Computer Essential Concepts 1

Computer Essential Concepts

Computer Definitions

 Computer is an abbreviation for general-purpose stored-program electronic digital computer. It is

an electronic machine that performs tasks, such as mathematical calculations or electronic
communications, under the control of a set of instructions called program.
 A computer is an electronic device that accepts data so that useful information can be generated.
 Computer is a machine that can follow instructions to alter data in a desirable way and to
perform at least some operations without human intervention.
 According to Von Neumann1, a computer is a device that accepts input, processes data, stored
data, and produces output.

Elements of Computer Definition

1. A computer accepts inputs.

What kind of input can a computer use?

Computer input is whatever put into a computer system and can be supplied by a person, by the
environment, or by another computer. Examples of inputs are words and symbols in a document,
numbers, pictures, figures, temperature, audio signal, instruction, and others.

An input device gathers and translates input into a form that the computer can understand and
process like keyboard, mouse and others.

2. A computer processes data.

In what way can a computer process data?

Data refers to the symbols that represent facts and ideas. Computers manipulate data in many ways
like performing calculations, sorting lists of words or numbers, modifying documents, pictures,
drawings and graphs.

In the context of the computers, then, we can define process as a systematic series of actions that a
computer uses to manipulate data. A computer processes data in a device called the central
processing unit.

3. A computer stores data.

Why does a computer store data?

A computer must store data so that it will be available for processing. Computers typically have
more than one location for storing data, depending on how the data is being used. The computer
puts data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and in another place when it is not needed
for immediate processing.
1
Dr. John Von Neumann, an eminent mathematician, who wrote the plans for E DVAC – the fastest computing device in the
mid 1940s
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Memory is an area of a computer that holds data that is waiting to be process

Storage is the area where the data can be left on a permanent basis while it is not needed for
processing.

4. A computer produces output.

What kind of output does a computer produce?

Computer output is the results produces by a computer. Examples of computer output include
reports, documents, music, graphs, pictures, and others. An output device displays, prints, or
transmits the results of processing.

History of Computer

Man has invented three types of devices to assist him in calculating and processing data.

1. Manual-mechanical device – a simple mechanism powered by hand. This type of device

requires some sort of physical effort from the user when used.
e.g. abacus, slide rule, typewriter
2. Electro-mechanical device – usually powered by an electric motor and uses switches and
relays.
e.g. electrical household appliances
3. Electronic device – It has principal (printed) circuit board and solid-state components and
integrated circuit (IC).
e.g. computer, calculator

Earliest Computing Devices

The earliest data-processing devices were all manual-mechanical devices due to the absence of
electricity and adequate industrial technology.

1. Abacus – This is the first manual data processing device developed in China in the 12th century
A.D. Abacus comes from the Greek word “abax” meaning a frame, table or board. Physically,
this device is made of a frame with beads on strings. By manipulating the beads, you can
perform mathematical calculations.

Two reasons of abacus popularity: Simple and Effective

2. Babbage Analytical Engine – This machine was originated in the name of Charles Babbage, a
nineteenth century Englishman and considered as “Father of Modern Computer”. He owns this
credit due to the fact that his invention has similar concept to the twentieth century digital
computer.

Analytical Engine uses two types of cards:

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1. Operation Card - indicated the specific functions to be perform.

2. Variable Card – specify the actual data.

It is interesting to note that Augusta Ada Byron (Lady Lovelace), daughter of poet Lord George
Gordon Noel Byron, worked with Babbage. She wrote a demonstration program for Analytical
Engine and recognized as the first “First Computer Programmer”

Computer Generations2
Computer Generation refers to the major development in electronic data processing. Each generation of
computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, powerful and more efficient and reliable
devices.

First Generation: Vacuum Tube (1940 – 1956)

The major hardware characteristic of first-Generation computer is the use of Vacuum Tubes for the
internal computing operations; these devices were considerably faster than electromechanical devices
for processing data. Calculations could be performed in milliseconds.

Vacuum Tube was invented by John Fleming in 1904, a device designed to control the flow of electrical
current. It is composed of metal plates and wires scaled in a glass enclosure. It performs special tasks
such as receiving radio signals, amplifying sound, and switching electrical signals ON and OFF.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.

