UNDERSTANDING DATA AND

WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECT DATA
Content standard
▪ The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. Quantitative research designs;
2. Description of sample;
3. Instrument development;
4. Description of intervention (if applicable)
5. Data collection and analysis procedures such as survey,
interview, and observation;
6. Guidelines in writing research methodology
Performance standard
▪ The learner is able to describe adequately quantitative

research designs, sample, instrument used, intervention (if

applicable)
 Learning competencies
▪ The learner:
1. Chooses appropriate quantitative research design CS_RS12-Iia-c-1
2. Describes sampling procedure and the sample CS_RS12-Iia-c-2
3. Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
CS_RS12-Iia-c-3
4. Describes intervention (if applicable) CS_RS12-Iia-c-4
5. Plans data collection procedure CS_RS12-Iia-c-5
6. Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if
appropriate) CS_RS12-Iia-c-6
7. Presents written research methodology CS_RS12-Iia-c-7
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ The overall plan and scheme for conducting the study.

▪ Types:

1. historical

2. descriptive

3. experimental
SAMPLING

▪ Process of selecting and getting the respondents of

the study with the minimum cost such that resulting

observations will be representative of the entire
population.
SAMPLING

▪ Process of selecting and getting the respondents of

the study with the minimum cost such that resulting

observations will be representative of the entire
population.
INSTRUMENT

▪ Data gathering devices that will be used in the study.

▪ It is a testing device for measuring a given

phenomenon, such as paper pencil test,
questionnaires, interviews, research tools or set of
guidelines for observation.
INSTRUMENT

▪ CHARACTERISTICS:

- usability

- validity

- reliability
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

- The purpose is to describe the status of an identified

variable such as events, people or subjects as they
exist.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ DECRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

▪ It usually makes some type of comparison contrasts and

correlation and sometimes, in carefully planned and

orchestrated descriptive researches, cause-effect
relationships may be established to some extent.
SAMPLE DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design

The study utilizes the correlational descriptive design as a method of gathering

data.

Correlational design is helpful in understanding and assessing the relationships

between the variables without the researcher identifying the causes or reasons behind it

(Harcourt, 2016). It is a way to test the assumed relationships between variables and

make a prediction with it. Also, it can be used to assess relationship in everyday life

situations (Stangor, 2011).

On the other hand, Descriptive design is used to describe the nature and

characteristics of a population (Polit & Hungler, 1999). It is used to understand current

state of affairs and gives the researchers a complete illustration of what is really

happening in our present time. Additionally, it allows the researchers to develop questions

for further study about the topic (Stangor, 2011).

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE SURVEYS

- describe trends in a large population of individuals

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE SURVEYS

▪ Survey designs are procedures in which you

administer a survey questionnaire to a small group of
people to identify trends in attitudes, opinions,
behaviors or characteristics of a large group of
people.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH STUDIES

- To estimate the extent to which different variables are

related to one another in the population of interest,
make use of correlational research.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH STUDIES

▪ Elements: identification of variables of interest, group

of subjects or respondents where the variables will be

applied and estimation procedure to determine the
extent of relationships.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATIVE STUDIES

▪ The purpose is to judge the “goodness of a criterion measure”

▪ Longitudinal studies establish the changes in that criterion measure

over along period of time.

▪ Cross-sectional studies are designed to evaluate changes over time

by comparing at the same point in time, different people representing

different stages in the development.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ ASSESSMENT EVALUATION STUDIES

- It attempts to determine the effectiveness or efficiency of

certain practices or policies when applied to a group of
respondents.

- Assessment and evaluation always go together for one

cannot make judgment without basis for such.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ ASSESSMENT EVALUATION STUDIES

- It imply measurement of certain key indicators without

attaching any judgment to them. However, evaluation implies
putting judgment and valuing to the measurements obtained
and is therefore at a much deeper level than assessment.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE STUDIES

- Its endeavor is to establish significant differences

between two or more groups of subjects on the basis
of a criterion measure. No attempts to control the
effects of extraneous factors are made.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

- It is used to establish an initial understanding and

background information about a research study of
interest, often with very few or no earlier related
studies found relevant to the research study.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

- It is described as an informal or unstructured way of

investigating available sources.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

- It is used to measure the impact that an independent variable

(causing effect) has on another variable (being affected) or
why certain results are obtained.

- It can help businesses determine how decisions may affect

operations.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

- It also known as longitudinal or repeated-measures studies

for obvious reasons.

- It uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect

relationship among a group of variables that make up a
study.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

▪ TRUE EXPERIMENT – any study where an effort is made to

identify and impose control over all other variables except one.

▪ INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – manipulated to determine the

effects on the dependent variables

▪ EXPERIMENTAL GROUP – the group that receives the

treatment.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design

- It requires two groups of equivalent standing in terms of a criterion

measure. The first group is designated as the control group while the
second group is the experimental group. Both groups are given the
same pretest. The control group is not subjected to a treatment while the
experimental group is given the treatment factor. After the experimental
period, both groups are again given the same posttest.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design

▪ Threats:

1. Maturation – aging of the subjects from the pretest to the posttest period

2. Test-wiseness – memorizing the contents of the pretest to score high

score on the posttest

3. Natural Attrition – death of subjects or drop-outs from the experiment

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ Single Group Pre-test Post-test Design

- In experimental conditions where a limited number of subjects are

available. The group is first given a pretest followed by the usual

treatment and then a posttest is administered.

