every
voluntary or involuntary activity of the body and must be supplied by the diet.

9.3 FOOD STRUCTURE, TEXTURE, FLAVOUR,

COLOUR, KEEPING QUALITY

9.3.1 Food Structure

Fruits and vegetables are important parts of our diet, they play a protective role
as they supply the essential components to our body. Fruits and vegetables are
living organisms and diverse in structure, in composition and in general
physiology.

27
Nutrition

(a) (b)

Fig.9.1: a) Derivation of some fruits from plant tissue. The letters indicate the tissues that
comprise a significant portion of the fruit illustrated as follows: A) pedical,
cashew apple; B) receptacle, strawberry; C) aril, lychee; D) endodermal
intralocular tissue, orange; E) pericarp, grape; F) septum, tomato; G) placental
intralocular tissue, tomato; H) mesocarp, peach; I) endocarp, peach; J) carpels,
apple; K) accessory tissue, apple and pineapple; L) peduncle, pineapple and fig.
b) Derivation of some vegetables from plant tissue. The letters indicate the
principal origins of representative vegetables as follows: A) flower bud,
artichoke; B) stem sprout, asparagus; C) seeds, corn; D) axillary bud, brussels
sprout; E) petiole, celery; F) bulb (underground bud, onion; G) stem tuber,
potato; H) swollen root tuber, sweet potato; J) swollen hypocotyls, beetroot;
K) swollen leaf base, leek; L) leaf blade, spinach; M) fruit, pumpkin; N) swollen
inflorescence, broccoli; O) main bud, lettuce.

In general, however, the ovule develops into seeds and the ovary into fruit.
Normally three layers are differentiated in the ovary wall or pericarp, these
being the outer exocarp or skin, the mesocarp, which may be fleshy, and the
inner endocarp. The structural features of fruits and vegetables on the basis of
their derivation are shown in Fig 2.1a & 2.1b.

9.3.2 Food Texture

Food texture is a combination of sensations derived from the lips, tongue,
walls of the mouth, teeth, and even the ears and touch by hand. The texture of
fruits and vegetables depends on the turgor of the living cells as well as on the
occurrence of supporting tissues and the cohesiveness of the cells.

28
9.3.3 Food Flavour Food for Growth and
Repair
Flavour is the subtle and complex perception that combines taste, smell, heat
and cold, and texture. The substances mainly responsible for the flavours of
foods are volatile compounds. These may be aliphatic esters, aldehydes or
ketones which are present in fruit and other natural foods in very low
concentration. Orange, lemon and grapefruit peels contain a number of
flavanone glycosides. Terpenoids are major components of citrus oils and
contribute to the flavour of citrus fruits. Certain volatile sulphur containing
compounds possess powerful and distinctive odours which contribute to both
the pleasant and unpleasant aroma of many foods e.g. onion, garlic,
cauliflower, broccoli etc.

9.3.4 Food Colour

The characteristic colour of raw food is due to the pigments naturally present
in it. The natural colours (pigments) in vegetables and fruits can be classified
on the basis of chemical structure as carotenoids (yellow -orange), chlorophylls
(green), flavonoids and anthocyanins (red, blue, and purple) and anthoxanthins
(cream yellow). Animal foods contain myoglobin and hemoglobin.
Chlorophylls are present in plants and vegetables especially leafy vegetables
such as cabbage and lettuce etc.
Carotenoids are present in many vegetables and fruits such as carrot, pumpkin,
mango, orange etc. Some of the carotenoids have vitamin A activity.

Anthocyanins - These occur in many fruits and vegetables e.g. coloured grapes,
red cabbage, cherries, strawberries, plums, apple and in many flowers.
Flavonoids - Flavones and anthoxanthins are responsible for the yellow-white
or creamy white colour of potato and cauliflower. Flavonoids are usually more
stable to heat and oxidation than the anthocyanins.
Anthoxanthins – present in some fruits and vegetables.
Poly-Phenols - These are colourless or yellow substances which turn brown
when fruits and vegetables containing them, e.g. brinjal, bottle gourd, apple,
are cut and exposed to air. Xanthon es are a group of red and yellow pigments.
One well-known member is mangiferin, which occur as a glucoside in
mangoes.
Betalains – betalains are a group of red and yellow pigments found in red beet
and to some extent in cactus fruits, pokeberries and a number of flowers

9.3.5 Keeping Quality

The quality of fresh fruit and vegetables is related to their appearance, colour,
uniformity, taste, flavour, texture, aroma, nutritive value, chemical
composition, defective marks on the skin, chemical residue, additives and any
other parameter the consumer chooses to be acceptable on the basis of their
experience and education. Harvesting of fruits and vegetables disturbs the
normal life process. As the fruits and vegetables continue to respire after
harvesting, they start losing their vitality, turgidity, colour, appearance and
food value and thus overall quality of food during storage at room temperature.
Maturity level at the time of harvesting, harvesting practices of fruits and
vegetables, handling practices, moisture content of foods, storage temperature,
29
Nutrition humidity and other storage conditions (light, oxygen, etc.) affects the keeping
quality of the food. Keeping quality or storage stability (to preserve the overall
quality during storage) is measured under storage and handling conditions that
are set up to stimulate or somewhat exceed the conditions the product is
expected to encounter in normal distribution and use.

@ Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the significance of food for us?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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2. What do you understand by food flavours? Explain in brief.
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3. List the colour pigments present in fruits and vegetables.
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30
 Food for Growth and
9.4 DEGRADATION OF NUTRIENTS, COLOUR Repair
PIGMENTS AND MICROORGANISMS DURING
THERMAL PROCESSING AND STORAGE

9.4.1 Effect of Thermal Processing on Nutrients, Colour Pigments and

Microorganisms
Almost all foods except fruits and some of the vegetables (used for salads) are
subject to some type of heat processing to make them palatable and digestible.
Thermal processing has both beneficial and adverse affects i.e. loss of
nutrients. The loss of nutrients depends upon the processing temperature,
duration of heat treatment and type of nutrients.
Blanching is a process in which dipping of fruits and vegetables in boiling
water or exposing to steam for a few minutes stops all enzymatic and
biological activities prior to processing. Losses of nutrients due to blanching
occur directly from leaching of water soluble vitamins into water used for
processing. In blanched vegetables such as asparagus, green beans, peas,
spinach, the retention of ascorbic acid (67-95%), niacin (83-94%), riboflavin
(88-90%) and thiamine (85-92%) is variable.
Pasteurization destroys pathogenic microorganisms associated with food and
increases the shelf life by decreasing the microbial population and inactivates
some enzymes. Pasteurization affects the vitamin content to a greater extent
than other nutrients, e.g. vitamin C and riboflavin are most sensitive whereas
vitamin E and K are slightly affected. Thiamine undergoes 3-20% destruction
and riboflavin reduces to about 5%. Niacin content increases by about 10%,
probably because of the liberation of protein bound nicotinic acid. Ascorbic
acid being most sensitive undergoes oxidation. About 8% loss of vitamin C
takes place during pasteurization.
Canning
Heating of canned fruits, juices, soups, vegetables, meat, and meat products
etc. to destroy food spoilage microorganisms and enzymes result in some
undesirable changes in the nutritive value of food. During canning,
denaturation of proteins may occur. Heat, metallic tins and light accelerate
oxidative rancidity of fats/ oils. The rate of oxidation of fat is doubled for each
degree increase in the temperature. Sugars and starches are degraded by
prolonged heating at high temperature. Browning reactions takes place in
sugars on heating. Canning of vegetables causes losses in nutrients such as
vitamin C (33-90%), thiamine (16-83%), riboflavin (25-67%), niacin (0-75%),
folic acid (35-84%) and vitamin A (0-84%).

Ionizing Radiations
Effects of irradiation on the nutritional quality of foods vary with doses.
Higher doses result in more destruction of nutrients than lower doses.
Irradiations produce molecular cha nges in starch, converting it into sugars.
Lipids are very sensitive to radiations. Auto-oxidation of lipids increases
peroxide value i.e. the number of peroxides increases leading to off-flavours.
Losses of amino acids also occur. During irradiation most of thiamine is found
to be lost whereas riboflavin is heat stable and retained upto 91%. Niacin and
folic acid are extremely radio -resistant and are fully retained. Vitamin K is
sensitive to radiation and is destroyed in significant quantity during irradia tion.
31
Nutrition Colour Pigments
Vegetables and fruits contribute a variety of colours to the diet. The plant
pigments chlorophyll (green leafy vegetables), carotenoids (yellow-orange
carrots), flavonoids (white potatoes) and anthocyanins (red beetroot) are
present singly or in combination in plant foods. These may be affected by the
method of food processing. The soluble pigment such as anthocyanins may
leach in the cooking water and changes may occur due to the effect of heat and
pH (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1: Effect of heating on colour pigments of plant foods

S. Food Name of Colour Soluble Effect of In presence of

No. source pigments in prolonged
heating Acid Alkali

1. Rice Flavones White or Water May White Yellow

Potato Flavanols yellowish darken
red
2. Beetroot Anthocyanin Red Water Little Bright Reddish
red purple
3. Leafy Chlorophyll Green Fat Olive Olive Intense
vegetables green green green
4. Carrot Carotene Yellow - Fat May No No
Mango Xanthophyll orange darken change change
Tomato Lycopene

9.4.2 Effect of Storage on Nutrients, Colour and Microorganisms

The quality of food deteriorates during storage due to action of
microorganisms on them if not stored properly. Deterioration is usually noticed
by the presence of rancid odour of fats (caused by oxidation of fats), fermented
odour of fruit or fruit juices due to yeast growth, or appearance of mould
growth on bread, roti, etc. Hence, proper storage of food and food products is
very important to avoid the quantitative and qualitative losses.
Fresh fruits and vegetables continue to respire after they are harvested.
Harvesting disturbs the normal life processes, and vegetables start losing their
vitality, turgidity and food value. The harvested vegetables continue to respire
during transport and storage. This involves the use of oxygen, the metabolism
of cell food materials and the release of carbon dioxide, water and energy.
Most of the energy is released in the form of heat.
Most of the fruits such as mango, banana, citrus, guava, grapes, papaya, etc.
are prone to injuries which become avenues for fungi especially moulds which
deteriorate the fruits. The fruit packaging material is infested with organisms,
which also act as source of infection. Due to unhygienic practices, fruits are
subjected to various diseases causing huge losses. The most common type of
spoilage in fruits and vegetables are bacterial soft rot, gray mould rot, blue
mould rot, black mould rot, pink mould rot, etc. Fungal spoilage of vegetables
often results in water soaked mushy area s, while fungal rots of fleshy fruits
like apple and peaches mostly show brown or cream coloured areas in which
moulds grow in the tissue below the skin. Whereas bacterial soft rot is
commonly spread among the vegetables which are not very acid and among
the fruits which are not highly acid.
32
Sometimes normal changes occur in raw fruit juices at room temperature such Food for Growth and
Repair
as alcoholic fermentation (conversion of sugars to acid, alcohol and gases) by
yeasts, which further cause an oxidation of alcohol and fruit acids yeasts and
moulds growing on the surface when it is exposed to air. Mostly at
temperatures above 32.20C to 35 0C lactobacilli would be likely to grow and
form lactic acid and some volatile acids.
Vitamin C and thiamine may be lost if canned foods are stored at ambient
temperature. At room temperature, there is discolouration of pigments present
in vegetables such as anthocyanins, flavanols and flavones very rapidly
because of the activity of enzymes. Roots and tubers can be stored in cool
ventilated place to avoid sprouting. Storage temperature should be maintained
between 3 and 100C. Green leafy vegetables after harvest start losing resulting
in loss of moisture. These vegetables can be stored at low temperature in clean
and dry plastic bags to prevent loss of moisture.
The most common deteriorative changes taking place in milk at room
temperature are souring, decomposition of protein, rancidity or bitter taste, off
flavour, colour changes etc.
Deteriorative changes in meat can take place in aerobic conditions, anaerobic
conditions and also by bacteria, yeasts or moulds. The changes, which take
place under anaerobic conditions, are changes in colour, oxidation of
unsaturated fats, undesirable flavour, off odour, of taste, etc.
Fish gets spoiled easily because of the rapid autolysis by the fish enzymes. The
fat in pork and poultry are more easily oxidized than others.
Eggs are more spoiled by bacteria than moulds. If not properly stored there is a
loss of CO2 gas through the egg shell, loss of moisture and increased air space,
loss of moisture from white to yellow, loss of normal firmness of egg white,
etc.
Foods when properly stored retain their freshness longer; have better nutritive
value and acceptability. Therefore, for better storage and long she lf life, all
food and food products should be stored in a proper place according to their
requirement.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 ?

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Mention the nutrients, which are sensitive to temperature and light.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

33
Nutrition 2. How temperature affects the colour pigments? Explain.

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Why do the quality of harvested fruits and vegetables deteriorate?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. Why do the fruits and vegetables spoil at room temperature?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

9.5 PERMITTED COLOURS

Food Colours
The acceptance of food depends to a large extent upon its attractive colour.
The characteristic colour of raw food is due to the pigments naturally present
in it. Sometimes, artificial colour is added during the preparation and
processing of foods to make them more attractive.

List of Permissible Harmless Food Colours

i) Natural colouring matter that may be used:
According to Fruit Product Order, India (1955), the natural colouring
matters, whether isolated from a natural source or synthesized, are
34
 permitted to be added to any food product. Some of these are carmine, Food for Growth and
Repair
carotene and carotenoids, chlorophyll, caramel, annatto, ratanjot, and
saffron.
ii) Coal tar dyes which may be used:
No coal tar dyes or a mixture thereof except the following shall be used in
fruit products:

Colour Common name Colour index Chemical class

(1956)
i. Red Ponceau 4R Carmosine 16255 Azo
Fast Red E Amaranth 14720 Azo
Erythrosine 16045 Azo
16185 Azo
45430 Xanthene
ii. Yellow Tartrazine 19140 Pyrazolone
Sunset Yellow FCF 15985 Azo
iii. Blue Indigo Carmine 73015 Indigoid
Brilliant Blue FOF 42090 Triphenyl-
methane
iv. Green Green S 44090 Triphenyl-
methane
Fast Green FOF 42033 Triphenyl-
Methane

Dyes when used in fruit products shall be pure and free from all harmful
impurities. The maximum limit of any permitted coal tar colours or mixture of
permitted coal tar colours which may be added to any fruit products, shall not
exceed 0.20 g per kg of the final products for consumption.
As per the ‘Code of US Federal Regulations (1979); and Prevention of Food
Adulteration Act (India), Acid Magenta II, Blue VRS, Brilliant Black, Red FB,
Red 6B colours have been prohibited for use in the food products.

9.6 HEALTH FOOD, GREEN/ ORGANIC FOOD,

TRADITIONAL FOODS, DESIGNER FOODS

9.6.1 Health Food

Health foods are those, which are nutritious, prevent diseases and maintain
health. Health foods are also known as ‘designer foods’. Such foods must
possess characteristics like modified composition, limit the presence of certain
potentially harmful components and possibility of including certain desirable
ingredients either naturally or by addition. These include vegetable foods,
whole grain cereals, food processed without chemical additives, foods grown
on organic compost, ‘magic’ foods (honey, molasses, yoghurt, etc.), and so on.

35
Nutrition 9.6.2 Organic Foods
Organic foods refer to the foods (either plant or animal foods) that are grown
organically. These are grown on soils enriched with compost and manure and
without the use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides or pesticides. Organic foods
are the need of the hour because these foods offer protection of future
generations, prevent soil degradation and erosion, protect water and aquatic
life, save energy, protect farmers and farm women, help small farmers, support
a true and sustainable economy, promote biodiversity, produce better, tasty,
pure and nutritious foods.

9.6.3 Traditional Foods

Traditional foods are different types of food preparations with varying shelf
life. These foods had been invented to overcome the monotony in the diet of
the people, modified and repetitively processed by human communities. Their
composition and preparation were based on the Pak Sastra i.e. Science of
cooking. Traditional food processing began when man ceased to be a food
hunter. To start with, it was confined to primary processing of food grains.
Gradually, primary processing spread to other foods, gathering variety,
variegation and velocity. In regions of primitive agriculture, food manufacture
and management, man is still engaged in simple food processing practices,
passed down through generations of tradition.
Indian traditional foods based on cereals, legumes and fats or oil - both sweets
and savories, are innumerable in number, with characteristic features reflecting
the diverse socio -cultural environments in different parts of the country. In our
country; a nation steeped in culture and tradition dating beyond 5000 BC, these
heritage foods for which preparative guidelines passed on from generation to
generation are still made by skilled mothers and grandmothers, though many of
these products have attained commercial importance during last 20 – 30 years.
Amongst various traditional foods, cereals and pulses based products still
occupy an important place in the diets of our people. Historically, legumes are
the natural protein supplements to cereals in the Indian diets. ‘Khichari’ one of
the traditional products prepared from rice and pulse to prove a good quality
diet, was in practice long before nutritionists and food scientists understood the
nutritional importance of mixing grains.
The important traditional foods which are still popular among Indian
population can be broadly categorized as: processed grain products, dehydrated
foods, pickles/chutneys/sauce/relishes, ground spice/spice mixture, fried food
products, confections and sweet dishes, and dairy products. Some popular
traditional foods prepared and served at homes, restaurants and public eating
places (bus stops, railway stations) with subtle differences in blends and
flavours but essentially Indian are listed in Table 2.2.

36
 Table 2.2: Some characteristic traditional foods of India Food for Growth and
Repair
Major raw material Products
Cereals/legumes Papads, Wadian, Vermicelli, Soji, fried snacks.
Milk Malai, Khoa, Chhana, Paneer, Curd, Butter
milk.
Milk and sugar/jaggery Peda, Burfi, Rasagolla, Jamun, Sandesh, Kheer,
Halwa
Gram flour, sugar/jaggery Mysore Pak, jilebi, Laddu and Chikki
Fruits and vegetables Pickles chutneys, Murabbas, Patha, candied
fruits, Aamchur, Fruit leather, dried fruits,
dehydrated vegetables and pickled vegetables.
Spices and condiment Spice powder, Sambar and Rasam powders and
Garam masala
Miscellaneous Neera, toddy, arrack, feni, vinegar, jaggery,
khandasari, Sugar, and honey.

9.6.4 Designer Foods

Designer foods are foods that naturally contain or are enriched with certain
specific concentration and proportion of nutrients/ substances that are
important to health and prevent certain diseases such as phytochemicals
(prevent cancer). The term was first coined in 1989 by Dr. Herbert Pierson,
The National Cancer Institute (U.S.). The designer foods are also called as
medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, neutraceutical foods,
functional foods, indulgence foods, slow foods, premium foods, therapeutic
foods and healthier foods. Such foods are most commonly conceived as health
foods that have therapeutic or prophylactic characteristics. The term “designer
food” is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new
developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Therefore it can be said
that designer food is an evolving concept meant for reducing or delaying the
risk of diseases.