Second Generation: Transistor (1956 – 1963)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1974 by three American Physicists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, John Bardeen,
Walter H. Bratain, and William B. Shockley.

Transistors were being manufactured using a semiconductor material called Germanium. However,
germanium has a drawback that it broke down at a certain temperature and replaced by silicon. Second-
generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

2
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Third Generation: Integrated Circuit (1964 – 1970)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. The
concept behind integrated circuit is simple: An entire electrical circuit with numerous transistors, wires
and other electrical devices all built into a single square of silicon, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip like LSI (Large-scale integration). As a result, thousands of
transistors, diodes, and resistors were packed into a silicon chip less than 0.2-inch (5 mm.) square.
During the early 1980’s very large scale integration (VLSI) that holds hundreds of thousands of
electronic components increase the circuit density of microprocessor.

In 1981 IBM (International Business Machine) introduced its first computer for the home user, and in
1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. Indeed, among innovation in different areas of
computer technology are: multi-processing, multi-programming, time-sharing, operating speed, and
virtual storage.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though
there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation
and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The
goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.

The Basic of Computer System

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Components of Computer System

The electronic and mechanical devices that manipulate data are known as hardware. The term
“hardware” refers to the computer itself and to components called peripheral devices3 that expand the
computer’s input, output, and storage capabilities. Computer hardware itself does not provide a
particularly useful mind tool. To be useful, a computer requires a computer program, which is a set of
instruction that tells a computer how to perform a particular task. Software are collection of programs
and associated data that direct the computer to accomplish a task. Another component of computer
system is the person (personnel/user) who uses the computer. Computers can become even more
effective when connected to other computers so that people can share information.

How and why computers are categorizes?

Traditionally, computers have been classified into four categories that provide some indication of their
processing capabilities or “power”. The four categories, from least to most powerful, are
microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers. A computer is
placed in one of these categories based on its technology, function, physical size, performances, speed,
and cost.

 Microcomputer – is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. Another

general characteristic of these computers is that they occupy physically small amounts of space
when compared to mainframe and minicomputers and are typically found in homes and small
businesses.

Personal computers came on different sizes and shapes:

 Desktop computer
 Laptop computer
 Notebook computer (approximate shape of 8.5”X 11”)
 Palmtop computer (originally called Personal Digital Assistants [PDA] comes with
electronic pen that writes on a touch-sensitive screen)

 Minicomputer – (colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle
range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest mainframe computer and the smallest
single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers).

Minicomputer, include the classess of:

o Superminicomputer
o Minicluster (SFF / ITX)
o Server
o Workstation

3
The term peripheral devices are computer hardware parts that are not directly located to the motherboard.
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 Mainframes – (often colloquially referred to as Big Iron) are computers used mainly by large
organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing
such as census, industry and consumer statistics, ERP (Enterprise
Resource Planning), and financial transaction processing.

Nearly all mainframes have the ability to run (or host)

multiple operating systems, and thereby operate not as a single
computer but as a number of virtual machines. In this role, a
single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of
smaller servers.

Speed and performance

The CPU speed of mainframes has historically been

measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS). MIPS
have been used as an oversimplified comparative rating of the
speed and capacity of mainframes.

 Supercomputers –is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity,

particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers introduced in the 1960s were designed
primarily by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC), and led the market into the
1970s.
Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by
"traditional" companies such as Cray, IBM and Hewlett-Packard, who had purchased many of
the 1980s companies to gain their experience.

Supercomputer originally
designed for “compute-intensive”
tasks such as molecular modeling
(computing the structures and
properties of chemical compounds,
biological macromolecules, polymers,
and crystals), physical simulations
(such as simulation of airplanes in
wind tunnels, simulation of the
detonation of nuclear weapons, and
research into nuclear fusion), and
climate research and weather
prediction.
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Computer Hardware
The physical computer and its tangible components are known as hardware. In a computer
system, the hardware plays an important role to software, which is the real brain. Still, it’s important to
know about basic computer hardware. This lesson provides a quick overview, showing things you’ll find
on a PC that can be interesting and useful.