9.7 PACKAGING FOR SAFETY AND QUALITY

Packaging of fruits and vegetables is undertaken primarily to assemble the
produce in convenient units for marketing and distribution. The package must
be capable of (i) protecting the produce from the hazards of transport, (ii)
preventing microbial and insect damage and (iii) minimizing physiological and
biochemical changes.
The important consideration in selecting the packaging material are (i) the
product itself, (ii) the system of production, (iii) the systems of storage, (iv) the
systems of handling, (v) the system of transport, (vi) the systems of
merchandising, (vii) the consumer attitude, (viii) requirement of recycling/
reuse/ disposal, etc.
The traditional types of food packaging are boxes, cartons, metal cans, glass
bottles and jars whereas the new innovations in packaging are aseptic

37
Nutrition packaging, PET containers, microwaveable containers, controlled/ modified
atmosphere packaging etc.
a) Packaging for fresh fruit and vegetables
Fresh produce contains 80-90 per cent of moisture or even more and
equilibrate humidity as high as 98%. Under normal atmospheric conditions,
they will dry rapidly (transpiration). This causes wilting and shriveling due
to shrinkage of cells. The existing postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables
could be considerably reduced by adopting improved packaging, handling
and efficient system of transport. The fresh fruits and vegetables during
postharvest phase continue all vital processes. The respiratory heat
liberated by fruits and vegetables must be taken out from the pack in order
to extend their storage life. For this purpose film thickness, ventilation in
the packs plays a very important role.
Modified Atmosphere packaging (MAP)
Plastics play a great role in creation of modified atmospheric (MA)
condition around the commodities when the fresh fruits and vegetables are
packed in plastic film bags. MA condition was reported to reduce bitter pit
reduction and better retention of vitamin C in apples. The acute problem of
ripening of Suvernarekha mangoes during transit was solved by adopting
the MAP technology. However, proper temperature management and
postharvest handling practices are required for storing these mangoes for
longer duration (30-40 days). Similarly by adopting MAP technology,
Mallika and Amrapali varieties of mango fruit could be kept up to 25 days
at low temperature. The technology was also successfully applied to
enhance the storage life with better quality attributes in many other fruits
and vegetables viz. guava, cauliflower etc.
Prepackaging is generally defined as packaging the produce in consumer
size units either at producing center/ farm before transit or at terminal
markets. Prepackaging protects the produce against the damage and
excessive moisture loss, reduce transportation cost by eliminating
unwanted and inedible portion of fruits and vegetables, reduces the
shopping time of the consumer as the produce is graded before packaging.
b) Packaging for processed products
The packaging materials used for various food products are metal cans,
glass bottles/ jars, rigid/ flexible plastic packaging materials etc. Products
like fruit jams, jellies, pickles are packed in wide mouthed glass jars.
Products like fruit, squashes, syrups, RTS beverages, carbonated beverages
etc. are packed in glass bottles.
Packaging for dried or dehydrated products
Dehydrated vegetables absorb moisture; they require a moisture resistant
pack. Smaller sized packs of dehydrate d vegetables are packed in heat
sealable laminates consisting of PE, aluminium foil and paper. Powdered
dehydrated products like fruits juice powders, soups, and custard powders
require protection against ingress of moisture, oxygen and loss of volatile
flavours and colour. They are usually packed in heat sealable laminates
containing a layer of Aluminium foil. Cabinet dried, sulphured or sulphited

38
 mango pieces could be stored for 6 months in 400 gauge PE pouches for Food for Growth and
Repair
making Amchur.
Packaging for accelerate d freeze dried (AFD) foods
The light, porous and brittle nature of AFD foods renders them susceptible
to mechanical damage that affects the reconstitution characteristics. So,
AFD foods must be protected against physical breakdown, moisture and
oxygen absorption. Aluminium foil laminates are the best suited. Glue and
cartons with foil laminates secured to the walls by spot gluing are suitable
for over-all protection of AFD foods.
Bulk packaging of base products like fruits pulp and other intermediate
products in plastics laminated pouches is practiced widely amongst
manufacturers and processors. A variety of the finished products of fruits
and vegetables viz. tomato products, fruit syrups, carbonated drinks and
dehydrated fruits and vegetables are packed in plastic containers/ pouches.
Aseptic packaging
Aseptic packaging refers to a technique in which the product and the
containers are sterilized separately and packed in a completely aseptic
environment till it comes out of the system. Aseptically packaged juices
and puree can be distributed in parts where refrigeration is not common. In
aseptically processed ‘bag-in-box’ packed guava and papaya puree, no loss
of vitamin C and flavour was observed but loss in colour took place.
Vacuum packaging
Vacuum packaging is used when the foodstuffs is susceptible to
deterioration in the presence of oxygen. The air from the container is
removed after filling the container and before sealing. This packaging
increases the shelf life and quality of the packed material.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 ?

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. List the permitted colours? What is maximum limit of colour in fruit
product?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Briefly describe the health foods.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………….
39
Nutrition
9.8 LET US SUM UP
Food is essential to provide nourishment to our body to perform various
functions. The appearance, colour, flavour, texture, and all other food qualities
affect acceptance of the fresh and processed products. As respiration continues
after harvesting, fruits and vegetables lose their vitality, turgidity, colour,
appearance and food value, and thus overall quality at room temperature.
Improper handling and transport increase the qualitative and quantitative
losses. Heating brings several changes in the soluble colour pigment of fruits
and vegetables. In order to maintain the wholesomeness of the fresh and
processed products, these should be handled properly, transport carefully,
stored under appropriate conditions and processed following the standard
practices.
The packaging of produce and products is important to protect the produce
from the hazards of transport, prevent microbial and insect damages, minimize
physiological and biochemical changes and for longer shelf life.

9.9 KEY WORDS

Blanching : dipping of fruits or vegetables in boiling water or
exposing these to steam for a few minutes to kill
enzymatic and biological activity prior to
processing.
Canning : process of sealing of foodstuffs hermetically (air
tight) in containers and sterilizing them by heat
for long storage.
Degradation : loss of quality.
Denaturation : structural change in proteins due to effect of heat,
light, change in pH etc.
Deterioration : includes adverse changes in organoleptic quality,
nutritional value, food safety, asthetic appeal,
colour, texture and flavour.

Growth : increase in the physical size.

Oxidation : change in a molecule, which involves gain of
oxygen, removal of hydrogen or loss of electron.

Quality of fruits and

Vegetables : often referring to particular flavour
characteristics, appearance, size or levels of a
particular type of damage.
Turgor : pressure of cell contents on the partially elastic
wall of a cell, tending to produce rigidity. One of
the best known forces affecting cell volume is
osmosis.

40
 Food for Growth and
9.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ? Repair
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1. Any eatable items provide nutrients is food.
Food contain different nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, and minerals to perform various functions. See sub-sec. 9.1 and
9.2.
2. Volatile compounds are responsible for food flavour.
Flavour compounds present in different fruits and vegetables. See
sub-sec. 9.3.3
3. Different colour pigments with examples. See sub-sec.9.3.4.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Your answer should include the following points:
1. Blanching causes loss of water soluble vitamins due to leaching.
Pasteurization (<1000 C) destroys some of vitamin C and Riboflavin.
High temp. during canning destroys water soluble vitamins significantly.
Effect of canning on protein and fat. See Sub-sec. 9.4.1.
2. Effect of heating on colour pigments of plant foods. See Sub-sec. 9.4.1.
3. Respiration continues after harvesting.
Metabolic heat of fruits and vegetables, improper handling and storage
conditions causes deterioration in quality. See sub-sec.9.4.2.
4. Room temperature is favourable for growth of microorganisms.
Enzymatic activities in fresh produce are high at room temperature. See
Sub-sec.9.4.2.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Your answer should include the following points:
1. List of permitted colours.
Limit of colours in fruit product. See sub-sec. 9.5.
2. Definition and characteristic of health foods. See sub-sec. 9.7.1 & 9.7.4.

9.11 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Irwin A. Taub and R. Paul Singh (1998) Food Storage Stability CRC Press,
Boca Raton.
2. Jood Sudesh, Khetrapaul Neelam (2002) Food Preservation, Agrotech
Publishing Academy Udaipur.

41
Nutrition 3. Khader, Vijay (1999) Textbook on Food Storage and Preservation, Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana.
4. Mudambi S.R. and Rajagopal M.V. (1982) Fundamental of Foods &
Nutrition (Third Edition), Willey Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
5. Potter Norman N. (1978) Food Science (Third Edition), CBS Publishers
and Distributors, Delhi.
6. Rick Parker (2003) Introduction to Food Science, Delmar, Thomson
Learning, Australia.

42
 Quality Characteristics
UNIT 12 QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Structure

12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physical Factors
12.3 Appearance Factors
12.4 Textural Factors
12.5 Kinesthetic Factors
12.6 Flavour Factors
12.7 Chemical and Microbiological Characteristics
Chemical Characteristics
Microbiological Characteristics
12.8 Quality Standards
Legal Standards
Market Standards
Industry Standards
12.9 Quality Evaluation
Appearance Quality
Textural Quality
Flavour Quality
Nutritional Value
Non Destructive Methods
Summary of Methods of Determining Quality
12.10 Grading and Certification
Certification
12.11 Adulteration of Food − Detection and Prevention
Types of Adulterants
Detection of Food Adulteration
Prevention of Food Adulteration
Prevention of Food Adulteration Tips to Consumer
12.12 Let Us Sum Up
12.13 Key Words
12.14 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
12.15 Some Useful Books

12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand quality attributes:
• physical factors;
• appearance factors;
• textural factors;
• kinesthetic factors;
• chemical and microbiological characteristics;
• quality standards;
• quality evaluation;
• grading and certification; and
• adulteration of food- detection and prevention.

5
Quality Aspects
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Quality is combination of attributes, properties or characteristics that give a
commodity value in term of human food. Quality is overall, consumer’s
satisfaction and value worth, which he is paying. It is necessary for the food
industry to become quality conscious and move towards attaining the
international quality standards. Following are the important component of
quality.
1. Appearance
2. Texture or firmness
3. Flavour
4. Colour
5. Purity
6. Nutritional quality: Foods play a very significant role in human nutrition
especially as source of carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins, minerals and
dietary fibre.
Foods are often thought of as healthy and nutritive matter having no risk of
food borne illness associated with their consumption. The probability of
getting sick from eating raw or processed food should not exist. Preventing
contamination of fresh and processed foods from human pathogens and
dangerous levels of chemicals/pesticides residues is the best way to assure that
foods are wholesome and safe for human consumption.

12.2 PHYSICAL FACTORS

The defects, disease and decay can impair quality of fresh horticultural
commodities. Defects can originate before harvest as a result of damage by
insects, diseases, birds and hail, chemical injuries, and various blemishes
(scars, scabs, rusting, rind scrapping etc.). Post harvest defects include
sprouting of potatoes, carrots, onions and garlic, rooting of onions and seed
germination inside fruits such as tomatoes and peppers, presence of seed stems
in cabbage and lettuce and floret opening in broccoli. Physical factors also
include shrivelling and wilting, mechanical damage such as punctures, cuts,
scratches, splits and crushing, skin abrasions, scuffing, deformation,
compression, bruising, growth cracks in fruits and vegetables.
Temperature related defects (freezing, chilling, sunburn, sunscald) puffiness of
tomatoes, blossom end rot of tomatoes, tip burn of lettuce, internal breakdown
of stone fruits, water core of apples, black heart of potatoes are the
physiological defects.
While most of these defects reduce post harvest quality of perishables. There
are examples of defects that do not influence post harvest quality of fresh
produce or which may be called as consumer-tolerable defects. These include
healed frost damage, scars and scabs, healed insect stings, irregular shape,
healed hail damage, sub-optimal colour uniformity, colour intensity variations
etc. The presence of defects frequently lowers the grade of the produce, which
are other wise of good quality.
Uncontrolled cold also will damage foods. If fruits and vegetables are allowed
to freeze, they suffer discolouration, changes in texture, or cracked skins,
leaving the food susceptible to attack by microorganism. Carefully controlled
6 freezing on the other hand need not cause these defects. Fruits and vegetables
after harvest, like other living systems, have optimum temperature Quality Characteristics
requirements. When held 'at refrigeration temperatures of about 4°C, some are
weakened or killed due to chill injury and deteriorative processes follow. The
deterioration includes off-colour development, surface pitting, and various
forms of decay. Bananas, lemons, squash, and tomatoes are examples of
products that should be held at temperatures not lower than about 10°C for
maximum quality retention

12.3 APPEARANCE FACTORS

The quality of a food may simply be judged from its appearance when it is
placed in front of a consumer. For example, a slight turbidity or cloudiness in
orange juice is acceptable but not in apple juice, which must be crystal clear.
Thus the overall eye appeal of a product is more important than taste and
odour, and may determine acceptance or rejection without a trial tasting.
Appearance deserve much more considerations in determining quality of a
food and it includes size (dimensions, weight, volume), shape (diameter, depth
ratio, smoothness, compactness, uniformity), colour (uniformity, intensity),
gloss ( nature of surface wax) and different external and internal defects.
Physical factors are such as size, shape, freedom from defect/damaged surface,
type and extent of damaged parts. The optical properties such as colour, gloss
and transparency of fruits and vegetables and the consistency of the processed
products are also appearance factors that are indicative of quality. The
appearance factors are highly useful and practiced in quality evaluation of
fruits and vegetables, as well as in processed products.
Colour increases the attractiveness of many fruits and vegetables and used as a
maturity index as colour undergo many changes as a part of the ripening
process. Unripe fruit is usually green and in many types of fruit, the green
colour becomes lighter during ripening and maturation owing to breakdown of
chlorophyll, for example in apples, grapes, papaya. This may reveal underlying
yellow or red pigments. Peel and pulp often undergo different colour changes,
as in apples and bananas, In some cases, fruit colour is a strong indicator of
eating quality and shelf-life, for example, tomatoes and bananas. Size and
shape of fruits and vegetables are of major interest to the grower as it is
directly proportional to the yield and also very useful in grading and handling
during processing and transportation.
Defects may be caused by: (a) deformities caused by unfavourable
environmental conditions (b) insects and microorganisms (c) mechanical injury
during handling, transportation and processing such as damage, bruising and
crushing (d) specks and sediments (e) foreign material or any other harmful
added substance.

12.4 TEXTUAL FACTORS

Texture include various factors such softness, hardness, firmness, juiciness,
grittiness or chewiness, fibrousness, mealiness and stickiness felt by the
consumer when he handles the food with fingers (hand feel) or with the
tongue, teeth or palate (mouth feel). Any deviation from the expected texture is
said to be a quality defect. The texture of foods changes due to aging, improper
processing or storage. Fresh fruits and vegetables become soggy due to over-
ripening. Texture is an important factor in deciding the consumer acceptance
7
Quality Aspects of a food. In fact, quality of a food is mainly judged by its freshness/ripeness/
maturity or proper processing. For example, crispness of potato chips, the
firmness and crunchiness of apples, and juiciness of fruit such as melons, non-
sticky are indicative of prime quality of the food.

12.5 KINESTHETIC FACTORS

These are the quality factors which are judged by hands feel, mouth feel, and
judged by sense of touch and tells about, chewiness, softness, juiciness,
fibrousness, grittiness, mealiness, stickiness of fresh and processed foods.

12.6 FLAVOUR FACTORS

Flavour is a complex of taste and aromatic components. Total flavour can

rarely be assessed by the consumer prior to purchase but it is critical in the
repeat purchase of a particular product or product cultivars. Key taste
components in fresh produce are sweetness, acidity, astringency and bitterness.
Sweetness of some fruit may increase dramatically during ripening due to
conversions of starch into sugars, for example in apples, bananas, mangoes and
pears. Aroma may be fragrant, acidic & burnt and can be determined to some
extent before purchase by the consumer but it tends to be important as a
positive factor only in highly aromatic products such as certain cultivars of
melon or mangoes.

Evaluation of flavour factor is highly subjective and depends on the

discriminating ability of the consumer as flavour includes the sense of smell as
well as the sense of taste as experienced by a consumer. People differ in their
sensitivity to different odours and tastes as much as in their preference for
various types of foods. In addition, consumers are influenced to some extent on
the appearance, colour and texture of the food while evaluating the flavour
characteristics.

12.7 CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL

CHARACTERISTICS

12.7.1 Chemical Characteristics

Lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning are two major chemical

characteristics which, affect the quality of fruits and vegetables during
processing and storage and lead to a deterioration in sensory qualities.

Lipid oxidation results in production of off flavour as well as loss of ascorbic

acid. It is influenced by light, oxygen concentration, high temperature, sunlight
and the presence of iron and copper, and water activity. Control of these
factors can significantly reduce the extent of lipid oxidation in foods.

Non-enzymic browning is one of the major causes of quality deterioration and

takes place during frying, cooking, storage of dried and concentrated foods.
The non enzymic browning is caused by the reaction of amino acids and
reducing sugars through Mallard reaction, leading to insoluble black brown
pigments which , produce bitter taste and loss in nutrients.

8
There is some loss of colour in fruits and vegetable during maturation, Quality Characteristics
ripening, storage and processing due the degradation of chlorophyll,
anthocyanins and carotenoids by oxidation. For example, dehydrated green
peas and beans packed in clear glass containers undergo photo-oxidation and
loss of desirable colour occur.

More than 150 reddish water-soluble anthocyanin pigments are present in the
plant kingdom. Some anthocyanins form complexes with metals such as Al,
Fe, Cu and Sn. by chemical reaction. These complexes generally result in a
change in the colour of the pigment (for example, red sour cherries react with
tin to from a purple complex) and are therefore undesirable. Since metal
packaging materials such as cans could be sources of these metals, they are
usually coated with special organic linings to avoid these undesirable reactions.

The carotenoids are a group of mainly lipid soluble compounds responsible for
many of the yellow and red colours of food products. The main cause of
carotenoids degradation in foods is oxidation. The mechanism of oxidation in
processed foods is complex and depends on many factors. The pigments may
auto-oxidise by reaction with atmospheric oxygen due to light, heat and the
presence of pro-and anti-oxidants.

Ascorbic acid is the most important vitamin in fruits and vegetables and its
stability vary markedly as a function of environmental conditions such as pH ,
concentration of trace metal ions and oxygen because it is oxidized in the
presence of oxygen.

12.7.2 Microbiological Characteristics

The microbial action is associated with the presence of bacteria, yeasts and
moulds on vegetables and fruits resulting in deterioration of quality during
normal processes of aging. The microbial attack on fruits and vegetable and
their processed products usually alter the appearance, texture, colour, odour,
flavour or slime formation. The appearance includes colour changes, visible
growth of microorganisms, formation of pockets of gas and microbial growth
especially that of moulds on the surface of food products. As some foods
deteriorate, they become soft or mushy. Degradation of foods results in the
formation of compounds that have unacceptable odours and flavours.

The most common microbial spoilages in fruits and vegetables are mildew,
brown rot, soft rot, black rot, green rot, mould rot or souring and water soaked
musky areas, brown or white patches. These spoilage of quality are caused by
Penicillium italicum, Aspergillus niger, Alternaria sp., Mucor sp.,
Byssochlamys fulva, Botryis cinerea, Rhizopus nigricans, and saprophytic
bacteria.. Dry rots often lead to darkening and discolouring, and hardening of
the surface of vegetables and fruits.

9
Quality Aspects
# Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe quality.
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2. What are the quality characteristics of foods?
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3. List the main chemical characteristics.
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4. What are the main spoilage in fruits and vegetables?
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 Quality Characteristics
12.8 QUALITY STANDARDS
Different standards are employed to control the quality of fresh and processed
foods in the country. Food standards for ensuring the quality and safety of
foods for human consumption have been formulated and enforced by law in
India. Food standards have been also prescribed based on the International
Codex Alimentarius with suitable modification to suit Indian conditions.
Different quality standards are summarized below.
Different Quality Standards

Name of standard Features

a) Legal standards − Mandatory standard established by federal
state or municipal agencies.
− Set up by law or represented by appropriate
act.
− Concerned with freedom from adulteration
and proper quality control measures i.e.
insects, moulds, yeasts, pesticides,
maximum limit of preservative and food
without contamination.
b) Company standards − Established by food industry.
− Represent consumers image and become
trademark of symbol of product quality.
− Are used by private firms or supermarkets.
c) Industry standard − Established by an organised group for any
given commodity.
− Become effective by pressure from market
organization or specific commodity group
where legal standards are not involved.
d) Consumer or grade − Represent consumer’s requirement of a
standards grade/standard product.
− Based on experience in use by the industry
for consumers.

The different standards take into consideration intrinsic qualities of foods,

nutritional aspects, hygienic values and consumer appeal. Some standards are
voluntary in nature and some are mandatory.

12.8.1 Legal Standards

These are also called as Health Ministry (Government of India) standards and
are mandatory in nature. They are prescribed to ensure minimum quality in the
foods marketed and promulgated under the Prevention of Food Adulteration
Act other Rules and Orders of Government of India which cover food items:
beverages, starchy foods, spices and condiments, sweetening agents, edible
fats, milk and milk products, common salt, fruit products, edible oils, cereal
products, vanaspati, vinegar, sweets and confectionary, food colours, limits for
preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifying and stabilizing agents, flavouring
agents, pesticide residues.
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Quality Aspects Quality denotes the degree of excellence of a product. It is indicated in terms
of grades, standards and specifications which are laid down by a competent
authority in the country. It is an important consideration in marketing of a
product. Consumers are concerned about the safety, nutritional quality,
aesthetic value, convenience to use and cost of foods. An established system of
quality control assures uniformity in standards and thereby ensures that each
food stuff is what it possess to be and what its label declares, if there is one.

12.8.2 Market Standards

The market dictates some quality parameters in the food stuffs marketed. There
can be more than one quality requirement for a particular commodity. The
economic status and quality consciousness of the consumer influences the
market standards and they are voluntary in nature. Examples are different,
grades of fruits, vegetables, rice with more or less broken, pulses etc.

12.8.3 Industry Standards

These standards require special quality factors in the foods the consumer
purchase. Wheat miller requires wheat with high milling yield. A baker will
require a wheat flour with high percentage of gluten of good strength to obtain
a good loaf of bread. Similarly fruit processing industry will require certain
specific qualities in the fruits like colour, flavour when they are purchased.

12.9 QUALITY EVALUATION

The quality evaluation of fruits, vegetables, other foods and processed products
gives useful information on nutritional and biochemical characteristics. Quality
evaluation methods can be destructive or non-destructive. They include both
objective (based on instrument readings) such as physical, chemical, or
microbiological and subjective (based on human judgment, using hedonic
scales) methods as in taste. Subjective methods are also called as sensory
analysis.
The physical, chemical and microbiological analytical methods are considered
to be objective. These methods are usually standard scientific tests, which, one
should be in a position to reproduce with the same results by any trained
technician. Physical measurements include product attributes such as; size,
weight, colour, texture, headspace and even impurities such as filth and insects.
Chemical methods are usually more complex and often require sophisticated
instrumentation. Precise tests for moisture, total soluble solids, titratable
acidity, vitamins, colour pigments, proteins, carbohydrates, ash, pectin and
fiber have become standard practice. Microbiological methods are used to
determine the presence of bacteria, moulds and yeasts. The details of some of
the methods used in the quality evaluation are given below:
12.9.1 Appearance Quality
Appearance quality of fruits and vegetables is measured by size, shape, colour,
gloss and presence physical defects.
Size: Dimension-measured with sizing rings, calipers. Weight-correlation is
generally good between size and weight.
Shape: Ratio of dimensions − such as diameter/depth ratio used as indices of
shape in fruits.
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Colour: Uniformity and intensity-important appearance qualities. Visual Quality Characteristics
matching- colour charts to match and describe colours of fruits and vegetables.
Light ref1ectance is measured by Hunter Lab Colour Meters and Agtron E5W
spectrophotometer. Light transmission meters are used to determine internal
colour and various disorders (water core of apples and black heart of potatoes).
Lovibond tintometer is also used to judge the colour and it has universal
acceptance. Determination of pigments (chlorophylls carotenoids, carotene,
lycopene, xanthophylls), and flavonoids (anthocyanins) is done by
colourimetric procedures.
Gloss (bloom, finish): measured using a Gloss-meter or by visual evaluation.
Presence of defects (external and internal): Evaluated using a scoring
system of 1 to 5 (1 = no symptoms, 2 = slight, 3 = moderate, 4 = severe, and
5 = extreme). Which may be expanded to a 1 to 7 or 1 to 9 hedonic scale.

12.9.2 Textural Quality

Yielding quality (firmness, softness): Hand-held testers - determine
penetration force using testers such as the Magness-Taylor Pressure Tester and
the Effegi penetrometer. Laboratory testing-fruit firmness is determined by
Instron Universal Testing machine or Texture Analyser or by measuring fruit
deformation using a Deformation Taster.
Fibrousness and toughness: Measured on by Instron or Texture Testing
System a Fibrometer.
Succulence and juiciness: Measurement of water and extractable juice
contents are the indicators of succulence and juiciness.
Sensory textural: Evaluate grittiness, crispness, mealiness, chewiness and
oiliness.

12.9.3 Flavour Quality

Sweetness: Sugars are determined by colourimeteric methods. For quick
measurement of glucose in field, is done by enzyme coated strips. Total
soluble solids contents are (sweetness) are measured using refractometers.
Sourness (acidity): pH of juice is determined by pH meter or pH indicator
paper. Total titratable acidity is determined by titrating the extracted juice with
alkali to pH 8.1.
Saltiness: Salt is determined by chemical method. Saltiness can be measured
subjectively by sensory evaluation.
Astringency: Determined by taste testing or measuring tannin contents.
Bitterness: Determined by taste testing or measurement of the glyco-alkaloids.
Aroma (odour): Determined by sensory panels in combination with
identification of volatile components.
Sensory evaluation: Human subjects – judge and measure combined sensory
characteristics (sweetness, astringency, bitterness, overall flavour intensity) of
a commodity.

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Quality Aspects 12.9.4 Nutritional Value
Various analytical methods are available for determination of total
carbohydrates, dietary fibre, proteins, amino acids, lipids, fatty acids, vitamins,
and minerals in fruits and vegetables.
Eating Quality Factors: These include sweetness, sourness, astringency,
bitterness, aroma and off-flavours. Objective analytical determination of
critical components must be coupled with subjective evaluations by a taste
panel to yield useful and meaningful information about flavour quality of fresh
fruits and vegetables.

12.9.5 Non Destructive Methods

Acoustic and vibration tests: The sound of a fruit as it is tapped sharply with
a finger knuckle can change during maturation and ripening and this method is
used by consumers while purchasing fruits. Melons are trapped to judge
whether they are ready to be harvested.
Electrical properties: Electrical properties of the fruit change with the
soundness or maturity or spoilage or physical damage of the fruit. It has been
found that the capacitance of deteriorated cell increased while resistance
decreased and therefore the measurements could be used to determine the
freshness or age of the fruit. At 500 Hertz the dielectric constant of green and
ripe peaches was 550 and 150 respectively.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR): NMR is being used to find the maturity
& quality of fruits and it is also correlated well to sugar content of bananas &
apples, and oil content in avocado. It has been used to detect bruises on apples,
peaches, pears and onions, pits in olives and prunes and insect damage in
pears.
Near Infrared Reflectance (NIR): It has been studied to measure the internal
qualities like sugars, acidity, soluble solids, nitrogen & calcium in apples,
peaches, pineapples, mango and pear. It is used to find the fruit firmness &
their storability in cold stores.
Sonic techniques: Based on the generation of resonating frequency that can be
used to calculate internal resistance (hardness).

12.9.6 Summary of Methods of Determining Quality

Subjective* − Include sense organs

− Based on opinion of investigators
− Past training experience of individual's power
or perception
− Statistical Analysis required to get meaningful
results
Objective** − Based on scientific tests
− No human perception is involved
a) Physical method − Size, texture, colour, consistency, headspace,
fill and drained weight, vacuum, container,
symmetry, defects, viscosity

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 Quality Characteristics
b) Chemical methods − Enzyme, moisture, fibre, pH, acidity, protein,
specific gravity, fat/oil, carbohydrate, ash,
mineral, vitamins, sugars, tannins, alcohols
c) Microbiological methods − Mold, insect fragments, insect, excreta,
foreign material
− Differentiation between cell types/tissue/
microorganisms
− Determination of microbial count spoilage
detection in the fresh and processed products,
microorganisms causing spoilage/
fermentation
*Subjective: The human eye is used to evaluate colour.
**Objective: An instrument is used to provide a special colour value based on the amount of
light reflected-off the commodity surface or the light reflected through the commodity. e.g.
Lovibond tintometer.

12.10 GRADING AND CERTIFICATION

The fruits, vegetables and other foods are graded according to size, shape,
weight, colour and visible defects to obtain uniform quality and fetch good
price for the fruits. This is done by hand or machines. Automatic grading
machines are available in which vibrating screens or screens with various sized
slots are used to separate different types of product. Density grading is carried
out by using different concentration of brine for fruits. Grading for colour is
carried out by an electronic colour-sensing device. Manual grading done by
hands and is usually necessary to avoid losses or to keep losses within
reasonable limits.
To ensures quality and purity, Government of India, has established different
agencies like AGMARK, Indian Standard Institute to make grades of foods,
vegetables & fruits and they are affixing their marks (Agmark, ISI) on the
products. The quality of product is determined with reference to the size,
variety, weight, colour, moisture and, fats content and other factors. The act
defines the quality of most of the agricultural raw and processed products
commodities into various grades depending upon the degree of purity in each
case. The grades incorporated are grades 1, 2, 3 and 4 or special, good, fair and
ordinary. The physical and chemical characteristics of products are kept in
mind while formulating the Agmark specifications.
Grading of commodities like ghee, butter, vegetable oils, atta, spices and
honey is voluntary. On the other hand, grading of spices, basmati rice, essential
oils, onions, potatoes etc. that are meant for export, is compulsory under
AGMARK to ensure quality. The grading of agricultural commodities has
three main purposes to: (i) to protect the producers and consumer from
exploitation. By knowing the quality and grade of his produce, he is in better
bargaining position against the trader. (ii) serve as a means of describing the
quality of the commodities to be purchased or sold by the buyers and sellers in
the country and abroad. Which avoids the need for physical checking and
handling at many points. (iii) protect the consumer by ensuring the quality of
products he purchases.
Under Indian Standard Specification fruits and vegetables have three grades,
super, fancy and commercial.
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Quality Aspects Super: The fruits and vegetables under this grade shall be of similar variety
characters, fresh, firm, i.e. not withered or wilted, tender, succulent, well
shaped, fairly smooth clean and well coloured which means that the
commodity has a uniform good colour characteristics of the variety over
practically the entire surface, well developed, uniform in size, free from
injuries and damage by scars, insects, diseases or mechanical or other means.
Fancy: The fruits and vegetables under this grade shall be of similar variety
characters, fresh, firm, tender, succulent, well shaped, fairly smooth clean and
well coloured. And are free from, injuries, damage by disease, insects,
mechanical or other means.
Commercial: The fruits and vegetables under this grade shall consists which
do not conform to the requirements of either super or fancy grade, but the
quality is fit for use of human consumption.
12.10.1 Certification
The Bureau of Indian Standards, (BIS) Act, 1986, operates a product
certification scheme, including Food and Agriculture. The certification allows
the licensees to use the popular ISI Mark, which has become synonymous with
Quality products for the Indian markets.
The BIS certification is voluntary, and aims at providing quality, safety and
dependability to the customer. All BIS certifications are carried out on Indian
Standards, which have been found amenable to product certification. Presence
of certification mark known as Standard Mark on a product is an assurance of
conformity to the specifications. The conformity is ensured by regular
surveillance of the licensee's performance by surprise inspections and testing
of samples, drawn both from the factory and the market.
The Govt. of India on considerations of public health & safety, and mass
consumption has enforced mandatory certifications of 135 products through
Orders issued under various Acts. While the Bureau grants licenses only on
application however the enforcement of compulsory certification is done by
the notified authorities and the Bureau maintains a close vigil on the quality of
goods certified through its surveillance operations.
The broad area of food and agriculture under certification are: processed fruits
and vegetable products, spices and condiments, bakery, confectionery and
nutritious supplements, dairy products, drinks and carbonated beverages, fish
and fisheries products, food additives, food analysis and nutrition, food
hygiene, food microbiology, food grains, livestock feeds, oils and oilseeds,
pesticides residue analysis.

12.11 ADULTERATION OF FOOD − DETECTION AND

PREVENTION
Food is consumed should be pure provide energy and nutrition and as such it
should be wholesome and not have deleterious substances. The food
adulteration implies that food lack certain standard of quality or purity and, is a
great menace to public health, posing serious threat to the society.
Food adulteration is defined as the process by which the quality or the nature
of a food product is adversely affected through the addition of a foreign or an
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inferior substance and the removal of a vital element, such as fat from milks
and the addition of water to it. Adulteration of food may endanger health due Quality Characteristics
to either addition of a deleterious substance or removal of a vital component.
Adulteration may be intentional or unintentional. The intentional adulteration
is a willful act intended to increase the margin of profit while the incidental
contamination is usually due to ignorance, negligence or lack of proper
checking facilities. Adulteration of food stuffs is commonly practiced in India
as the consumers like to get maximum quantity for as low a price as possible.
When the price of the food product is higher than the price, which the
consumer is prepared to pay, seller is compelled to supply a food product of
inferior quality, thus adulteration done.

12.11.1 Types of Adulterants

i) Intentional Substances added to food are: sand, marble chips, stones,

adulterants mud, other filth, talc, chalk powder, water, mineral oil,
harmful colours.

ii) Incidental They are pesticide residues, tin from can, droppings of
adulterants rodent’s larvae in foods.
We are eating foods daily laced with some toxic pesticides. Even the rodents
and insects introduce into the food a high degree of filth in the form of excreta,
bodily secretions and microorganisms responsible for food spoilage as well as
its intoxication. The incidental poisoning can be prevented by the following:
• Regular ‘market basket’ surveys to warn people of dangerous build-up of
toxins in food.
• Stepping up the integrated pest management programme to educate farmers
about the judicious use of pesticides. No spraying should be done a week
before harvest.
• Promoting the control of pests using their natural predators.
• Preventing industries from dumping poisonous effluents.
• Considering health costs while deciding pesticide policy.
• Use of safer pesticides like synthetic pyrethroides or malathion.
• Thorough washing of foods to get rid of much of toxins.

12.11.2 Detection of Food Adulteration

Few important food adulterants and simple tests to detect adulteration of
foods

Substance Adulterant Tests

1 2 3
Tur dal Lakh dal or metanil 1. Lakh dal is irregular in shape and
of lighter, colour than turdal
2. Add concentrated HCI to moisten
dal. Yellow colour Will turn into
magenta red if metanil yellow is
present.
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Quality Aspects Dals Kesari dal Add 50 ml of dilute HCI to dal and
keep on simmering water for about 15
min. The development of pink colour
indicates the presence of kesari dal.
Visual examination detects these
adulterants.
Clay, stones, gravels Shake 5 g of dal with 5 ml of water
Lead chromate and add a few drops of HCI. A pink
(yellow) colour shows the presence of colour.
Bajra Fungus Immerse in saline water, fungi will
come on top
Wheat, bajra Ergot (a fungus a) Longer size purple black grains in
and other containing a bajra show the presence of ergots.
food grains poisonous substance) b) Put some grains in a glass
containing 20% salt solution.
Ergot floats over the surface,
while sound grains settle down.
Dhatura seeds Dhatura seeds resemble chilly seeds
with blackish brown colour which can
be separated out by close examination
Tea leaves Exhausted tea or a) Tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter
black or bengal gram paper would immediately release
dal husk with colour added colour
b) Spread the little slaked lime on
white porcelain tile or glass plate.
Sprinkling a little tea dust on the lime
will show the presence of coal tar
dye. In the case of genuine tea, there
will be only a slight greenish yellow
colour due to chlorophyll which
appears after sometime.
Mustard Argemone seeds Agremone seeds have no round
seeds structure, they are pointed and are
mere blackish than mustard seeds.
Chilli Saw-dust and red Sprinkle on the surface of water. Saw-
powder colour dust floats. Added colour will colour
the water.
Edible oils Argemone oil Add concentrated nitric acid to the
sample and shake carefully. Red to
reddish brown colour in acid layer
would indicate the presence of
argemone oil.
Mineral oil Take 2 ml of edible oil and add equal
quantity of N/2 alcoholic potash. Heat
in boiling water bath for 15 min and
add 10 ml of water. Any turbidity
shows the presence of mineral oil.

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 Castor oil Dissolve some oil in petroleum ether Quality Characteristics
in a test tube and cool in ice salt
mixture. Presence of turbidity within
5 min indicates the presence of castor
oil.
Turmeric Coloured saw dust, Take a teaspoon full of turmeric
metanil yellow powder in a test tube. Add a few
drops of concentrated HCI. There is
instant appearance of violet colour
which disappears on dilution with
water. If the metanil yellow colour
persists (an artificial dye) the
presence of non- permitted coal tar is
indicated.
Starch Add iodine solution to turmeric
solution, it will turn violet if starch is
present.
Coriander Horse dung powder Soak in water. Horse dung will float
which can be easily detected.
Ghee or Vanaspati Take about one teaspoonful of melted
Butter ghee or butter with equal quantity of
concentrated HCI in a test tube and
add to it a pinch of cane sugar. Shake
well for one minute and observe it
after 5 min. Appearance of crimson
colour in lower (acidic) layer shows
the presence of ‘vanaspati’.
Mashed potatoes, The presence of mashed potatoes and
sweet potato and sweet potatoes in a sample of butter
other starches. can easily be detected by adding a
drop of tincture of iodine. The
appearance of blue colour indicates
the presence of mashed potato, sweet
potato or other starches.
Black Dried seeds of Papaya seeds can be separated out
pepper papaya fruit from pepper as they are shrunken,
oval in shape and greenish brown or
brownish black in colour. The
suspected papaya seed in black
pepper sample is distinguishable by
its characteristic repulsive flavour
quite distinct from the bite of black
pepper.
Light berries Light berries float on spirit.
Rice Marble or other Place a small quantity of rice on the
stones palm of the hand and gradually
immerse the same in water. The stone
chips will sink.

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Quality Aspects Wheat flour Atta from which When dough is prepared from
(maida) maida suji has been resultant wheat flour, more water has
extracted to be used and chapattis prepared out
of this will blow out. The normal taste
of chapattis prepared out of wheat is
somewhat sweetish whereas those
prepared out of adulterated wheat
flour will taste insipid.

12.11.3 Prevention of Food Adulteration

To safeguard the interest of the consumer, it is necessary to have a check and
control over the quality of food marketed for human consumption.
In India “Prevention of Food Adulteration Act” was promulgated by the
Government in 1954 and the Rules under this act were made in 1955. The act
was intended to make provisions for the prevention of adulteration in food. The
act empowers the government agencies to prevent this unsocial activity and
safeguard the health of the people. The implementation of the Act/Rules is
done at State/Union territory level whereas the Central Government may give
such directions it may deem necessary regarding execution of the provisions in
the Act/Rules. For this purpose, the ‘Central Committee for Food Standards’
was constituted with (a) members representing concerned ministries,
(b) representatives of consumers, medical professionals, agricultural,
commercial and industrial organizations and hotel industry, (c) representatives
of State/Union territories and (d) Directors of the Central Food Laboratories
and (e) Director General of Health Services. Four Central Food Laboratories
and a number of state level laboratories were established for analysis of
samples collected by the state level food inspectors.
Standards under PFA Act and Rules: The standards laid down under the PFA
Act and Rules are minimum standards of purity and are based on the
agricultural practices, climatic conditions prevailing, and economic conditions
and nutritional status of the people in the country
The standards are mandatory in nature and by government laws food articles
which do not conform to the standards are considered unfit for human
consumption. The Act and Rules deal with preservatives, poisonous metals,
naturally occurring toxic substances, anti-oxidants, emulsifying and stabilizing
agents, flavouring agents, colouring matter and other food additives,
insecticides and pesticides, solvent extracted oils and edible flours, non-
alcoholic beverages, starchy foods, spices and condiments and their mixes,
honey, jaggery, saccharin, coffee, tea and milk, milk products, edible oils,
cereals, baked products, sweets and confectionary and a range of similar
products. The Act and Rules deal with the administrative procedures to be
followed for reporting, analysis, prosecution, presentation of cases in a court of
law and punishment to be carried out.
The adulterated food articles are defined under the Act.

12.11.4 Prevention of Food Adulteration Tips to Consumer

Despite the advantages of modern technology, illness due to adulterated/
contaminated food is one of the leading causes of sickness or death. Food-
borne diseases range from acute gastroenteritis to precancerous/cancerous
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stage. Consumers are therefore offered tips in ascertaining quality of food by Quality Characteristics
quick and simple tests for detection of common adulterants in food.
• Read label before purchasing.
• Purchase food articles from licensed vendors and insist on Bill or Cash
Memo.
• Prefer foods sold in packed containers even if the cost is higher.
• Prefer foods certified by Govt. agencies like Agmark, ISI certification
mark and FPO
• Avoid coloured foods especially sweetmeats or sharbats or ice candy.
• Buy foods from reputed firms.
• Do not buy cut or exposed fruits or vegetables.
• Do not use containers or packages used for insecticide chemicals or non-
edible items.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand about quality standard?
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2. How many types of adulterants are there and the Act to prevent
adulteration?
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Quality Aspects 3. What is Agmark?
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4. What are the benefits of grading and certification?
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5. Name the method of quality evaluation?
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12.12 LET US SUM UP

Quality of food is a combination of attributes, properties or characteristics that
give a commodity value in terms of human food. The important components of
quality are: appearance, texture or firmness, flavour, colour, purity and
nutritional quality. Food plays a very significant role in human nutrition
especially as source of carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins, minerals and
dietary fibre. Lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning in fruits and
vegetable are two major chemical characteristics, which affect the quality of
food during processing and storage. The microbiological characteristics are
associated with the presence of bacteria, yeasts and moulds on foods resulting
in deterioration of quality.

22
Different quality standards are formulated and enforced by Government of Quality Characteristics
India to ensure food quality and safety for human consumption. The quality
evaluation of fruits, vegetables, other foods and processed products gives
useful information on nutritional and biochemical characteristics and can be
determined by destructive or non-destructive methods. These include both
objective such as physical, chemical, or microbiological methods and
subjective such as taste. Food adulteration is defined as the process by which
the quality or the nature of a food product is adversely affected through the
addition of a foreign or an inferior substance and the removal of a vital
element. Adulteration may be intentional or unintentional. In India “Prevention
of Food Adulteration Act” was promulgated by the Government to make
provisions for the prevention of adulteration in food by law.
The fruits, vegetables and other foods are graded according to size, shape,
weight, colour and visible defects to obtain uniform quality which is done by
hand or machines. Automatic grading machines are available. Grading for
colour, an electronic colour-sensing device is used. To ensures quality and
purity, Government of India, has established Agricultural Produce Grading and
Marketing Act (Agmark), and Indian Standard Institute to make grades of
foods, vegetables and fruits & they are affixing the Agmark & ISI quality
mark respectively on the products. The Bureau of Indian Standards, (BIS) Act,
operates a product certification scheme, including Food and Agriculture. The
certification allows the licensees to use the ISI Mark, which insure quality of
products. The BIS certification is voluntary, and aims at providing quality,
safety and dependability to the customer. All BIS certifications are carried out
on Indian Standards, which have been found amenable to product certification.