 Console: The main computer box is the console, although it may also be called the system unit
or the CPU (incorrect). The box contains your computer’s soul, its electronic parts. Outside of
the console are various buttons, lights, and holes into which you plug the rest of the computer
system.
 Monitor: The monitor is the device where the computer displays information —its output.
 Keyboard: It’s the thing you type on; it’s the primary input device used to communicate with
the computer.
 Mouse: An input device that lets you work with graphical objects displayed on the monitor.
 Speakers: An output device used as sound system of a pc.
 External hard drive: A drive is used to back up, or create a safety copy, of the important stuff
you store on your computer.
 Printer: It’s where you get the computer’s printed output, also called hard copy.

The Console Tour

Of all the computer hardware that makes up a computer system, the console is the most
important. All PC consoles feature the same basic hardware like CPU, hard drive, memory, CD-ROM,
motherboard but, there’s no typical computer console.

Figure on next page illustrates six common PC configurations, and the following list describes
them.
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 Mini-tower: The mini-tower is the most popular console type. It can sit on top of a desk; right
next to the monitor (refer to Figure).
 Desktop: Once the most popular type of console, the desktop PC sits flat on the desk. The
monitor usually squats on top of the console in the standard desktop configuration.
 Mini-desktop: The mini-desktop console is just too cute and tiny, about the size of a college
dictionary. That makes it ideal for places where space is tight, and where budgets are tight. The
downside is that this console is lack of internal expansion options.
 One PC: A popular and trendy computer design combines the console and monitor into a single
unit. From the front, the console looks like a monitor, though it’s thicker. On the sides, you find
the optical drive plus the variety of connectors and other peripherals.
 Tower: The tower console is essentially a taller version of the mini-tower. The bonus with the
tower is internal expansion options, making this type of console ideal for power-mad users. A
tower typically sits on the floor, located at one end of the table.
 Notebook/laptop: A special type of computer that folds into a handy, lightweight package, ideal
for travelers.

Choosing the proper PC configuration depends on your needs. Power users love the expandability of the
tower. Those on a budget may go for a mini desktop.
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Front Side of the Console

After many years, PC manufacturers discovered that it works best to put items on the front part of the
console.

 Optical drive: The computer’s primary removable storage media is the optical disc. The optical
drive reads optical discs, computer CDs, or DVDs, just like music CDs or movie DVDs.
 Future expansion: Most consoles feature blank spots. They may look interesting or useful, but
they’re not! They’re simply blanks that cover holes used for adding new features to your PC.
 Media card slots: These slots are used for reading common media cards, such as those used by
digital cameras or portable electronic gadget.
 Air vents: Air vents aren’t impressive, but they’re necessary. They keep the console cool by
helping air circulate inside. Don’t block the air vents with books or sticky notes!
 The secret panel: Whether it’s covered by a door or not, your PC most likely features a clutch
of various connectors somewhere on its front. On that area, you find places to connect joysticks,
microphones, headphones, digital video, or other handy gadget you may need to plug and unplug
from time to time.
 Buttons and lights: Most computer buttons are on the keyboard. A few of the more important
buttons are on the console, and are accompanied by many impressive, tiny lights. These buttons
and lights include:
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o Power button: It just turns the computer off or on.

o Reset button: Rare but still found on some consoles is a button that forces the computer
into a restart during times of program hang.
o Hard drive light: This wee light flashes when the PC’s primary storage media, the hard
drive, is being accessed.

Back Side of the Console

The console’s backside is its busy side. That is where you find various connectors for the many devices
in your computer system: a place to plug-in the monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers, and just about
anything else that came in the box with the PC, or which you might add later.