12.13 KEY WORDS

Quality : It is a measure of the degree of excellence or
degree of acceptability by the consumer.
Appearance : It include size, shape, colour, gloss and other
visible defects of foods.
Texture : It include softness, hardness, firmness, juiceness,
chewness, mealiness & stickiness, of the food
commodity.
Flavour : It is a complex of taste and aroma.
Chemical
characteristics : The lipid oxidation and non enzymatic browning
are the chemical reactions of the rancidity and
browning of foods respectively.
Microbiological
characteristics : The microbiological characteristics are associated
with the presence of bacteria, yeasts and moulds
on foods resulting in deterioration of quality
attributes
Quality standards : They are something that is set up and established
by the authority for measuring quality.
Quality evaluation : The quality evaluation gives information on
nutritional and biochemical characteristics of
foods and determined by destructive or non-
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Quality Aspects destructive methods which can be objective or
subjective.
Adulteration : Food adulteration is the process by which the
quality or the nature of a food product is
adversely affected by the addition of a foreign or
an inferior substance.
Grading : The food products are graded according to size,
shape, weight, colour and visible defects to
obtain uniform quality.
Certification : The certification allows the licensees to use the
quality Mark to insure quality of products and
certification may be voluntary or mandatory.
Hygiene : It involves all measures to ensure the safety,
soundness and wholesomeness of food at all
stages of production and processing.

# 12.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Quality is combination of attributes, properties or characteristics that
give a commodity value in term of human food.
• Quality is overall, consumer’s satisfaction and value worth.
• Appearance, firmness, flavour, colour, purity, nutritional quality:
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Physical characteristics.
• Chemical characteristics.
• Nutritional characteristics.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Lipid of oxidation.
• Non-enzymatic browning.
• Rancidity.
• Maillard reaction.
4. Your answer should include the following points:
• Mildew
• Brown rot
• Soft rot
• Black rot
• Green rot
• Mould rot
• Souring

24
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Quality Characteristics

1. Your answer should include the following points:

• Different standards for ensuring the quality and safety of foods for
human consumption have been formulated and enforced by law in
India.
• Legal standards.
• Company standards.
• Industry standards.
• Consumer or grade standards.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Intentional adulterants.
• Incidental adulterants.
• Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1955.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Derivative of Agricultural Marketing.
• Agricultural Produce Act, 1937.
• AGMARK products are free from adulteration.
4. Your answer should include the following points:
• Uniform quality and fetch good price.
• The grades are1, 2, 3, & 4.
• Special, good, fair and ordinary grades.
• Super, fancy & commercially grades.
• BIS Act.
• ISI mark.
5. Your answer should include the following points:
• Physical, Chemical and Microbiological methods.
• Objective and subjective methods.
• Non-destructive methods.

12.15 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Danthy, M.E. (1995) Fruits and Vegetable Processing, FAO. Agricultural
Services Bulletin–119. Published by arrangement with FAO by
International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow.
2. Indian Standard for fruits and vegetable products. Indian Standards
Institution, New Delhi.
3. Jood, S. and Khetarpal, N. (2002) Food Preservation. Agrotech Publishing
Acabemy, Udaipur, India.

25
Quality Aspects 4. Ryall, A.L. and Pentzer, W.T. (2nd Ed.) (1982) Handling warangal,
Kakinada transportation and storage of fruits and vegetables. AVI
Publishing Company, Inc. Connecticut, U.S.A.
5. Srivastava, R.P. and Kumar Sanjeev (2nd Edn) (1998) Fruit and vegetables
preservation: Principles and Practices. International Books Distributing
Co., Lucknow, India.
6. Verma, L.R. and Joshi. V.K. (2000) Post-harvest Technology of fruits and
vegetables. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.
7. Wniton, A, and Wniton, K.B. (1999) Techniques of Food Analysis. Allied
Scientific Publishers, New Delhi.

26
 Deteriorative Factors
UNIT 13 DETERIORATIVE FACTORS AND and their Control

THEIR CONTROL
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Shelf Life and Dating of Foods
13.3 Causes of Food Deterioration
Chemical Reactions
Biochemical Reactions
Physico – Chemical Reaction
Microorganism: General Principal, Causes and Growth
13.4 Nutritional Changes in Food Quality
13.5 Food Borne Disease
13.6 Food Allergies
13.7 Anti-Microbial Agents used in Food
Sulphite and Sulphur Dioxide
Nitrite and Nitrate Salts
Glycerol Esters
Epoxides
p-Hydroxy Benzoate Alkyl Esters
13.8 Enzyme Inactivation
13.9 Treatments
Physical
Thermal
Chemicals
High Pressure Technology
Cooling
Freezing
Microwave
IQF (Individual Quick Freezing)
Ohmic Heating
Drying and Dehydration
Irradiation
Curing
Smoking
13.10 Hygiene and Sanitation
13.11 Let Us Sum Up
13.12 Key Words
13.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
13.14 Some Useful Books

13.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• know shelf life and dating of food;
• explain causes of food deterioration;
• know nutritional changes in food;
• describe food borne diseases;
• know food allergies and anti-microbial agents used in food;
• explain enzyme inactivation;
• describe different treatments to keep the food safe; and
• know hygiene and sanitation.
27
Quality Aspects
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Deterioration of food can be defined as any decay due to physical or chemical
means or undesirable decomposition of constituents by excessive growth of
microorganism. Food deterioration is manifested by the reduction in aroma,
flavour, textural and nutritional values of foods. In extreme cases, the foods
become totally unpalatable and is unfit for human consumption. Some
microorganisms are also known to release toxins that may cause damage to
health.

13.2 SHELF LIFE AND DATING OF FOODS

All foods have a time of the usefulness i.e. a time limit during which they can
be consumed. Shelf life is the time required for a food product to reach to an
unacceptable quality. The length of the shelf life of foods will depend on the
type of food, processing method, packaging, and storage conditions. It is a
practice to add some form of dating system to retail packages of foods so that
consumers may have some indication of the shelf life or freshness of the
products they buy. Food manufacturers put code dated on their products. The
dates of manufacture (“pack date”). The date the product was displayed
(“display date”), the date by which the product should be sold (“sell by date”),
the last date of maximal quality (“best used by date”), and the date beyond
which the product is no longer acceptable (“use by date” or expiry date”).
One recent system for monitoring shelf life uses labels or tags on foods that
respond to a combination of time and temperature to which the product has
been exposed. These are called “time-temperature” indicators and are based on
the principle that both time and temperature are important in the spoilage of
foods.

13.3 CAUSES OF FOOD DETERIORATION

The major factors affecting food deterioration are: (1) growth and activities of
microorganisms, principally bacteria, yeast, and moulds; (2) activities of food
enzymes and other chemical reactions within food itself; (3) infestation by
insects, parasites, and rodents; (4) inappropriate temperatures; (5) gain or loss
of moisture; (6) oxygen (7) light (8) physical stress and (9) time.
These factors can be divided into biological, chemical and physical factors and
often they do not operate in isolation. Bacteria, insects, and light, for example,
can all be operating simultaneously to spoil food in the field or in a warehouse.
Similarly, heat, moisture, and air simultaneously affect the multiplication and
activities of bacteria and chemical activities of food enzymes. At any time,
many forms of deterioration may take place, depending on the food and
environmental conditions. The major types of spoilage of foods are
microbiological, biochemical, physical and chemical.

13.3.1 Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions take place in the presence of atmospheric oxygen and
sunlight. Two major chemical changes, which occur during the processing, and
storage of fruits and vegetables are lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic
browning which deteriorate sensory quality, colour and flavour.
28
Lipid oxidation is influenced by light, local oxygen concentration, high Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
temperature and the presence of iron and copper, and water activity. Control of
these factors can significantly reduce the extent of lipid oxidation or rancidity
in foods.
Non-enzymatic browning is one of the major causes of deterioration which
takes place during frying, cooking, storage of dried and concentrated foods
through Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids present in
the foods and formed black brown insoluble pigments.

13.3.2 Biochemical Reactions

Different biochemical reactions in foods and plants tissues are catalysed by
enzymes. They are responsible for certain undesirable or desirable changes in
fruits, vegetables and other foods. Examples involving endogenous enzymes
include: (a) the post-harvest senescence and spoilage of fruit and vegetables;
(b) oxidation of phenols in plant tissues by phenolases leading to enzymic
browning; (c) sugar – starch conversion in plant tissues by amylases; (d) post-
harvest demethylation of pectic substances in plant tissues (leading to
softening of plant tissues during ripening, and firming of plant tissues during
processing).
Factors responsible for controlling enzymatic activities are: temperature, water
activity, pH, chemicals which can inhibit or enhance enzyme activity.
Enzymatic spoilage is the greatest cause of food deterioration. If enzymatic
reactions are uncontrolled, the off-odours, and off-colours may develop in
foods. In fruit and vegetables, enzyme-induced oxidative breakdown of
unsaturated fatty acids occurs extensively which, give characteristic aromas
during ripening of fruits. Enzymatic browning take place in apples and
potatoes during cutting and peeling and exposed to air, due to the oxidation of
phenols by peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase.
Certain changes are produced by enzymes of foods and micro-organisms that
contaminate the food. Ripening of banana is due to the enzymes present but
after some time the fruit becomes too soft by microorganism enzymes and
become unfit to eat. Enzymes convert starch into sugars, proteins into amino
acids, and pectin into pectic acids and this change the constituents of food.
Enzymes can act between 00 and 600C but 370C is optimum temperature. All
enzymes are inactivated at 800C.

13.3.3 Physico – Chemical Reaction

Physico-chemical reactions are caused by freezing, burning, drying and
bruising of fruits and vegetables during storage, handling and transportation,
which result in food deteriorations.
Food processing or storage causes some deterioration in colour of fruits and
vegetables due to the degradation of the chlorophyll resulting dull olive-brown
colour. Dehydrated green peas and beans packed in glass containers undergo
photo-oxidation and loss of desirable colour.
In addition to chlorophyll, anthocyanins and carotenoids also give colour to
fresh and processed foods. Anthocyanins form complexes with metals which
results in change in the colour of the pigment. Red sour cherries react with tin

29
Quality Aspects and form undesirable purple complex. Carotenoid degradation occurs in foods
by oxidation in the presence oxygen, light and heat.
One major undesirable physical change in dried food powders is the absorption
of moisture, which results in caking. In general, moisture absorption is
associated with increased cohesiveness. Caking does not occur at water
activities of less than about 0.4 at ambient temperature.

13.3.4 Microorganism: General Principles, Causes and Growth

Most significant deteriorative changes occur in foods due to microorganisms
present in air, soil, water, on fruits, vegetables and foods. They are so small
that they can only be seen through microscope. There are three types of
microorganisms which cause spoilage: (1) Bacteria, (2) Yeasts (3) Moulds.
Bacteria
Bacteria are minute unicellular microorganisms. The growth of bacteria
depends upon food , temperature, pH, moisture and oxygen. Bacteria are much
more difficult to kill and are the most common causes of food spoilage. They
are present in active form (vegetative stage) or resting form (spore stage). In
vegetative stage, bacteria are destroyed at boiling temperature but spores
require application of heat (1000C) for a long time (six hours) or 30 min at
1210C under 10 lbs pressure.
All forms of bacteria are sensitive to acids and can be killed easily in acidic pH
at a temperature of boiling water. So foods with high acid content (all fruits,
tomatoes, pickles etc.) are processed at l000C whereas low acid foods such as
corn, peas, beans and all vegetables except tomatoes have to be processed at
higher temperature (1160C) in a steam pressure to kill bacteria. The
temperature maintained and the length of time, the food is held vary with kind
of foods. Moist heat resistant bacteria are present in the soil, hence, preparation
and processing of root vegetables require special care. Clostridium botulinum
causes spoilage in canned foods.
Bacteria enter through stomata and lenticels. The most common bacteria
causing significant reductions in shelf life of fruits and vegetables is the soft
rotting species of the genus Erwinia. Under suitable conditions they produce
large quantities of extracellular enzymes which rapidly macerate the tissue
which gives unpleasant off-odours
Most of the pathogens of fruits and vegetables will grow between 6 and 350C.
Some (B. cinerea) will survive and even grow at low temperatures, 10C, on
agricultural produce, whereas Botryodiplodia theobromae or Aspergillus niger
cause losses in warm regions.
Each kind of bacteria has a definite range of food requirements. Level of
moisture in food is important in preventing or allowing the bacterial growth in
the food. Bacteria require more moisture than yeasts or moulds. Each bacteria
has an optimal temperature at which it grows best. Temperature below and
above the optimum adversely affects the growth of bacteria. pH determines the
kind of bacteria that well grow on the food. Most bacteria grow best at neutral,
pH, however, some bacteria also grow in acid or alkaline media.

30
On the basis of respiration bacteria are classified as: Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
• Aerobic : They require free oxygen for growth.
• Anaerobic : Do not require free oxygen for growth.
• Facultative : Grow either with or without free oxygen.
Yeasts
Fungi usually known as yeast are microscopic unicellular organisms, which are
non-motile round or oval. Yeasts reproduce or multiply by a process of
"budding". The bud when fully mature, breaks away from the mother cell and
becomes independent and repeats the process of multiplication. Yeasts require
less moisture and acidic pH to grow and do not grow in alkaline medium.
Yeasts grow under moderate temperature (25-30 C) in solution containing
sugar. Most of the yeasts usually do not grow in media containing more than
65% of sugar or 0.5% acetic acid. Heating at 60 0C for a few minutes is
sufficient to destroy most species of yeasts. Boiling destroys yeast cells and
spores effectively. Some yeast grow well in light sugar solution and acidic
medium. Some yeasts are very useful in making bread, beer, wine, vinegar and
many other fermented products. Yeasts are responsible for fermentation of
fruits and fruit products. Yeasts are undesirable when they grow on fruits,
juices, squashes, sharbat, honey etc. They spoil the appearance, taste, texture
and wholesomeness of fruits and fruit products. During active fermentation,
yeast can be recognized by formation of bubbles or foam on the surface of the
product. Some of yeasts which grow on fruits are Saccharomyces, Candida,
etc.
Moulds
Moulds are larger and more complex in structure than bacteria or yeast.
Moulds are made up of mycelium and spores. They grow in a network of hair
like fibres called mycelia and send up fruiting bodies that yield spores. A piece
of orange left for a time becomes covered with a whitish or grayish cottony
matter
They thrive best in closed, damp and dark situation and require adequate
supply of warmth, moisture and air for growth. They are aerobic in nature and
require less available moisture and can grow well at 25-30 C. Moulds prefer
sugar containing substances like jam, jelly, preserves and other sweet based
products. They can grow at wide range of pH (2 to 8.5) but majority grow well
at acidic pH. Therefore, they grow nicely on pickles, juices etc. They can grow
on many kind of foods especially when temperature, air and humidity are
favourable. Their growth can be seen only on the surface of food. They not
only consume nutrients present in food thereby lowering the food value but
also produce odd by-products, which spoil the flavour, taste and texture of
food hence change the quality contents of the entire products.
Majority of moulds are sensitive to heat and are destroyed at 60 C when heated
for 30 minutes. Boiling quickly destroys both moulds and their spores. Some
of common moulds are Aspergillus Penicillium, Rhizopus and
Heliminthosporium.
Insect and Pests, Rodents
The main categories of foods subjects to insects and pest attack are fruits,
vegetables, grains and their processed products, and dried fruits. The presence
31
Quality Aspects of insects and pests and their excreta in foods may render products consumable
loss, in nutritional quality, production of off-flavours and acceleration of decay
processes due to creation of higher temperatures and moisture levels and
release of enzymes. The products of insect and pests activities such as
webbing, clumped-together food particles and holes can also reduce the food
values.
Warm humid environment promote insect growth, although most insects will
not breed if the temperature exceeds about 35 C0 or falls below 10 C0. Many
insects cannot reproduce satisfactorily unless the moisture content of their food
is greater than 11%.
Rats and mice carry disease-producing organisms on their feet and/or in their
feces and are known to harbour Salmonella associated with food-borne disease
in humans. Rodents contaminate the food through defecation, urination or
when walk over food or food contact surfaces. These animals also destroy
intensively human’s foods. Rats and mice gnaw to reach sources of food and
drink and to keep their teeth short. Their incisor teeth are so strong that rats
have been known to gnaw through lead pipes and unhardened concrete, as well
as sacks, wood and flexible packaging materials.

13.4 NUTRITIONAL CHANGES IN FOOD QUALITY

The four major factors, which bring nutritional changes in food quality, are
light, oxygen, temperature and water activity. However, because of the diverse
nature of the various nutrients as well as the chemical heterogeneity within
each class of compounds and the complex interactions of the above variables,
generalizations about nutrient degradation can not be made.
The major nutritional changes which occurred in foods are due to
microbiological, enzymatic and chemical reactions.
Microbiological
• Growth or presence of toxicogenic and/or infective microorganisms.
• Growth of spoilage microorganism.
Enzymatic
• Hydrolytic reactions catalyzed by lipases, proteases, etc.
• Lipoxygenase activity.
• Enzymatic browning.
Chemical
• Oxidative rancidity.
• Oxidative and reductive discolouration.
• Non-enzymatic browning.
• Nutrient losses.
Physical
• Mass transfer, movement of low molecular weight components.
• Loss of crisp texture.
• Loss of flavours.
• Freeze-induced damaged.
32
One of the principal responsibilities of the food scientist is to preserve Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
nutrients through all phases of food acquisition, processing, storage, and
preparation. The key to doing this is a knowledge of the stability of nutrients
under different conditions. Vitamin A is highly sensitive (i.e., unstable) to acid,
air, light, and heat; on the other hand, vitamin C is stable in acid but is
sensitive to alkalinity, air, light, and heat. Because of the instability of nutrients
under various conditions and their water solubility, cooking losses of some
essential nutrients may be greater than 75%. In modern food processing
operations, however, losses seldom exceed 25%.

13.5 FOOD-BORNE DISEASE

Food-borne diseases cause food deterioration that may or may not alter a
food’s organoleptic properties but cause illness and disease to human beings
after consumption. Food-borne diseases are classified as food infections or
food intoxications. Food infections involve microorganisms present in the food
at the time of consumption which then grow in the host and cause illness and
disease. Food intoxications involve toxic substances produced in foods by
microorganisms prior to consumption and cause disease upon ingestion. The
toxin producer microorganisms need not to grow in the host to produce a
disease or even be present in the food.
Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum produce bacterial food
poisoning by intoxication through the production of specific bacterial toxins.
The toxin produced by C. botulinum is one of the most potent toxic substances
known. Many bacteria can transmit food-borne infections capable of causing
human disease. These include Clostridium perfringens, numerous members of
the genus Salmonella, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
Streptococcus pyogens, Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, and other. A
number of viral infection may also be contracted by man through contaminated
food that has not been adequately processed or handled, including infectious
hepatitis, poliomyelitis, and various respiratory and intestinal disorders. Over
the last decade or so, several bacteria that had not been thought to be
transmitted by food and cause human disease have found to do just that. Chief
among these “newer” pathogens are Aeromonas hydrophila, Yersinia
enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and a
particular type of Escherichia coli called 0157: H7 of particular importance is
the recent discovery that some food-borne pathogenic bacteria can multiply at
temperatures as low as 3.30C. This means that temperatures, which have been
considered good for refrigerated storage, may not always keep food becoming
a hazard.
Certain moulds produce mycotoxins, the best known being the aflatoxins by
Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are toxic to man and domestic animals.
However, their carcinogenic properties are cause for much concern since
aflatoxins can be produced in a wide range of cereals, legumes, nuts, and other
products allowed to become mouldy. When such products occur in feeds,
aflatoxins may subsequently be detected in the milk products of animals
consuming the feed that is ultimately consumed by humans.

13.6 FOOD ALLERGIES

Food allergy may be defined as normal tissue reaction that may occur in some
individuals after consuming a particular food or group of foods. Food allergens
33
Quality Aspects consists mostly of proteins, though some other chemical compounds present in
foods may also produce allergic reaction.
Since the allergen is carried through all parts of the body, the allergies
manifestations are many and varied. The skin and mucous membranes are
particularly sensitive to the allergen. The sign and symptoms of allergy may
include (i) Skin lesions, rash and eczema; (ii) Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and
colitis; (iii) Headache, cold and asthma, and (iv) Redness, swelling, burning
and itching of the eyes and irritation of the nasal mucous membrane. The
allergy associated with consumption of orange and tomato juices is apparently
due to traces of proteins present in the juice or to the peel oil.
The allergies are treated by drugs and also different types of diets are used in
treatment of allergy (i) Synthetic diets, (ii) Elimination diets, and
(iii) Restricted diets. Desensitization of the subject to the allergic food may
also be carried out. Currently the only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the
food that triggers allergic reactions.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is shelf-life and dating of foods?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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2. Name the major causes of deterioration.
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3. What are nutritional changes in the food quality?
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34 ……………………………………………………………………………….
4. Name the bacterial causal organism of food- borne infections. Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
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5. Food allergies consist of what bio molecules?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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13.7 ANTI-MICROBIAL AGENTS USED IN FOOD

Anti-microbial agents are the chemicals which inhibit the growth &
development of bacteria, moulds and yeasts. They are weak acids work in the
un-ionized form. They are not effective above their pKa values.
The use of anti-microbial agents depend on; anti-microbial activity, pH of the
food product, food composition, processing, and storage conditions, solubility,
flavor, cost, marketing impact. The details of the most commonly used anti-
microbial agents in food preservations are as follow:

13.7.1 Sulphite and Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur dioxide and its derivatives have been extensively used in foods as a
food preservative and anti-microbial agents. They act as an antioxidant,
reducing & anti-microbial agents and prevents enzymatic, non-enzymatic
reactions and microbial growth respectively. The common used forms are
sulphur dioxide and sodium, potassium and calcium salts of sulphite, bisulfite
or metabisulphite. The preservative action of sulphur dioxide as an anti-
microbial agent in acid media, is due to undissociated compounds. It is like a
biocidal and biostatic agent and is more active against bacteria than moulds
and yeasts. It is more effective against Gram-negative bacteria.

13.7.2 Nitrite and Nitrate Salts

Nitrates and nitrites salts are inhibitors of toxic bacteria, involved in botulism,
and considered as legal preservatives. Under regulations nitrites and nitrates
are permitted as preservatives in cured meat and meat products including
poultry at levels below 200 ppm. They also stabilize the colour after cooking
and impart good flavour of lean meat without this the meat would be greeny
brown. The use of nitrates and nitrites in the food industry is now subject to
strict control.
35
Quality Aspects 13.7.3 Glycerol Esters
Glycerol esters show anti-microbial activity against Gram positive bacteria and
yeasts. It is used as surface decontamination agents. It also inhibit Clostridium
botulinum and widely applied in cured meats and refrigerated packaged fresh
fish.
The inhibitory effect of the glyceride is due to the conduction of protons
through the cell membrane, which effectively destroys the proton motive force
that is needed for substrate transport. Death of cell arises due to the generation
of holes in cell membranes.

13.7.4 Epoxides
Epoxides destroy all form of microorganisms, including spores and even
viruses, but the mechanism of epoxides is poorly understood. They find
applications in treating low moisture foods and to sterilize aseptic packaging
materials. They are used in vapour state and after adequate exposure, most of
residual unreacted epoxide is removed by flushing and evacuation.

13.7.5 p-Hydroxy Benzoate Alkyl Esters

The p-Hydroxy Benzoate Alkyl Esters (parabens) are widely used as anti-
microbial agents in foods and pharmaceutical products particularly in baked
foods, soft drinks, olives, pickles, jams and jellies and syrup. They are
effective inhibitor of moulds and yeasts (0.5-0.1 %) but ineffective against
bacteria, especially gram negative bacteria. In contrast to other antimycotic
agents, the parabens are active at pH 7.0, and higher as they remain
undissociated at these values.
Benzoates, sorbates, hydrogenperoxides, and propionates can also be used as
anti-microbial agents.

13.8 ENZYME INACTIVATION

Some enzymes catalyze or initiate undesirable changes in colour, texture,
flavour and nutrients of fruits and vegetables during storage and processing
(Table 13.1). Inactivations of these enzymes prevent discoloration, improve
flavour, soften tissues and loss of nutrients. Inactivation of enzymes is mainly
done by blanching. Blanching is a mild treatment which expose plant tissues to
steam or hot water, heating at 75-95 C for about 1 to 10 minutes, depending on
the product requirements. At high temperature enzymatic proteins are
denatured and make the enzymes inactive. If food processors did not blanch
vegetables prior to freezing or dehydration, the natural enzymes would remain
active even during frozen storage and destroy the product quality with time.
Many vegetables which are not properly blanched develop a very noticeable
off-odour and off-flavour.

36
Table 13.1: Enzymes responsible for quality deterioration in fruits and Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
vegetables

Off-flavour development • Lipoxygenase

• Lipase
• Protease
Texture changes • Pectic enzymes
• Cellulase
Colour changes • Polyphenol oxidase
• Chlorophyllase
• Peroxidase (lesser extent)
• Lipoxygenase*
Nutritional changes • Ascorbic acid oxidase
• Thiaminase
*hydroperoxides and radicals formed by lipid oxidation may destroy chlorophyll and
carotenoids

In order to prevent undesirable changes in fruit texture, colour and flavour

chemicals are used to inactivate enzymes as antioxidants. The inactivation of
peroxidase is an indicator of effectiveness of blanching, and one could assume
that all quality affecting enzymes had been destroyed.

13.9 TREATMENTS
The different treatments to prevent deterioration or spoilage of food should be
performed so that it can be stored or preserved in fit conditions for future use.
The classification of treatments of reducing deterioration is difficult because
they do not act in isolation but take place together or one after the other.
However the preservation procedures have two main characteristics:
• some of them are applied only to one or some categories of foods; others
can be used across the board and thus a wider application (cold storage,
freezing, drying/dehydration, sterilization, etc.);
• some guarantee food preservation on their own while others require
combination with other procedures, either as principal or as auxiliary
processes in order to assure preservation (for example smoking has to be
preceded by salting).

13.9.1 Physical
It is better if the following physical treatments are kept in mind to control the
spoilage.
• Heating,
• Cooling,
• Lowering of water content,
• Drying/dehydration,
• Concentration,
• Irradiation,
37
Quality Aspects • Other physical means (high pressure, vacuum, inert gases),
• Salting.

13.9.2 Thermal
Heat or thermal processing includes heating and cooking, required to eliminate
the potential of food borne illness. The simple act of cooking, frying, boiling or
simply heating food prior to consumption are forms of food preservation.
Cooked food itself can be held for several days provided it is protected from
recontamination. Various methods in thermal processing include blanching,
pasteurization and sterilization.
Blanching: Dipping of fruits & vegetables in boiling water or steam at
temperatures around 75-950C for about 1 to 10 min, depending on the product
requirements to inactivate enzymatic and biological activities. It is a necessary
pre-treatment to achieve satisfactory quality in dehydrated, canned and frozen
products. The process is required for reduction in enzyme activity otherwise
undesirable changes in odour, flavour, colour, texture and nutritive value will
occur during storage. It also helps in removal of intercellular gases to reduce
the oxidative changes in food. Blanching may also result in some reduction in
the microbial load and the texture may be improved.
Pasteurization: The food is heated to a temperature around 60 to 80 0C
depending upon food product. The normal range is 65-75 0C at which nearly
all the enzymes and vegetative microorganisms are inactivated. The heating
may be done by steam, hot water, dry heat or electric currents, and then
products are cooled promptly. Pasteurization does not kill all the
microorganisms present in fruit juices. Some spores and spore forming bacteria
like Bacillus subtilis can survive and multiply later.
Sterilization: Sterilization involves the use of heat at a temperature of 121°C
(wet heat) for 15 min or longer to ensure total destruction of microorganisms
including spores. The sterilized food must be placed in a container to prevent
the entry of spoilage organisms. This is generally done with steam under
pressure, as in a autoclave or commercial retort. Commercial pressure retorts
operate at temperatures and for time intervals adequate to destroy large
numbers of highly resistant bacterial spores within the canned food.
Sterilization is not always necessary to kill all microorganisms but may be
employed to destroy disease-producing organisms in the food.

13.9.3 Chemicals
Many chemicals will kill or inhibit the growth of specific microorganisms and
prevent the deterioration of foods, but most of these are not permitted. A few
that are permitted, in prescribed low levels in certain foods, include sodium
chloride, acetic acid, sodium benzoate, sorbic acid, sodium, and calcium
propionate, ethyl formate, and sulfur dioxide.
Sodium chloride: Common salt used in high concentration (15-20%) prevents
the growth of microorganisms and increase the keeping quality of foods such
as pickles. Salt at high concentration dehydrates microbial cells. Salt inhibits
enzymatic browning and also acts as an antioxidant. Salt ionizes to yield
chloride ions which, are harmful to the organisms and it also sensitizes the cell
against carbon dioxide. Effectiveness of salt varies with its concentration and
temperature.
38
Acetic acid: Acidic pH inhibits the growth of many microorganisms. Vinegar Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
or acetic acid has germicidal and antiseptic properties and also checks aerobic
and anaerobic fermentation. It is more effective against yeast and bacteria than
molds. About 2% acetic acid prevents the spoilage of most products. It is used
in preservation of pickles, sauces and chutney.
Citric acid: It is used in preservation of certain fruits and vegetables. It is
added to jams, jellies, preserves and squashes. It increases the acidity and
prevents mould growth.
Propionates: Sodium or calcium propionate is used most extensively in the
prevention of mould growth. These are effective against moulds with little or
no inhibition of most yeast and bacteria. Their effectiveness decreases with an
increase in pH and optimal pH is 5 to 6, depending upon the food item. These
are ideal preservatives for bread and baked foods to prevent contamination of
loaves during slicing and/or wrapping.
Benzoic acid and its salt: Sodium benzoate as a salt of benzoic acid is used
because it is more soluble than acid. It is benzoic acid molecule, which is
germicidal. It is more effective against yeasts than molds. 0.06-0.10% of
sodium benzoate preserves most fruit products (pH 3.5-4.0). In the long run,
the benzoate may darken the products therefore, it is mostly used in coloured
products of tomato, plum, watermelon, jamun, pomegranate and coloured
grapes.
Sulphurous acid and its salts: Mostly potassium or sodium metabisulphite is
used and gives characteristic sulpher dioxide smell. Sulphur dioxide retards
oxidation, prevents discolouration or loss of flavour and vitamin C. It acts as a
better preservative against bacterial fermentation and molds. It prevents
enzymatic darkening of cut and peeled fruits and vegetables. But it cannot be
used in products stored in tin cans because it causes pin holes in metals and
forms incrustation of tin sulphide.
In dehydration of fruits and vegetables, burning of sulphur at levels
1000-3000 ppm preserves colour, as well as vitamin C, repels insects and
destroys organisms. It bleaches colour of pigments and its use is restricted to
products of fruit like mango, litchi, lime, orange, lemon, guava, etc.
Sorbic acid: It is an organic acid having anti-microbial properties and prevents
moulds in preserves. The effectiveness of sorbic acid increases in acid media
(pH < 6.0) and inhibit moulds, yeasts and some bacteria.
The sodium and potassium salts of sorbic acid are used as fungistatic agents for
foods especially on surface and in wrapping materials. These are also used for
the preservation of cheese, sweet pickles, etc. for the control of lactic acid
fermentation.
Antibiotics: An antibiotic is a chemical produced by microorganism which,
inhibit growth or destroy microorganisms. Antibiotics, subtelin and nisin are
produced by Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus lactis respectively and used to
preserve asparagus, corn , peas, mushrooms, tomatoes and milk. They are
more commonly used in canning of processed products and effectively reduce
the thermal process requirements necessary to control the spoilage food
products.

39
Quality Aspects Chemicals preservations: Antioxidants, butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT)
and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) are used as food preservative and they
inhibit, retard or arrest the growth of microorganisms.

13.9.4 High Pressure Technology

High-pressure technology (HPT) is a new non-thermal process for preservation
of fruits and vegetables. This technology is a combination of a high pressure,
temperature and time. The process subjects food products to pressures between
50 and 700+ Mpa. High pressures kill microorganisms and inactivate enzymes
without the use of heat that can damage the taste, texture, and nutritional value
of the food. The mechanism does not promote the formation of new chemicals,
“radiolytic” by-products, or free-radicals. By HPT, colour, nutrients, vitamins,
and flavour are unchanged and undegraded. Moisture content of fruits and
vegetables is very important because very little effect is obtained below 40%.
Texture frequently can also be retained but will depend on the initial structure.
The texture of high air content foods will likely be changed by HPT.
HPT is applied for the production of high quality shelf stable low acid foods.
When combined with a moderate starting (pre-compression) temperatures of
70 to 950C, spoilage and pathogenic spores are destroyed within less than 1 to
2 minutes. Factors which are important to HPT are process pressure, process
temperature (-200C to 1210C), water activity, and pH.
Fruit based products such as jams, jellies, purees, sauces, fruit juices are
processed in HPT at varying pressures 50-700 Mpa, temperature 5-200C and
duration of 2-30 minutes and it improve gelation, faster sugar penetration and
reduce the loss of flavour, texture, colour and aroma and nutrients. Inactivate
pectinmethlylesterase, polypenoloxidase, peroxidase and lipoxygenase and
pathogenic microorganism activity also. Other advantages include: reduced
process times, minimal heat damage problems, retention of freshness, flavour,
texture and colour and no loss of vitamin C

13.9.5 Cooling
Cooling means storage temperature above freezing and it ranges from 16C to
–2.2 C. Cooling will preserve perishable fruits and vegetable for days or weeks
depending upon the nature of the food by retarding microbial growth and
enzyme reactions at low temperatures. The lower the temperature, the greater
the retardation. Various types of cool storage are available.
Cool storage: The temperature in cool rooms where surplus food is stored is
usually around 15C. Enzymatic & microbial changes in the foods are not
prevented but slowed down considerably. Root crops, potatoes, onions, apples
and similar foods can be stored for limited periods.
Cold store or chilling (0 to 50C): Chilling temperatures are obtained by
mechanical refrigeration. Fruits, vegetables and their products can be preserved
for a few days to many weeks. The best storage temperature for many foods is
slightly above 00C but this varies with the product. Besides temperature, the
relative humidity can affect the preservation of the food. Commercial cold
storages (temp.2-50C; R.H 90-100%) with automatic control of temperature are
used for storage of semi-perishable foods such as potatoes and apples and
made their availability throughout the year. The growth of bacteria, yeasts,
and moulds, and rate of all chemical reactions is slow at or below 100C, and
40
becomes slower the colder it gets.
13.9.6 Freezing Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
At temperature below the freezing point of water (−18 to −400C), growth of
microorganisms and enzyme activity are reduced to minimum. Most perishable
foods can be preserved for several months if the temperature is brought down
quickly and the food is kept at these temperatures. Foods can be quickly frozen
in about 90 minutes or less. Quick frozen foods maintain their quality and
freshness when they are thawed. Frozen foods should, always be kept at
temperatures, below −50C. Properly frozen (–12 to –17C0 by excluding air),
juice retains its freshness, colour and aroma for a long time.

13.9.7 Microwave
Microwave energy produces heat in materials that absorb and heat foods in a
unique fashion that largely eliminate temperature gradients between the surface
and centre of food masses. Foods do not heat from the outside to the inside as
with conventional heating since microwave penetration can generate heat
throughout the food mass simultaneously. The microwaves can result in very
rapid heating but requires special equipment, packaging materials, since
microwaves will not pass through metal cans or metal foils. Microwave
heating produce major differences in food appearance and other properties
compared to conventional heating and reduces process time by 90%.
Microwave heating increases the temperature of the interior water parts of the
solid and has the following advantages: (1) A penetrating quality that leads to
uniform drying. (2) Selective absorption by liquid water, which leads to
uniform moisture profile within the particle. (3) Ease to control due to rapid
response of such heating.

13.9.8 IQF (Individual Quick Freezing)

IQF generally refers to freezing of solid food/pieces/grains like green peas, cut
beans, cauliflower pieces, meat, fish etc. While quick freezing relates mostly to
liquid, pulpy or semi liquid products like fruit juices, mango/papaya con-
centrate and purees etc. There is no clumping together of pieces or grains.
They remain individual separate pieces. Individual quick freezing have
advantages:
• Smaller ice crystals are formed, hence, there is less mechanical destruction
of intact cells of the food.
• More rapid prevention of microbial growth.
• More rapid slowing down of enzymatic action.

13.9.9 Ohmic Heating

Ohmic heating, has the advantage that a product containing liquid, solid, or
solid-liquid mixtures can, be heated rapidly with a uniform thermal profile.
This ensures significant quality retention in comparison to conventional
thermal processing, where heat transfer to the interior resulting in significant
quality loss. Ohmic heating eliminate bacterial spores. In ohmic heating, the
food should possess at least a slight electrical conductivity. Since fats and oils
do not conduct electricity, ohmic heating cannot be used in these products.
In transit, ohmic heating could be used to heat the food. The system is light
weight, requires minimum space and an electrical power supply, and food
packages that can be accommodated between electrodes. It is also suited to the
41
Quality Aspects available energy sources (electricity) in transit. This technology is used for
simple heating of foods particularly which consists of particles suspended in
liquids such as soups.

13.9.10 Drying and Dehydration

Both the terms “drying” and “dehydration” mean the removal of water. Drying
is generally done under the influence of non-conventional energy sources like
sun and wind. In sun drying, there is no temperature and humidity control. The
hottest days are chosen so that the foods dry very fast, thus, preventing from
getting spoiled due to souring. Quick removal of the moisture prevents the
growth of the microorganisms. Dehydration means the removal of moisture by
the application of artificial heat under controlled conditions temperature,
humidity and airflow. In this process a single layer of fruit or vegetable, whole
or slices is spread on trays, placed inside the dehydrator. The initial
temperature of the dehydrator is usually 43°C which is gradually increased to
60-71 °C. Drying is economical and very useful process. Most of the foods
contain enough moisture, which encourages action by their own enzymes and
microorganisms growth.
Food dehydration cause minimum or ideally no other changes in the food
properties and dried to final moisture of about 1-5%. Examples are dried milk
and eggs, potatoes flakes, instant coffee, and orange juice crystals. Such
products will have storage stability at room temperature for a year or longer. A
major criterion of the quality of dehydrated foods is that when reconstituted by
the addition of water they are virtually indistinguishable from the original food
materials used in their preparation.

13.9.11 Irradiation
Irradiation is a non-thermal technology and involves the use of gamma rays, X-
rays or electrons, and uses energy levels that assure no induction of
radioactivity in the irradiated product. It retards ripening or senescence of raw
fruits and vegetables, sprouting of potatoes. Irradiation will increase the shelf
life of foods from 2-5 years. The product must be frozen to achieve stability
without major off-flavours. A wide range of products can be preserved by
irradiation but primarily it is used to preserve meats. Microorganisms are
inactivated by different kinds of radiations. X-rays, microwaves, ultraviolet
light, and ionizing radiations, differing in wavelength and energy have been
used to preserve food. For all types of radiation, the doses required to sterilize
foods, and inactivate enzymes, are generally excessive or borderline from the
food quality view point, and all may cause flavour, colour, texture, or
nutritional defects. Doses less than sterilizing appear more generally useful to
extend storage life. Sub-sterilization doses can inactivate enzymes responsible
for initiating vegetable sprouting.
Today, foods are irradiated with ionizing radiation, obtained from radioactive
isotopes, which does not rise the temperature significantly and called “cold
sterilization”. Several foods such as spices, vegetables and fruits, and poultry
have been approved for irradiation pasteurization at specific doses in India.

13.9.12 Curing
Curing is a formation of multilayered protective periderm on tuber vegetables
after harvest when kept in heaps for 15 to 20 days at ambient conditions to
42
prevent bruising during transport and handling, entry of microorganism and Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
excessive loss of moisture. Plant tissues are covered with protective tissues,
which serve to protect the plant from excessive water loss. The primary
protective layer is the epidermis but if the plant organ undergoes secondary
growth, a multilayered periderm may develop, for example, on apples or
potatoes. The epidermis is covered with a waxy cuticle of cutin while the cell
walls of periderm tissues generally become impregnated with suberin. Both
cutin and suberin can reduce water losses from plant surfaces; however some
water loss is inevitable.

13.9.13 Smoking
Smoke is used for preserving foods such as meats and fish. The preservative
action generally comes from a combination of factors. Smoke contains
preservative chemicals such as small amounts of formaldehyde and other
materials from the burning of wood. In addition, smoke generally is associated
with heat, which helps to kill microorganisms. This heat also tends to dry out
the food, which further contributes to preservation. Smoking over a fire may be
quite effective in preserving certain foods; on the other hand, today smoke may
be added merely to flavour food, that is, without heat from burning. In meat
products, smoke combined with other preservatives is used more for its flavour
than for its preservative action.

13.10 HYGIENE AND SANITATION

‘Hygiene’ describes a system of sanitary principles for the preservation of
health. Food hygiene is much more than cleanliness, it involves all measures to
ensure the safety, soundness and wholesomeness of food at all stages from its
production, processing, manufacturing, packaging, storage, distribution,
display for sale and consumption. Food hygiene aims for the production,
preparation processing and presentation of food, which is safe for consumer
and had good keeping quality. It covers not only the proper handling of
foodstuff but also cleanness and sanitization of all the utensils and apparatus
used in preparation, premises of food processing unit, service and consumption
to eliminate the contamination of food borne microorganism.
The food hygienic measures will involve:
• Protecting food from risk of contamination of any kind.
• Preventing any organisms multiplying to an extent which would expose
consumers to risk, or result in premature decomposition of food.
• Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food through cooking or processing.
High standards of food hygiene are essential to prevent food poisoning, food-
borne infections, food spoilage, loss of productivity, loss of business, food
losses due to premature spoilage or damage, incorrect storage temperature or
pest infestations and prosecutions for contraventions of food legislation.
Hence, these standards of food must be achieved at a reasonable cost to ensure
that the business remains profitable. For it, cost effective hygiene may be
considered.