Use Figure below as a guide for finding important items on the back of your PC’s console. Note that
some things may look different and some may be missing because not every console is the same.
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 Power: the power connector is where you plug in the power cord. The other end plugs into the
wall.
 Fan: is where the air is sucked or blown out in the console. The purpose is to regulate the
temperature inside the system unit.
 Voltage switch: Use this switch to change power frequencies to match the specifications for
your country or region. (110 or 220 v)
 Expansion slots: These slots are available for adding new components on expansion cards to the
console and expanding your PC’s hardware. Any connectors on the expansion cards appear in
this area, such as the video connectors on a graphics adapter.
 Vents: To circulate the air, console today uses 2 or more fans. One is used as an exhaust fan and
the other is to suck the air.
 I/O panel: Aside from the power cord and anything attached to an expansion card, the rest of
your PC’s expansion options and plug-in-type things are located in a central area that called I/O
panel. Details of what you can find there are covered in the next section.

The I/O panel

The I/O panel is where you add various expansion options to the PC as well as plug in the standard
devices like keyboard, mouse, serial port, USB, etc.

Use Figure below as your guide for what’s in the I/O panel. The items you find on your PC’s I/O panel
may be labeled with text, or they may include the symbols. Keep in mind that the Figure below is only a
guide; your PC console may have a different I/O panel layout.

Details of I/O panel should be discussed later in this lesson…

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Looking Inside of the Console

Computer hardware includes system board where all electronic components are arranged and placed.

The Motherboard

A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in

some complex electronic systems, such as modern personal
computers. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively
known as the main board, system board, or, on Apple
computers, the logic board.

Integrated peripherals

With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated

circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining
many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly-
integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.

System Board Electronic Components

Processor (or Central Processing Unit) – a single tiny electronic chip, mounted on a plastic casing
with tiny metal wires attached to it that can be connected to the CPU-Socket or slot of the motherboard.
The central processing unit is the most important component inside the case, which is responsible for all
processing tasks completed by the computer. The CPU reads and writes data and instructions to and
from storage devices, and performs calculations and other processing data.

HOW THE CPU WORKS In order to perform its functions, the CPU contains three basic components:
input/output (I/O) unit, one or more arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control unit (CU). The
input/output (I/O) unit manages data and instructions entering and leaving the CPU. The control unit
manages all activities inside the CPU itself. The arithmetic logic unit does all comparisons and
calculations.

Memory – holds data and program instructions. Memory is sometimes called primary storage, but this
term is easily confused with disk storage. It is therefore preferable to use the term memory to refer to the
circuitry that has a direct link to the processor and use the term storage to refer to media, such as disk,
that are not directly linked to the processor.

There four major types of memory: random access memory, virtual memory, CMOS memory, and
read-only memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM) – also known as volatile memory. RAM is the primary type
of memory that holds temporary data, operating system and parts of running program. Any
information in RAM will be lost once the power is cut.

Virtual Memory – a method of using disk storage like hard drive to simulate RAM. Many
application programs, such as Microsoft Word, routinely use the disk instead of memory to store
 Computer Essential Concepts 13

some data or program instructions while you’re running the program. Data transferred to virtual
memory is stored in a file on hard drive called a swap file or paging file.

Data in virtual memory is not erased from the disk if the power fails, instead, the
instructions that direct the computer to the location or virtual memory stored in RAM.
Consequently, the computer cannot access virtual memory data even after power is restored.

Read-only Memory (ROM) – is one or more chips containing instructions that help a computer
prepare for processing tasks. The instructions in ROM are permanent and the only way to change
them is to remove the ROM chips and replace them with another set. You might wonder why a
computer includes chips with programs permanently stored in them. Why not use more adaptable
RAM?

The answer to this question is that, when you turn on your computer, the central
processing unit receives electrical power and is ready to begin executing instructions. By that
time RAM is empty – it doesn’t contain any instruction for CPU to execute. Now ROM plays its
part. ROM contains a small set of instructions called ROMBIOS (basic input/output system).
The instructions in the BIOS tell the computer how to access disk and other peripheral devices
(known as POST or Power on self test). The CPU also performs instructions specified by the
ROMBIOS to search the main operating system files. The computer can load these files into
RAM so they can be used during the remainder of computer session.

CMOS Memory (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) – a special chip that operates the
real time clock include on a motherboard and stores the basic system configuration, including the floppy
and hard disks types, amount of installed memory, and wait state settings. These settings are retained
while the computer is off with only nominal battery support.