43
Quality Aspects # Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are anti-microbial agents and write their names?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What is the enzyme inactivation and write the names of enzymes involved
in colour changes of foods?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
3. Write different treatments to preserve the foods.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
4. Describe the benefits of hygiene and sanitation.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

44
 Deteriorative Factors
13.11 LET US SUM UP and their Control

Deterioration of food is a decay or undesirable decomposition of constituents

by excessive growth of microorganism or by other physical and chemical
causes. The deterioration factors are: (1) growth and activities of
microorganisms, principally bacteria, yeast, and moulds; (2) activities of food
enzymes and other chemical reactions within food itself; (3) infestation by
insects, parasites, and rodents; (4) inappropriate temperatures; (5) gain or loss
of moisture; (6) oxygen (7) light (8) physical stress and (9) time. Biochemical
reactions in foods are catalysed by enzymes and are responsible for undesirable
or desirable changes. Nutritional changes occur in foods during storage and
processing due to microbiological, enzymatic and chemical reactions. Food-
borne diseases cause illness and infections to humans after consumption
contaminated foods. Anti- microbial agents are the chemicals which inhibits
the growth & development of bacteria, moulds and yeasts. At high temperature
enzymatic proteins are denatured and make the enzymes inactive. Different
treatments such as thermal, chemicals, high pressure technology, cooling,
freezing, microwave, individual quick freezing, ohmic heating, drying and
dehydration, irradiation and smoking are done to prevent deterioration or
spoilage of food so that it can be stored or preserved in fit conditions for future
use. Food hygiene involves all measures to ensure the safety, soundness and
wholesomeness of food at all stages: production, processing, manufacturing,
packaging, storage, distribution, display for sale and consumption.

13.12 KEY WORDS

Anti-microbial agents : Chemicals, which inhibits the growth and
development of microorganisms.

Bacteria : They are minute unicellular microorganisms.

Biochemical reactions : Reactions catalysed by the enzymes in food and

plant issues.

Blanching : Dipping of fruits and vegetables in boiling water

or exposing these to steam for a few minutes to
kill enzymatic and biological activity.

Cooling : Use of low temperature to retard chemical

reaction and action of enzymes.

Drying and
dehydration : Removal of water.

Enzyme inactivation : Stoppage of enzyme activity by denaturing them

Food-borne disease : Disease or infection caused to humans after

eating spoiled food

Food deterioration : Decay or undesirable decomposition of food.

Freezing : At temperature below the freezing point of water

(−18 to −40° C) growth of microorganism and
enzymes activity are reduced to a minimum.
45
Quality Aspects High pressure
technology : It is a non-thermal process for preservation of
foods.

Hygiene : A system of sanitary principles for preservation

of health.

Individual quick
freezing : Means individual freezing of solid food/ pieces.

Irradiation : Exposure to radiation-generally used to sterilize

various foods by killing microorganisms.

Microorganisms : Very small living beings such as bacteria, yeast

and fungi.

Pasteurization : The process of killing harmful organisms in a

food by heating at controlled temperature below
100°C.

Sterilization : Heating at high temperature i.e. 100°C to kill

microorganisms.

# 13.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Your answer should include the following points:

• Shelf life is the time required for a food to reach at unacceptable stage.
• The retail package of processed foods should have date of manufacture
and expiry date to know the self-life.

2. Your answer should include the following points:

• Microorganism, bacteria, yeast, moulds.
• Activities of enzymes.
• Chemical reactions.
• Moisture, temperature, oxygen.

3. Your answer should include the following points:

• Enzymatic: lipases, proteases, lipoxygenase, enzymic browning.
• Chemical: Rancidity and non-enzymatic browning.
• Physical: loss of texture and flavour.

46
4. Your answer should include the following points: Deteriorative Factors
and their Control
• Clostridoium
• Salmonella
• Shigella

5. Your answer should include the following points:

• Proteins
• Chemicals

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should include the following points

• Anti-microbial agents are the chemicals which inhibits the growth &
development of microorganism.
• Weak acids and work when in the un-ionized form.
• Sulphur dioxide and its derivatives, Nitrates and nitrites salts, Glycerol
esters, Epoxides, p-Hydroxy Benzoate Alkyl Esters (parabens).

2. Your answer should include the following points:

• Denaturation of enzymic proteins.
• Blanching.
• Polyphenoxidase and peroxidase.

3. Your answer should include the following points:

• Thermal, ohemic heating.
• Chemical.
• Cooling, freezing, individual quick freezing.
• Microwave, irradiation.
• Smoking.
• Drying.

4. Your answer should include the following points:

• Reduction of microorganism contamination.
• Prevention of food spoilage or decomposition.

47
Quality Aspects
13.14 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
1. Jood, S. and Khetarpal, N. (2002) Food Preservation. Agrotech Publishing
Acabemy, Udaipur, India
2. Khader, V. (1999) Text Book on Food Storage and Preservation Kalyani
publishers, New Delhi-110 001
3. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H. (1996) Food Science (5th Ed). CBS
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
4. Srivastava, R.P. and Kumar Sanjeev (2nd Edn) (1998) Fruit and vegetables
preservation: Principles and Practices. International Books Distributing
Co., Lucknow, India
5. Verma, L.R. and Joshi. V.K. (2000) Post-harvest Technology of fruits and
vegetables. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.
6. Wills, R.B.H., Mc Glasson, W.B., D. Graham Lecture, T.H. and Hall, E.G.
(1989) Post-harvest: An Introduction to the physiology and handling of
fruits and vegetable. Chapman and Hall, Inc, New York.

48
 Quality Assurance:
UNIT 14 QUALITY ASSURANCE: Regulation, Codes,
Grades and Standards
REGULATION, CODES, GRADES
AND STANDARDS
Structure
14.0 Objective
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Food Safety Issues
Specific Safety Issues
14.3 Food Adulteration, Contamination and their Detection
Food Adulteration
Food Contamination
Food Quality Assurance
14.4 Quality Control
Inspection
Lab Tests
Sanitation
TQM (Total Quality Management)
Codex Alimentarius
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point)
14.5 Grades
14.6 Standards
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 9000 SERIES
Fruit Product Order (FPO)
Meat Products Order (MPO)
Cold Storage Order (CSO)
PFA (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act and Rules in India)
AGMARK
14.7 Enforcement of Food Laws
14.8 Testing of Samples
14.9 Residue Analysis
14.10 Let Us Sum Up
14.11 Key Words
14.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
14.13 Some Useful Books

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to answer:
• food safety issues;
• food adulteration, contamination and their detection;
• quality control;
• grades;
• standards;
• enforcement of food laws;
• testing of samples; and
• residue analysis

49
Quality Aspects
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Food industry plays an important role in the national economy. For a
successful food processing sector, various aspects of total quality management
such as quality control, quality system and quality assurance should function
for total success. In today’s global market, quality and food safety have a
competitive edge of enterprises producing foods and providing services to
reach the global market. As a member of World Trade organization (WTO),
India is signatory to the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) agreement, and
hence has to adopt for international standards, guidelines and
recommendations issued by FAO/WHO, Codex Alimentarius Commissions,
adoption of food safety standards. The Ministry of Food processing Industries
is building awareness among, producers, processors and consumers about the
advantages of foods quality, safety and assurance.

14.2 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES

The safety of foods is of utmost significance and has gained a worldwide
attention. People have the right to eat the safe and suitable foods. Food borne
illness and injuries can be fatal to humans and can damage trade and tourism.
Food spoilage is wasteful, costly and can adversely affect trade and consumer
confidence. Effective hygiene control, therefore, is vital to avoid the adverse
affect on human health and economic consequences of food borne illness,
injury and food spoilage. Everyone, including farmers, growers, manufacturers
and processors, food handlers and consumers have a responsibility to assure
that food is safe and suitable for consumption. These general principles lay a
firm foundation for ensuring food hygiene and should be used in conjunction
with specific code of hygienic practices. Consumers should also practice clean
habits in handling, cooking and storage of food to ensure complete food safety.
In order to understand "food safety" we must first know the terms safe, hazard,
and risk. "Safe" means that nothing harmful happens when we consume a food.
A hazard is the capacity of a thing to cause harm. We should first identify
hazards related to foods or food components and then estimate the size of the
risk that the hazard will cause. It is important to note that all foods have some
degree of risk and that no food is absolutely "safe." The important
consideration becomes the size of the risk and how the size of the risk can be
reduced without eliminating the food source. The goal of food safety is to
reduce the size of risks to the lowest reasonable level without severe disruption
of the food supply.
14.2.1 Specific Safety Issues
Specific food safety concerns differ markedly and include:
• Additives, colours and flavours.
• Antibiotics and other food additives.
• Fertilizers and other growing aids.
• Irradiation.
• Microbiological contamination.
• Naturally occurring food toxicants.
• Nutrition.
• Pesticides.
50 • Pollutants.
• Processing, packaging and labelling. Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
• Tampering. Grades and Standards
Consumers are most concerned about pesticides and additives as both are
linked to cancer and not to microbiological contaminations, however food
industry is most concerned about the microbiological safety of its products. In
addition, many quality control checks are made to ensure that foods are free of
extraneous matter such as glass, machine fillings and insect parts. Many food
industries adopt ‘Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and 'Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control points (HACCP)’. Which assure that products
manufactured under proper conditions and sanitation and hygiene will not have
chance of contamination or error during processing.

14.3 FOOD ADULTERATION, CONTAMINATION AND

THEIR DETECTION

14.3.1 Food Adulteration

Food adulteration is defined as the process by which the quality or the nature
of a food product is adversely affected through the addition of a foreign or an
inferior substance and the removal of a vital element. Adulteration of food may
endanger health. Adulteration may be intentional or unintentional. The
intentional adulteration is a willful act while the incidental adulteration is
usually due to ignorance or lack of proper facilities.
Intentional adulterants: These adulterants are mixed with the food
intentionally to increase the weight and quantity to make more money.
Examples, sand, marble chips, stones, mud, other filth, talc, chalk powder,
water, mineral oil and harmful colours.
Incidental adulterants: Pesticide residues, tin from can, droppings of rodents,
larvae in foods. Some foods contain toxic pesticides, and the rodents & insects
also introduce excreta, secretions and microorganisms responsible for food
spoilage and intoxication.

14.3.2 Food Contamination

Food products are mostly contaminated with soil, air and water-borne
microorganisms. Harvesting, processing, distribution and preparation generally
contaminate the foods and food products which transmit certain food poisoning
micro-organisms causing infections or intoxications or illness in humans. Food
contaminations can be defined as the transference of any objectionable matter
into or on the food. Following are 3 types of contaminations.
Contamination by microorganisms (bacteria, moulds or viruses):
Generally occurs in raw foods such as vegetables grown on sewage,
contaminated food premises, inadequate space and poor design. This type of
contamination by microorganisms is the most serious and may result in food
spoilage, food poisoning or even death.
Bacterial contamination is most significant as it results in large amount of
spoilt food and large number of food poisoning cases. Bacteria are found
everywhere: in soil, air, water, plants, animals, human and foods. Certain
bacteria release toxins and cause death of persons consuming contaminated
food. Some bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus,
51
Quality Aspects Salmonella bacteria and Bacillus cereus are the common causes of food illness
in humans.
Mould spores are found in atmosphere, on damp surfaces and on mouldy food.
If food is stored at the wrong temperature at high humidity and in excess of the
recommended shelf life, there are chances of food contamination.
Viruses like Hepatists A, Norwalk virus group and Rotavirus etc. are usually
spread into food premises by food handlers who are carriers or on raw foods
which have been grown in sewage polluted water and cause illness.
Yeasts grow best in the intermediate acid range, a pH of from 4.0 to 4.5. Food
that is highly contaminated with yeasts will frequently have a fruity odour.
Physical contamination: Foreign bodies such as dust, dirt, stones etc. found in
food may be brought into food premises with the raw materials or introduced
during storage, preparation, service or display. Bolts, nuts, other pieces of
metals, staples, cardboard string, polythene, rodent droppings, eggs and larvae
of insects, cigarette buts, glass, wood splinters, paint or dust hair and
fingernails, buttons and combs of persons handling the food are generally the
sources of physical contaminations. Care should be taken that they do not
contaminate the food.
Chemical contamination: Unwanted chemicals can enter the food during
growth e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, environmental contaminants such as led or
dioxins; during processing e.g. oil, cleaning chemicals; during transport as a
result of spoilage or leakage and during sale etc.

14.3.3 Food Quality Assurance

Quality assurance includes the planning and surveillance of everything to do
with quality throughout the company. Quality assurance seeks to generate
confidence both within the organization and externally, among its customers,
that their requirements will be fulfilled. Among the additional features
acquired in the progress from quality control to quality assurance are the
following:
• The definition of a quality policy and objectives;
• The development of a quality manual;
• Ensuring competency of personnel;
• Conducting periodic internal audits;
• The elimination of the root causes of the problems found; and
• Periodic reviews of the system by top management.
Above all, there is a shift in emphasis from mere detection to prevention of
non-conformance. For introduction quality assurance system in the food
industry good hygienic practices, a good agricultural practices, and good
environmental practices for various industries should be adopted. The
standards should become essential for introduction of quality assurance system
in food industry in the form of potential hazards, GMP, HACCP, ISO:9000,
Codex Alimentarius standards etc.

52
The Codex Alimentarius general principles of food hygiene are aimed to: Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
• identify the essential principles of food hygiene applicable throughout the Grades and Standards
food chain (production to consumption), to achieve that food is safe and
suitable for human consumption;
• recommend a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP)- based
approach to enhance food safety;
• indicate how to implement those principles; and provide a guidance for
specific codes which may be needed for – sectors of the food chain;
processes; or commodities; to amplify the hygiene requirements specific to
those areas.
These principles are recommended to Governments, industry (including indi-
vidual primary producers, manufacturers, processors, food service operators
and retailers) and consumers alike.

14.3.4 Commercial Item Description

Commercial item description is defined under FPO standards (Govt. of India)
for each processed food product which consists code number, whether
concentrated or unconcentrated, sweetened or unsweetened, pasteurized or
unpasteurized , made from ripe fresh and good quality fruits or vegetables,
added water or not, and details of preservative, emulsifying, stabilizing agents
i.e. name, quantity and quality (food grade). It also includes the quantity of
total soluble solids, sugars, vitamins and addition of salt, colour etc. A label
has to be fixed on the processed products mentioning date of manufacture, date
of expiry, total weight of product, and nutritive composition the product i.e.
total carbohydrate, fats, proteins, fibre, name of additive etc. Following are the
few examples:
FRUIT JUICE means the unfermented and unconcentrated liquid expressed
from sound, ripe fresh fruit and with or without:
a) sugar, dextrose, invert sugar, or liquid glucose, either singly or in
combination;
b) water, peel-oil, fruit essences and flavour, common salt, ascorbic acid,
citric acid, and preservatives.
The acidity of the finished product calculated as citric acid shall not be less
than 4% in the case of pure lemon juice or pulp and not less than 5% in the
case of pure lime juice but shall not exceed 3.5%t in the case of other juices.]
The total soluble solids for sweetened fruit juice (except tomato juice) shall not
be less than 10%. It may also contain permitted emulsifying and stabilizing
agents as prescribed in rule 61 C. It may also contain fumaric acid certified by
BIS to the extent of 0.3%.
Tomato Juice means canned or bottled, unconcentrated, pasteurized juice
expressed from tomatoes with a proportion of the pulp, expressed with or
without the application of heat by any method that does not add water to juice,
from whole, ripe tomatoes from which all stems and objectionable portions
have been removed and with or without (a) salt (b) sugar, or dextrose, or both
added in dry form (c) citric acid, malic acid or ascorbic acid. Provided that
canned tomato juice may also contain extraneous permitted colour. The total
53
Quality Aspects soluble solids w/w shall be not less than 5 % ([free of salt). It may also contain
permitted emulsifying and stabilizing agents as prescribed in rule 61-C. [It may
also contain fumaric acid certified by BIS to the extent of 0.3 %.
Fruit Syrup means sweetened fruit juice containing, sugar, dextrose, invert
sugar or liquid glucose either alone or combination, with or without:(a) water,
peel-oil, fruit essences and flavours, common salt (b) citric acid, ascorbic
acid.(c) permitted preservatives and colours. The total soluble solids w/w shall
not be less than 65 %. The minimum percentage of fruit juice in the final
product shall not be less than 25% w/w. It may also contain permitted
emulsifying and stabilising agents as prescribed in rule 61-C.It may also
contain fumaric acid (food grade) certified by BIS to the extent of 0.3 %.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the food safety issues?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. Name the most common bacteria to cause food borne illness.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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3. What are good hygiene practices and standards for food safety?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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54
 Quality Assurance:
14.4 QUALITY CONTROL Regulation, Codes,
Grades and Standards
Quality control (QC) is a means of detecting whether quality has been
achieved and of taking action to correct any deficiencies. QC activities include:
• Establishing the specifications of the parameters to be controlled;
• Preparing quality plans for control;
• Performing checks or inspections;
• Diagnosing and taking action on the variations observed; and
• Checking that the variations have been corrected.
The fundamental purpose of a quality control program is to acquire dependable
information on all the attributes of a product which affects its quality. Quality
control ensures that raw materials meet set standards, processing methods
should be performed as designed, finished products meet company standards
and consumer confidence in the enterprise remains high. The basic functions of
a quality control programme are:
• Physical and chemical evaluation of raw materials and processed products.
• Control of
a) Raw materials, ingredients and packaging supplies.
b) Processing parameters.
c) Finished products.
• Microbiological analysis and control of raw materials and finished
products.
• Control of storage and handling conditions.
• Sanitation and waste products control.
• Assurance that final products are within the legal and marketing standards
established.
Quality control in fruits and vegetables begins in the field with the selection of
proper time of harvest for maximum quality. Each subsequent step after
harvest is to maintain quality and include the following step:

Operation Procedures
Harvesting Check maturity of commodity with respect to colours
size, firmness etc.
Preparation for • Monitor various steps such as washing, sorting,
market waxing, sizing, post harvest treatments etc.
• Check shipping containers for compliance with
grade, size and weight regulations.
Cooling Monitor product temperature at key points in the
handling system, especially before and after cooling.
Transportation Check transit vehicle for cleanliness, before loading,
loading pattern, load immobilization etc.
Destination Check quality and condition of the product and
markets shipping containers at destination market.
55
Quality Aspects Quality control personnel should devote full time and attention to their duties
and make needed changes in the harvesting and handling operation as and
when required to maintain the desired quality.
Quality control within a food manufacturing industry demands constant
vigilance at all stages in processing, so that any necessary adjustments can be
made at the appropriate time. The specific responsibilities of quality control is
to ensure that the system used produces a standard product with acceptable
quality in respect to nutrition, purity, wholesomeness and palatability. The
specific responsibilities of quality control assigned to a department or to an
individual include:
• Standardizing procedure for sampling and examining raw materials.
Development of test procedures.
• Establishment and implementation of quality standards for fresh and
processed products.
• Setting up preventive quality control methods for in-plant liaison between
manufacturing section and test laboratories.
• Examination of finished products.
• Storage controls.
• Research and development into new products and their packaging.
Quality control leads to:
• Raw material control
• Process control
• Inspection of finished products
• Sensory evaluation or evaluation of the acceptability of the final product.
• Packaging
• Labelling and storage
14.4.1 Inspection
The objective of inspection is product conformance by screening out
conforming products from nonconforming products, which is done by visual
checks/ measurements; then testing and reporting. Under a simple inspection-
based system, one or more characteristics of a product are examined, measured
or tested, and compared with specifications to assess conformity. Products that
do not conform to specifications are reworked, or regraded, or accepted with
concessions, or rejected. This system is used for inspecting incoming goods,
checking a product at intermediate stages, or inspecting a product ready for
delivery to the customer. Using inspection to improve quality is too late, too
costly and ineffective. In processing fruits and vegetables for export
continuous inspection is applied. The inspection of raw materials should be
carried out at the commencement of each processing run to ensure that only
good quality fruits or vegetables of sufficient maturity are used for processing.
Sampling checks of raw materials should be carried out frequently. Raw
material and ingredients must be inspected and sorted to insure that they are
clean, wholesome and fit for processing. Containers and carriers (such as
trucks or railcars) should be inspected to assure that their condition has not
contaminated raw ingredients
56
14.4.2 Lab Tests Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
The laboratory tests used in quality control are usually standard scientific tests Grades and Standards
for physical, chemical, microscopic and microbiological analysis. By adopting
these tests one should be in a position to reproduce same results by any trained
quality control technician. Physical tests include product characteristics such as
size, weight, colour, texture and adulterants like, glass, stone, filth and insects.
The processed products should be of prescribed size, weight, colour, texture
etc and devoid of physical adulterants. The chemical tests for the estimations
of moisture, protein, carbohydrates, minerals, fats, vitamins and fibre contents
should be standards practice from the raw material and processed products for
the prescribed quality. Microscopic and microbial tests are used to determine
the presence of moulds, microbes and insect fragments or foreign materials,
spoilage or disease microorganisms from the raw and finished products to
obtain disease free foods. The tests assure that the final products are disease
free, within the legal and marketing standards established.
14.4.3 Sanitation
The raw produce, processed foods, processing units and persons working in
food processing units must be kept in good sanitary conditions to minimize the
possibilities of contamination by microorganism, chemicals and physicals
adulterants. The persons working in food units should not have any disease and
must wear clean clothes, maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness and
must wash or sanitize hands thoroughly before starting work and at any other
time when the hands have become soiled. The food processing plant must be
free from litter, waste or refuse; potential for foot-borne filth or breeding
places for insects or microorganisms.
The processing units must be kept in good sanitary condition to minimize the
possibility of contaminating foods or equipment that contact food. Pesticides,
insecticides and rodenticides may be used to prevent contamination by pests,
insects and rodents respectively. All utensils and equipment surfaces that
contact food must be cleaned and sanitized before use to prevent food
contamination. When utensils or equipment are used in a continuous
production operation, they must be cleaned and sanitized on a predetermined
schedule. The water which comes into contact with food or processing
equipment must be safe and of good sanitary quality. The disposal of sewage
water should be proper so that it must flow into sewage system or disposed of
through other adequate means. Toilets and hand-washing facilities must be
provided inside processing centres for workers. Raw materials must be washed
or cleaned to remove soil and other contamination by sanitary quality water.
Food processing equipment must be kept in a sanitary condition through
frequent cleaning and, when necessary, sanitizing. If ice is used and comes in
contact with food products, it must be made from potable water and be in a
sanitary conditions.
14.4.4 TQM (Total Quality Management)
TQM requires the creation and continual improvement of processes, along with
other quality assurance activities. Companies or organizations aspiring to
quality management are characterized by the widespread application of the
concept that everyone in the organization has customers and that their
satisfaction should be enhanced; in this way, everyone is committed to
continually improving their part of the operation.
57
Quality Aspects a) TQM is a process designed to focus external/internal customer expectations
preventing problem building, commitment to quality in the work force and
promoting open decision-making.
b) TQM is an effective system for integrating quality development, quality
maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of various groups in the
organization so as to enable products and services at the most economical
level, which allows customer satisfaction.
c) TQM is a building, housing the quality assurance system, quality
consciousness of employees as the foundation, employee’s involvement
and commitment as the walls, the quality policy of the management as the
roof.
d) TQM is an integrated organizational approach in delighting customers by
meeting their expectations on a continuous basis through every one
involved with the organization, working on continuous improvement in all
products/services/processes along with proper problem solving
methodology.
e) Meaning of Total Quality Management

Total Every one associated with the company is involved in

continuous improvement, in all functional areas, at all levels.
Quality Customers expressed and implied requirements are met fully.
Management Executives are fully committed
Effective utilization of resources
Decision in a planned way
To maintain existing level of quality
To improve existing level of quality.

14.4.5 Codex Alimentarius

The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of international standards for the safety
and quality of foods as well as codes of good manufacturing practice and other
guidelines to protect the health of the consumer and remove unfair practices in
International trade. This is based on the recommendation of FAO and WHO, a
worldwide conference for food standards and guidelines that would protect
consumer’s health and ensure international fare trade practices. Codex
standards comprise standards for processed frozen fruits and vegetable, fruit
juices, fats and oils, milk products, cereals and pulses, fish and poultry
products, coca products and standards methods of analysis. Codex has also
brought a list of more than 1000 food additives along with their permitted
levels for use in different foods. The Codex general principles of food hygiene
are aimed to: a) identify the essential principles of food hygiene applicable
throughout the food chain to achieve the goal of ensuring that food is safe and
suitable for human consumption. b) recommend a HACCP based approach as
means to enhance food safety. c) indicate how to implements those principles
and d) provide a guidance for specific codes which may be needed for –
sectors of food chain; process; or commodities; to employ the hygiene
requirements specific to those area.

58
14.4.6 HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the Grades and Standards
analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw
material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution
and consumption of the finished product. Food safety systems based on the
HACCP principles have been successfully applied in food processing plants,
retail food stores, and food service operations.
Advantages
• Focus on identifying and preventing hazards from contaminated food is
based on scientific principles.
• Permits more efficient and effective monitoring at government level, pri-
marily because the record keeping allows investigators to see how well a
firm is complying with food safety laws over a period rather than how well
it is doing on any given day.
• Places responsibility for ensuring food safety appropriately on the food
manufacturer or distributor.
• Helps food companies complete more effectively in the world market
• Reduces barriers to international trade.
The HACCP is based on 7 principles, which have been universally accepted by
government agencies, trade associations and the food industry around the
world. These include:
1. Assessment of hazards: Each unit operation should be evaluated to
identify potential source of microbial, chemical and physical hazards,
which may be introduced into the produce. Areas, which should be
evaluated, are growing and harvesting operations, packing shed operations,
packaging material and storage as well as distribution. This process is best
accomplished by a team of both management and production personnel.
2. Determine critical control points (CCP) to control the identified
hazards: The next step in developing a HACCP program is to draw a flow
diagram for your specific operation and then determine where each of the
identified hazards may be monitored. Each point that will be monitored to
control specific hazard is now designed a critical control point.
3. Establishment of CCO limits: Once CCP have been identified, tolerance
limits must be set to determine when corrective action needs to be taken.
Tolerance must be observable and measurable.
4. Established of CCP monitoring procedures: How often monitoring will
be done, how measurements will be taken and what documentations will be
prepared must next be clearly defined.
5. Corrective action when deviations from CCP limits occur: When a
deviation from the prescribed limits occurs corrective action must be taken
to eliminate the potential contamination. All deviations and corrective
actions must be noted in written form.

59
Quality Aspects 6. HACCP record keeping system: All paper work related to the HACCP
system must be kept in an orderly and accessible manner. Records that
should be kept include:
• Production Records
• Supplier audits
• Pesticides usage and testing results
• Irrigated water test results etc.
• Harvesting Records:
• Harvest dates and lot numbers
• Total number of boxed harvested, etc.
• All critical control point monitoring records
• Storage and distribution records
• Temperature monitoring
• Truck cleanliness etc.
7. Deviation file: HACCP deviations and corrective actions taken.
HACCP verification: Periodic HACCP plan review including review of
CCP records, deviations and random sampling to verify that the HACCP
program must be done to assure that HACCP program is functioning
properly. This review should be done either on a monthly or quarterly
basis.

14.5 GRADES
The quality of agricultural produce, cereals, spices, oil seeds, legumes, fruits
and vegetables has criterion for the categorization into various grades
depending upon the degree of purity in each case. The grades incorporated are
grades 1,2,3 and 4 or special, good, fair and ordinary.
Grading of some commodities like vegetable oils, atta, spices and honey is
voluntary. The grading of commodities like tobacco, walnuts, spices, basmati
rice, essential oils, onions, potatoes meant for export is compulsory under
government acts to ensures the quality of produces. Grading add extra cost and
hence the graded products are priced slightly higher. The grading of agri-
cultural commodities has three main purposes. Firstly, it protects the consumer
from exploitation. By knowing the quality and grade of his produce, he is in
better bargaining position against the trader. Secondly, it serves as a means of
describing the quality of the commodities to be purchased or sold by the buyers
and sellers all over the country and abroad. This establishes a common trade
language and avoids the need for physical checking and handling at many
points. Thirdly, it protects the consumer by ensuring the quality of products he
purchases

60
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 " Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer. Grades and Standards
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the basic functions of quality control programme?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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2. Why inspection and grading are required in food processing?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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3. What is codex Alimentarius?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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4. Write the seven principles of HACCP.
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61
Quality Aspects
14.6 STANDARDS
Food standards for ensuring the quality and safety of raw and processed foods
for human consumption have been formulated and enforced by law in India.
Food standards have been also prescribed based on the International Codex
Alimentarius with suitable modification to suit Indian conditions thus in India
food processing and allied industries are governed by following different
standards.

14.6.1 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 9000

SERIES
ISO 9000 series are quality management and quality assurance standards. The
principal of these standards is, ‘if the system (input, process, output) through
which the product is produced, is perfect then the product coming out of
system will also be perfect’. This series of standards for quality assurances is
now being adopted by most of the companies in India and abroad. More and
more companies are in the queue for achieving this quality System Certificate.
ISO 9000 series of standards are available which provide the guidelines for the
establishment and management of quality system in the organization.
There are 4 basic models for classification of ISO 9000 Series:
ISO 9001 : Model for design, development, production, installation and
servicing.
ISO 9002 : Model for production, installation and servicing.
ISO 9003 : Model for final inspection and testing.
ISO 9004 : Model for quality management and quality system element.
There are laid down guidelines on how to develop and follow systems as per
the requirement of this series: The series covers the following major clauses:
Management responsibilities, Quality systems, Contract review, Design
control, Document control, Purchase, Purchaser supplied product, Product
Identification and Traceability, Process control, Inspection and testing,
Inspections and testing of measuring equipments control of nonconforming
product, Corrective preventive action, Handling, storage, packaging and
delivery: Quality records, Internal Quality audit, Training, service and
statistical techniques
The main principal of achieving this certification is ‘SAY what you Do and Do
what you SAY’

14.6.2 Fruit Product Order (FPO)

Central Govt. formulated Fruit Product Order (1955 and 1961) which lays
down statutory minimum standards in respect of the quality of various fruits,
vegetables products and processing facilities. Packaging fruits and vegetables
to standards below the minimum prescribed is an offence and punishable by
law. Periodic inspection by inspectors is carried out to ensure conformity of
standards by processors. Every manufacturer of fruit and vegetable products
must obtain a license for manufacture and conform to the sanitary requirements
and standard of quality specified. The inspectors are empowered to collect
samples and inspect the factory and send the coded samples to Central
62
Laboratory. The order has laid down limits for the presence of poisonous Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
elements. The act has laid down the standard specifications for the food Grades and Standards
products and food additives.

14.6.3 Meat Products Order (MPO)

This order regulates manufacture, quality and sale of meat and all meat
products . Provisions are meant to control production, quality and distribution
of raw and processed meat. This makes it illegal to transport meat unless it has
been prepared and processed according to the provisions of the order and
carries the mark of inspection. It provides means to (a) detect and destroy meat
of diseased animals (b) ensure that the preparation and handling of meat and
meat products is conducted in a clean and sanitary manner (c) Prevent the use
of harmful substances in meat foods. (d) See that every piece of cut meat is
inspected before sale to ensure its wholesomeness. The order also lays down
the rules and conditions for procedure to be adopted for the selection of disease
free animals, slaughterhouse practices and further treatment of the meat so as
to maintain the meat in a wholesome manner, devoid of pathogens.

14.6.4 Cold Storage Order (CSO)

The cold storage order (CSO), 1980, promulgated under the Essential
Commodities Act, 1955, has the objective of ensuring hygienic and proper
refrigeration conditions in a cold store, regulating the growth of cold storage
industry and rendering technical guidance for the scientific preservation of
food stuffs in a cold store and prevent exploitation of farmers by cold storage
owners. Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Government of India is the
licensing officer under this order.

14.6.5 PFA (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act and Rules in India)

Indian Government promulgated Prevention of Food Adulteration Act of 1954
to ensure that food articles sold to the customers are pure and wholesome. It
also intended to prevent fraud or deception and encourages fair trade practices.
The act was amended twice to plug the loopholes of escape and to ensure
stringent punishment. The act prohibits the manufacture, sale and distribution
of not only adulterated foods but also foods contaminated with toxicants and
misbranded foods. A central food laboratory at Calcutta was established for the
purpose of reporting on the suspected food products. A Central Committee for
food standards has been constituted under the Act and has been charged with
the function of advising the Central Government on matters relating to Food
Standards. Provisions have been made in the Act for the appointment of Food
Inspectors by the state Governments and their powers have been defined. The
State Governments set up food testing laboratories and appoint Public Analysts
with adequate staff to report on suspected foods. Standards have been laid
under the PFA Act for various categories of food and according to PFA Act,
a food shall be deemed to be adulterated if it does not meet the specified
conditions mentioned in the Act.

14.6.6 AGMARK
The word ‘Agmark’ is a derivative of Agricultural Marketing. The Agmark
standards were set up by the Government of India by introducing an
Agricultural Produce Act in 1937. The Agmark seal ensures quality and purity.
The quality and grade of product is determined with reference to the size,
63
Quality Aspects variety, weight, colour, moisture, fat content and other factors. The Act defines
the quality of cereals, spices, oil seeds, butter, ghee, legumes and eggs and
provides criterion for the categorization of commodities into various grades.
The grades incorporated are grades 1,2,3 and 4 or special, good, fair and
ordinary. The standards also specify the types of packaging to be used for
different products. The physical and chemical characteristics of products are
kept in mind while formulating the Agmark specifications. The Central
Agmark Laboratory at Nagpur carrying out research and development work.
The Certificate of Authorization is granted only to those in the trade having
adequate experience and standing. The staff of the Directorate of Marketing
and Inspection or of the State Government is generally present at the time of
selection of goods, their processing, grading and packing before applying the
appropriate AGMARK labels.
• Agmark products are free from adulteration and conform to the
scientifically laid down principles of purity. It ensures consumer
protection.
• Each batch of Agmark products is pre-tested for quality by quality control
and trained chemist.
• Agmark products are always packed in food grade material never to be sold
loose.
• Agmark products bear Agmark label or replica as an identification mark,
date of manufacturing and expiry period.
• Free of cost replacement provided in the rules if Agmark products are
found not conforming to the quality standards.
• They are not mandatory, any body can use them.

14.7 ENFORCEMENT OF FOOD LAWS

Food standards for ensuring the quality and safety of raw and processed foods
for human consumption have been formulated and enforced by law in India.
The laws and regulations exist to deal with food safety and consumer concerns
about food contamination and adulteration, penalizing the seller of diseased,
unwholesome and corrupted food products. The law defines foods, food
preservatives and artificial colour, and ban the sale of food prepared under
unsanitary conditions or containing any deleterious or unsafe substances.
These also specify standards of quality for various classes of foods and outline
the conditions under which a food would be regarded as adulterated or
misbranded. Finally, there are statutory or legal obligations, which need to be
fulfilled for safeguarding the health and well being of people and the
establishment.
There are number of food laws being implemented by various
Ministries/Departments of Indian Government. These are primarily meant for
1) Regulation of Specifications of Food, and 2) Regulation of Hygiene
conditions of Processing and Manufacturing. The Government of India has
also empowered several agencies and promulgated a number of acts and orders
to ensure food safety. Agencies and institutes have also been created to lay
down standards for quality of foods. The manner in which the food is
processed and packed is also covered by a number of regulations. Some of
64
these food quality assurance laws are voluntary and some are mandatory. The Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
following are various food laws operating in India. Grades and Standards
1. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 and Rules 1955.
2. Agriculture Produce Act 1937 (AGMARK) Grading and Marketing.
3. Bureau of India Standards (BIS).
4. Environment Protection Act 1986 & Rules 1989.
5. Export Quality Control and Inspection Act, 1963.
6. Essential Commodities Act, 1955.
7. Insecticide Act, 1968.
8. Fruit Product Order, 1955.
9. Meat Food Product Order, 1973.
10. Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal and Edible Flour (control) order,
1967.
11. Milk and Milk Product Order, 1992.
PFA are enforced by the Department of Health. Under the law, slaughter
houses, markets, factories, warehouses and other establishments involved in
food trade may be inspected to ascertain that the raw materials as well as
processing, packaging and storage facilities are sterile and ingredients meet the
minimum standards prescribed by the law. Adulterated and misbranded
products may be seized by inspectors, destroyed and legal action be taken
depending upon the nature of the offence.
Food laws came into existence for a number of reasons:
i) To maintain the quality of food produced in the country;
ii) To prevent exploitation of the consumer by the sellers;
iii) To safeguard the health of the consumers;
iv) To establish criteria for quality of food products, since more and more
foods were eaten in processed, rather than natural forms. This has resulted
in the inability of the consumer to identify the quality of the contents that
could be identified easily.
The legislation which is directly concerned with the protection of the health of
consumers and the quality of food products marketed is the Prevention of Food
Adulteration (PFA) which states that an article of food shall be deemed to be
adulterated. The PFA Act, thus, lays down the guidelines for setting up
standards for various food items like cereals and cereals products, pulses, ghee,
etc. All processed items which, are mass-produced for public use, are expected
to conform to these standards.
In addition to the mandatory acts and orders cited above, agencies such as
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and Directorate of Marketing and Inspection
have also laid down quality standard for foods.

65
Quality Aspects Operating quality systems as per quality system standards leads to doing right
things on time, all the time and always to the customer's satisfaction

14.8 TESTING OF SAMPLING

The Food Health Authority (FHA) at State level is the Director of Public
Health and Preventive Medicine. It is responsible for the good quality and
standards of foods available to the consumers. Under FHA, the Local Health
Authority appointed in each city of every State is responsible for testing of
samples. The food inspector is appointed by the Central or State Government
and they are trained in food inspection and sampling and have the powers to
take sample of any food article from 1) any person selling such article 2) any
person who is in the course of delivering or preparing to deliver such article to
a purchaser or consignee 3) a consignee after delivering of any such article to
him, and to send such samples for analysis to the Public Analyst (PA) of local
area. When the Food Inspector wants to lift the suspected food, the shopkeeper
must first be informed and there should be a witness present also. 150 g of
sample is necessary to be sent for analysis but usually 600 g of sample is
collected and sent to Central Food Laboratory Calcutta, and Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore. There is a recommended procedure
to collect the sample and seal it in a bottle. The sealed bottle has a label on it in
which the code number of the inspector, address of the shop, date and time of
collection are written. When individuals doubt adulteration in foodstuffs they
have to inform the Food Health Authority. Samples can be sent for analysis
only after getting order from Food Health Authority. If the persons are found
guilty of selling adulterated food, the persons involved can be convicted. A
vendor found adulterating the food with ingredients injurious to health is liable
for a much heavier sentence than a vendor involved in only mixing an inferior
ingredient not injurious to health.

14.9 RESIDUE ANALYSIS

The foods require the absence of harmful substances like pesticides that are
harmful for human health. The estimation of pesticides residues in foods is
very important and the declaration of pesticides qualitatively or quantitatively
has become inevitable for export and import. About 176 pesticides are listed
which come into foods from their intentional or unintentional use on the crops.
The maximum residue limits vary with the type of commodity. Use of many
pesticides is restricted by law and the maximum residue limits commonly used
pesticides are fixed by national (PFA in India) and international (Codex
Alimentarius Commission) agencies.
Analysis of pesticides in foods is very cumbersome job and requires standards
procedures and specific instruments. The basic steps for sampling and analysis
of pesticides are given below:

Sampling Sample preparation Extraction of pesticides

Partitioning Cleanup, Concentration of extract Dilution with
appropriate solvent Identification & estimation of pesticides
(GC, HPLC, Mass Spectrometer, GC-MS, UV-VIS Spectrometer, TLC etc.)

66
The sampling procedures and quantity for sampling varies with the commodity Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
and type of sample. The sample should be drawn as uniform as possible from Grades and Standards
whole lot of produce.
Residue analysis consists of a chain of procedures. The analyst should be an
experienced and competent in residue analysis. The laboratory requires an
adequate range of reference standard pesticide of high purity. The range should
cover all parent species and their metabolites. Chemical reagents, adsorbents
and solvents should be high purity and not to interfere in the analysis. All
glassware, reagents, solvents and water should be checked from contaminants
before use. In a routine laboratory monitoring for compliance with national
tolerances, standardized methods will be used and these should be validated
periodically.
A number of instrumental procedures for estimation/confirmation are used in
residue analysis. Gas chromatography (GC) is the commonly used instrument
for qualitative and quantitative determination of pesticides residues. The
specific columns and detectors are used for different groups of pesticides. Thin
layer chromatography (TLC) is also used in some instances, confirmation of
gas-chromatographic findings and identification most conveniently achieved
by TLC. The advantages TLC are speed, low cost and applicability to heat
sensitive materials but it has lower sensitivity than GC. High performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used advantageously for the
confirmation of residues initially found by gas chromatography or by other
techniques and may be in certain circumstances the preferred quantitative
technique. Mass spectrometers (MS) are generally sensitive at the nanogram
level.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
"
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is ISO 9000 and write it’s basic models?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What is AGMARK and the advantages of AGMARK?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

67
Quality Aspects 3. Name the different Acts and Orders to enforce the quality of food in India.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

14.10 LET US SUM UP

The safety of foods is of utmost significance as people have the right to eat the
safe and nutritious foods. Adulteration of food may be intentional or
unintentional it endangers the health of consumers. Food products are mostly
contaminated with microorganisms, (bacteria, moulds or viruses), and physical
(dust, dirt, stones etc) & chemical (fertilizer, pesticides) contaminants. Quality
assurance includes the planning and surveillance of everything to do with
quality throughout the company and it generates confidence among consumers
and customers. For introduction of quality assurance system in the food
industry, good hygienic practices, good agricultural practices, and good
environmental practices for various industries should be adopted. The
standards should become essential for introduction of quality assurance system
in food industry. Quality control ensures that raw materials meet set standards,
processing methods perform as designed, finished products meet company
standards and consumer confidence in the enterprise remains high. The specific
responsibility of quality control is to ensure that the system used produces a
standard product with acceptable quality in respect to nutrition, purity,
wholesomeness and palatability. The objective of inspection is product
conformance by screening out conforming products from nonconforming.
The raw produce, processed foods, processing units and persons working in
food processing units must be kept in good sanitary conditions to minimize the
possibilities of contamination by microorganism, chemicals and physicals
adulterants. Total Quality Management requires the creation and continual
improvement of processes, along with other quality assurance activities. The
Codex Alimentarius is a collection of international standards and codes for the
safety and quality of foods. HACCP is a management system in which food
safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical,
and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling,
to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product. Food
standards for ensuring the quality and safety of raw and processed foods for
human consumption have been formulated and enforced by law in India. The
laws and regulations exist to deal with food safety and consumer concerns
about food contamination and adulteration, penalizing the seller of diseased,
unwholesome and corrupted food products. The estimation of pesticides
residues in foods is very important and the declaration of pesticides
qualitatively or quantitatively has become inevitable for export and import
foods. Identification & estimation of pesticides residues is done by GC, HPLC,
Mass Spectrometer, GC-MS, UV-VIS Spectrometer, TLC etc.

68
 Quality Assurance:
14.11 KEY WORDS Regulation, Codes,
Grades and Standards
Adulterated : The deliberate addition of inferior or cheaper
material to a supposedly pure food product in
order to stretch out supplies and increase profits.
Bacteria : Single celled microscopic organism.
Chemical sanitizers : Products used on equipment and utensils after
washing and rinsing to reduce the number of
disease – causing microbes to safe levels.
Contamination : The unintended pressure of harmful substances or
conditions in food that can cause illness or injury
to people who eat the infected food.
Critical control point
(CCP) : means a point or procedure in a specific food
system where loss of control may result in on
unacceptable health risk.
Codex alimentarius : Is a collection of international standards and
codes for the safety and quality of foods.
Disnifact : destroy harmful bacteria.
Food borne illness : An illness caused by consumption of a
contaminated food.
Grade standards : Principally standards of quality to help producers,
wholesalers, retailers, and consumer’s in
marketing and purchasing food products.
HACCP : called hassip is a management system in which
food safety is addressed.
Juice : the aqueous liquid expressed or extracted from
one or more fruits or vegetables or any
concentrations of such liquids.
Sanitation : maintenance of conditions which are clean and
promote good health.

14.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
"
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Additives, colour and flavour.
• Microbiological contamination.
• Pesticides, fertilizers, food toxicants, pollutants etc.

69
Quality Aspects 2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Clostridium botulinum.
• Salmonlla.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Good Manufacturing Practices
• HACCP
• Codex Alimanterius
• ISO : 9000
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Physical and chemical evaluation of raw & processed material.
• Control of raw material, processing parameter and finished products,
storage and handling conditions.
• Microbiological analysis.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Product conformance.
• Grading is done for purity and quality of product.
• Fetch better price.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Collection International standards and codex for quality and safety
foods.
• Recommended HACCP to enhance food safety.
• Identify principles of food safety.
4. Your answer should include the following points:
• Assessment of hazards.
• Determine Critical Control Points (CCP).
• Established of CCP limits.
• Established of CCP Monitoring procedures.
• HACCP record keeping system.
• Deviation file.
• HACCP verification.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Quality management and quality assistance international standards.
• ISO:9001, ISO:9002, ISO:9003, ISO:9004 for design, production,
inspection and testing and quality management etc.
70
2. Your answer should include the following points: Quality Assurance:
Regulation, Codes,
• Agricultural Produce Act, 1937. Grades and Standards

• Derivative of Agricultural Marketing.

• Products are free from adulteration.
• Pre-tested product quality and bear AGMARK seal.
3. Your answer should include the following points:
• Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 and Rules 1955.
• Agriculture Produce Act 1937 (AGMARK) Grading and Marketing.
• Bureau of India Standards (BIS)
• Fruit Product Order, 1955
• Meat Food Product Order, 1973.

14.13 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Arora, K.C. (1998) TQM and ISO 1400. S.K. Kataria & Sons, Publishers,
Delhi.
2. Askar, A. and Treptow, H. (1993) Quality assurance in tropical fruit
processing, Springer Verlag, New Delhi.
3. Bolton, A. (1996) Quality Management Systems for the Food Industry, A
guide to ISO 9001/2, Aspen Publishers, U.S.A.
4. Mc Swane, D., Rue, N. and Linton, R. (1995) Essential of Food Safety and
Sanitation, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.
5. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J. H. (1996) Food Science (5th Edition), CBC
Publishers, New Delhi.
6. Sharma, R.N. (1997) Standards India.
7. The codex Alimentarius standards (1997) Codex Alimentarius
Commission, Rome, Italy.

71
 Equilibrium
EXPERIMENT 1 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE Moisture Content
(EMC)
CONTENT (EMC)
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objective
1.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
1.3 Precautions

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Food materials tend to absorb or lose moisture according to the environmental
conditions. They will absorb moisture when partial vapour pressure of the
water inside the grain is less than the partial vapour pressure of water present
in environment and vice versa. The moisture content at the time when
equilibrium is achieved by absorbing or losing moisture for specific
temperature and relative humidity conditions is known as “Equilibrium
Moisture Content (EMC)”. The EMC plays significant role in drying and
storage of food grains as well as dried fruit and vegetable products.
Objective
After studying and performing this experiment, you should be able to:
• determine the EMC (w.b.) of foods.

1.2 EXPERIMENT

1.2.1 Principle

When a moist food product is placed in a gaseous atmosphere containing water

vapour, heat and water vapour exchanges occur between the two phases. The
food absorbs or loses water to the atmosphere until a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium is reached. Temperature and pressure are then constant and equal
in both phases. The moisture achieved in this condition is EMC. In this
experiment constant temperature is achieved using incubators and constant
water vapour pressure of environment (relative humidity) at particular
temperature is achieved using saturated salt solutions. The study is done in
closed chamber in order to achieve constant relative humidity.

1.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/ Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Hot air oven

• Moisture boxes
• Analytical balance (Least count 0.001 g)
• Desiccators 5
 Practical Manual  • Incubators
Food Fundamentals
• Salts (NaCl, K2CO3, etc.), as per required humidity conditions

1.2.3 Procedure

• Set the incubator at a particular temperature.

• Place saturated salt solution, (particular salt which maintains a constant
relative humidity at specific temperature), in the desiccators.

Table 1.1: Equilibrium relative humidities for some saturated salt

solutions
Chemical Relative humidity %
22·8ºC 30ºC 37.8ºC
Sodium chloride 75.5 75.2 75.1
Sodium nitrite 64.8 63.3 61.8
Sodium dichromate 54.1 52.0 50.0
Potassium carbonate 43.9 43.5 43.4
Magnesium chloride 32.9 32.4 31.9

• Accurately measure moisture content of the test sample by drying in an hot

air oven. Then keep the sample in Petri dishes, transfer the Petri dishes into
desiccators, close the lid and keep the desiccators inside the incubator.
• Accurately weigh samples after 15 days, daily and observe the increase or
decrease in weight till it becomes constant.

1.2.4 Observations

Parameters 16 day 17 day 18 day 19 day 20 day

Weight of Petri dish +
equilibrated sample (w3)

Let weight of empty Petri dish was (w1), weight of Petri dish + sample was
w2, initially. Based on moisture content of initial sample, the weight of water
present in the sample was W4, and then EMC will be given as

Weight of sample after equilibration − Dry matter content of sample

EMC = × 100
Weight of sample after equilibration
( w 3 − w1) − ( w 2 − w1 − W 4)
= × 100
( w 3 − w1)

1.2.5 Results

Calculate EMC using above formula. The results are always displayed along
with temperature and relative humidity.

1.3 PRECAUTIONS

• Never touch the sample or Petri dishes with wet hands.

• The Petri dishes should be dried before placing the samples.
• Sample should be evenly distributed inside the moisture boxes in a single
layer.
6 • The Petri dishes should not come in contact with salt solutions.
 Bulk Density
EXPERIMENT 2 BULK DENSITY
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objective
2.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
2.3 Precautions

2.1 INTRODUCTION

It is the weight of the food material in a unit volume. It is of importance in the

packaging, handling and other operations.

Objective

After studying this experiment, you should be able to:

• determine the bulk density of the food material.

2.2 EXPERIMENT

2.2.1 Principle

The finely ground material is filled in a container of known volume, and its
weight is measured. The mass per unit volume is bulk density. It should be in
kg per cubic meter.

2.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Measuring cylinder (250 ml capacity)

• Analytical balance (Least count 0.001 g)

2.2.3 Procedure

• Weigh a 250 ml capacity measuring cylinder (Say W1).

• Fill the pre-weighed measuring cylinder with finely ground vegetable/fruit
sample (30-mesh size) up to the 100 ml mark.
• Weigh the filled cylinder with sample (Say W2).
• Repeat above steps with two more lots of the same sample.
7
 Practical Manual  2.2.4 Observations
Food Fundamentals

Parameters Sample number

1 2 3
Weight of empty cylinder (W1), g
Weight of cylinder + sample (W2), g

2.2.5 Results

Calculate bulk density using the formula given below. Take the average of
three values and report the results in kg/m3.

Bulk Density = (W2 − W1) × 10

2.3 PRECAUTIONS

• Filling of the cylinder up to 100 ml mark should be accurate.

8
 True Density
EXPERIMENT 3 TRUE DENSITY
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objective
3.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
3.3 Precautions

3.1 INTRODUCTION

It is the actual volume occupied by the particles of food material. It is of the

importance in the packaging, handling and other operations.

Objective

After studying this experiment, you should be able to:

• determine the true density of the food material.

3.2 EXPERIMENT

3.2.1 Principle

The material is filled in a container having a liquid already filled in it of known

volume. The volume displaced by the sample particles is the true volume and
ratio with its weight will give true density. It should be in kg per cubic meter.

3.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Measuring cylinder (250 ml capacity)

• Analytical balance (Least count 0.001 g)
• Toluene

3.2.3 Procedure

• Accurately weigh a finely ground 100 g sample (W1).

• Now fill a 250 ml capacity measuring cylinder with toluene up to the 100
ml mark.
• Transfer the weighed sample into the liquid.
• Determine the change in volume (V1).
• Repeat above steps with two more lots of the same sample.
9
 Practical Manual  3.2.4 Observations
Food Fundamentals

Parameters Sample number

1 2 3
Weight of sample (W1), g
Weight in the volume (V2), ml

3.2.5 Results

Calculate true density using the formula given below. Take the average of
three values and report the results in kg/m3.

W1
True Density = × 1000
V1

3.3 PRECAUTIONS

• Filling of the cylinder up to 100 ml mark should be accurate.

10
 Measurement of
EXPERIMENT 4 MEASUREMENT OF FAT/ Fat/Oil

OIL
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objective
4.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
4.3 Precautions

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Fat or oil present in any food is the source of energy. The oils and fats are
insoluble in water and soluble in some organic solvents. It may be present in
the food material itself as in oilseeds or it may come during processing.
Determination of fat / oil content is essential to know the calorific value of
food.

Objective

After studying this experiment, you should be able to:

• determine the fat content of foods.

4.2 EXPERIMENT

4.2.1 Principle

Fats and oils are soluble in organic solvents like hexane, Isopropanol etc. but
other constituents are not. Hence, the fat present in the food sample is
dissolved into the solvent and afterwards solvent is removed by evaporation
distillation (Boiling point of solvent is much less than that of oils/fat).

4.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Soxhlet apparatus
• Extraction filter paper thimble
• Analytical balance (Least count 0.001 g)
• Sample grinder
• Organic solvent (Hexane, Isopropanol or diethyl ether), acetone

4.2.3 Procedure

• Thoroughly wash the boiling flasks and rinse with commercial grade
acetone to remove any residual oil/fat.
• Dry the flasks by placing in hot air oven for 3-4 hours 11
• Weigh the flasks and label them.
• Weigh the extraction filter paper thimbles (in duplicate) and label them.
• Transfer 2-5 g samples in pre-weighed thimbles and determine their
accurate weight.
• Plugged these thimbles with non-adsorbent cotton and place them straight
in the soxhlet extraction tube.
• Fill the extraction tubes with solvent sufficient enough so that the siphon
system starts working.
• Now fix the Soxhlet assembly properly and switch on the heaters.
• As soon as the initiation of boiling is indicated start the water connected to
condensers and allow the extraction for 8 hours.
• After 8 hours switch off the heaters and allow cooling.
• The solvent is evaporated using vacuum oven at 50oC or a water bath and
then flasks with oil are weighed.

4.2.4 Observations

Parameters Sample number

1 2 3
Weight of empty flask (w1)
Weight of empty thimble (w2)
Weight of thimble + sample (w3)
Weight of flask + oil (w4)

Fat / oil content is calculated by using the following formula.

( w 4 − w1)
%Fat / oil ( w.b.) = × 100
( w 3 − w 2)

4.2.5 Results

Calculate oil/fat content using above formula. Take the average of three values
and report the results as percentage.

4.3 PRECAUTIONS

• The water supply should not stop during the experiment. If so, the heaters
should be put off.

• Take care that solvent should not come in contact with any heated surface
as it is highly inflammable.

12
 Crude Protein
EXPERIMENT 5 CRUDE PROTEIN (TOTAL (Total Protein)

PROTEIN)
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objective
5.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
5.3 Precautions

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Proteins are fundamental food components, both functionally and

nutritionally. Dietary protein is supplied from plant and animal sources.
Proteins are needed to build and repair body tissue and for the metabolic
functions of our bodies. The crude protein is determined by estimating total
nitrogen in any food material.

Objective

After studying this experiment, you should be able to:

• determine the total protein content of foods.

5.2 EXPERIMENT

5.2.1 Principle

Total nitrogen in all the samples is determined by the Kjeldahl method. It is a

three step experiment as given below;

1. Digestion: It results in complete hydrolysis of the sample converting all

protein and other nitrogenous compounds into ammonia.

2. Distillation: Distillation of the digested sample is the process during

which the ammonia is released which is trapped in boric acid solution to
yield ammonium borate.

3. Titration: The solution containing ammonium borate is titrated against

0.1 or 0.01 N HCI.

The protein content is estimated by multiplying % Nitrogen by a ‘Protein

factor’ as given below. In case factor is not known, 6.25 is commonly used.

13
 Protein/product type Protein factor
Egg 6.25
Milk 6.38
Meat 6.25
Rice 5.95
Barley 5.83
Wheat (whole) 5.83
Wheat (flour) 5.70
Maize 6.25

5.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Conc. sulphuric acid

• Catalyst powder: Contains Cupric sulphate (penta-hydrate) and potassium
sulphate (1:5 w/w).
• Sodium hydroxide solution (50%)
• Boric acid – indicator solution.

Solution A: It is prepared by dissolving 40g boric acid in 1.95 litres hot

distilled water.

Solution B: It is prepared by dissolving 0.01 of bromo cresol green in 10ml

of 95% ethyl alcohol.

Solution C: It is prepared by dissolving 0.05 g methyl red in 50 ml of 95%

ethyl alcohol.

Finally solutions B and C are mixed and 50ml of this solution is made up
to 2 litres with boric acid solution.

• Digestion assembly including Kjeldahl flasks / tubes.

• Distillation assembly
• Burette, pipette, conical flasks etc.

5.2.3 Procedure

1. Digestion of sample

• Accurately weigh 50 to 100mg sample (in duplicate) and transfer into

two different Kjeldahl digestion tubes and label them.

• Add 4 ml conc. sulphuric acid and 100mg of catalyst powder to each

digestion tube.

• Place the tubes on a heater to allow digestion at slow heat (100oC) for
30 min. and gradually increase the temperature to 200oC in about
1hour and finally to 420oC until the colour of the content changes from
dark brown to bluish green.

• The digested samples are then removed from heater and allowed to
cool.

14
2. Distillation of sample Crude Protein
(Total Protein)
• Thoroughly clean the distillation unit and allow preheating.

• Now add 10 to 15 ml distilled water to each Kjeldahl tube/ flask.

• Close the stopcock and fill the reservoir with water to 2/3 its volume.

• Now transfer the diluted digested sample into the sample funnel and
open the stopcock to allow the sample to drop into the mixing
chamber.

• Rinse the Kjeldahl tubes with 10-15ml of distilled water and add the
wash water to mixing chamber.

• Close the stopcock of the sample addition funnel and add sodium
hydroxide (50%) solution to the sample funnel.

• Place the receiver conical flask containing 10 ml of boric acid with

indicator with the outlet tube properly submerged into the solution.

• Now allow the sodium hydroxide solution to drop slowly into the
mixing chamber by gently opening the valve of the sample addition
funnel. Add 15-20ml of distilled water to the sample addition funnel
and allow it to drop into the mixing funnel. Now close the sample
addition funnel leaving some residual water in the funnel to work as
water seal.

• Start heating of the content of the mixing chamber and continue for 20-
30min, or until the colour of the indicator solution is changed from
bluish purple to bluish green. Collected 15-20 ml of distillate.

• Finally slow down the heating intensity and gently remove the receiver
flask while rinsing the outlet tube.

3. Titration

• Now titrate the distillate against 0.01 N HCl till the bluish green colour
changes to pink.

• Run a blank preparation which has been identically prepared except

that it does not contain the sample.

5.2.4 Observations

Parameters
Sample titration value, ml
Blank titration value, ml

% Nitrogen is calculated as follows:

(Sample titre − Blank titre) × N × 14 × 100

% Nitrogen =
mg of sample
N = Normality of HCl
% Crude protein = %Nitrogen × Protein factor. 15
5.2.5 Results

Calculate crude protein using above formula. Take the average of three values
and report the crude protein content in percent.

5.3 PRECAUTIONS

• The digestion should be done in a closed cabinet so as to avoid inhalation

of the fumes.

• During distillation, the outlet tube must be submerged into boric acid.

16
 Free Fatty Acids
EXPERIMENT 7 FREE FATTY ACIDS (FFA) (FFA)

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objective
7.2 Experiment
Principle
Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/Material)
Procedure
Observations
Result
7.3 Precautions

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A small quantity of free fatty acids (FFA) is usually present in oil / fat along
with the triglycerides. The content of FFA is known as acid number / acid
value. It increases during storage of oil / fat as such or on oil/fat rich foods. Oil
used for food purposes should have FFA level less than 1.5% as its keeping
quality relies upon the FFA content.

Objective

After studying this experiment, you should be able to:

• determine the free fatty acid content of oil.

7.2 EXPERIMENT

7.2.1 Principle

The content of FFA in an oil is estimated by titrating it against KOH in the

presence of phenolphthalein indicator. The acid number is defined as the
amount (in mg) of KOH required neutralizing the free fatty acids in 1g of oil
sample.

7.2.2 Requirements (Equipment/Machinery/Instrument and Chemicals/

Material)

• Solvent (Mix 100ml of 95% aqueous ethyl alcohol with 100ml of diethyl
ether. Neutralize the solvent with 0.1N using phenolphthalein indicator).

• Potassium hydroxide, 0.1N

• Indicator dye (Dissolve 500mg phenolphthalein in 50ml 95% ethyl alcohol)

• Water bath

• Analytical balance
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 Practical Manual  7.2.3 Procedure
Food Fundamentals

• Transfer 10g accurately weighed sample of oil into 250ml Erlenmeyer

flask and add 50 ml of neutralized solvent. Add a few drops of
phenolphthalein indicator.

• Keep in water bath at 50°C for 15min with continuous agitation.

• When the content is properly mixed titrate the content against 0.1 KOH
until the appearing pink colour persists for 15 sec.

7.2.4 Observations

Parameters Sample number

1 2 3
Titre value, ml

7.2.5 Results

Calculate FFA content in terms of acid value using the formula given below.
Take the average of three values and report the results.

Titre value × Normality × 56.1 of KOH

Acid value =
Weight of the sample (g )

7.3 PRECAUTIONS

• Continuous agitation is required while titrating.

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