- Threats to internal validity: Hawthorne effect (test-wiseness)

maturation and attrition.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN

- Makes use of four equivalent groups. The first two groups

follow the pretest-posttest control group design. The third
group is given no pretest with treatment and post test. The
last group is given no pretest, no treatment but with posttest.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN

- This design eliminates the Hawthorne effect, effects

of maturation and attrition but has the main
disadvantages requiring a large number of
respondents
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
1. History
2. Maturation
3. Testing
4. Mortality
5. Interaction effects
6. Measuring instruments
7. Statistical regression
8. Differential selection
9. John Henry Effect
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN

- The purpose is to collect, verify and synthesize

evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or
refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and
a variety of primary documentary evidence such as
logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
▪ MAJOR PROCESSES OF HISTORICAL RESESRCH

- Data collection

- Analysis of data

- Report of findings
SAMPLING PLAN, DESIGNS &
TECHNIQUES
▪ SAMPLING

- the process of getting information from a proper

subset of population.
SAMPLING PLAN, DESIGNS &
TECHNIQUES
▪ SAMPLING PLAN

- the fundamental purpose is to describe the population

characteristics through the values obtained from a sample as
accurately as possible. It should designed in such a way that the
resulting data will contain representative sample of the parameters
interest and allow of all questions, as stated in the research
objectives to be answered.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A
SAMPLING PLAN
1. Identify the parameters to be measured, the range of possible
values, and the required resolution.

2. Design a sampling scheme that details how and when samples

will be taken.

3. Select sample sizes

4. Design data storage formats

5. Assign roles and responsibilities

SLOVIN’S FORMULA

▪ Used to determine the sample size

▪n = N/ (1+ Ne2)

N = population size

e = error balance
SLOVIN’S FORMULA
▪ POPULATION (N) – consists of members of a group that a

researcher is interested in studying the members of a group

that usually have common or similar characteristics

▪ MARGIN OF ERROR (e) – the allowable error margin in

research. A confidence interval of 95% gives a margin of

error of 5%; a 98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99%
confidence interval gives a 1% margin of error.
TYPES OF SAMPLING

▪ Probability or Unbiased Sampling

▪ Non-Probability Sampling
TYPES OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
▪ SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING –the best type of
probability sampling through which you can choose
sample from a population.

▪ SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING – chance and system are

the ones to determine who should compose the
sample.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
▪ STRATIFIED SAMPLING – the group comprising the
sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to
subdivision during the data analysis stage.

▪ CLUSTER SAMPLING – makes you isolate a set of

persons instead of individual members to serve a
sample members.
TYPES OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
▪ QUOTA SAMPLING – when you know the
characteristics of the target population very well. In
this case, you tend to choose sample members
processing or indicating the characteristics of the
target population.
TYPES OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
▪ VOLUNTARY SAMPLING – the subjects that you

expect to participate in the sample selection are the

ones volunteering to constitute the sample, there is
no need for you to do a selection process.
TYPES OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
▪ PURPOSIVE OR JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING – you

choose people whom you are sure could correspond

to the objectives of your study, like selecting those
with rich experience or interest in your study.
TYPES OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
▪ AVAILABILITY SAMPLING – the willingness of a

person as your subject interact with your counts a lot.

TYPES OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
▪ SNOWBALL SAMPLING – it does not give a specific set

of samples. This is true for a study involving unspecified

group of people. Free to obtain data from any group just
like snow freely expanding and accumulating at a certain
place, you tend to increase the number of people you
want to form the sample of your study (Harding 2013).
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
▪ VALIDITY – degree to which a test measures what it claims
or purports to be measuring

▪ WAYS TO ASSESS VALIDITY:

▪ FACE VALIDITY – superficial or subjective assessment; the

instrument appears to measure the construct or variable that
the research study is supposed to measure.
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
▪ CONTENT VALIDITY – most often measured by experts or

people who are familiar with the construct being measured.

▪ CONCURRECT VALIDITY – measures how well the results

of an evaluation or assessment correlate with other

assessments measuring the same variables or constructs.
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

▪ PREDICTIVE VALIDITY – this measures how well the results

of an assessment can predict a relationship between the
construct being measured and future behavior.

▪ CONSTRUCT VALIDITY – concerned with the extent to

which a measure is related to other measures as specified in
a theory or previous research.
ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
▪ RELIABILITY – indicates the accuracy or precision of the

measuring instrument.

▪ WAYS TO ASSESS RELIABILITY

▪ TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY –simplest, the same test is

administered twice and correlation between the two sets of

scores is computed
ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

▪ SPLIT-HALF METHOD – also called equivalent or parallel

forms, in this method two different tests covering the same

topics are used and the correlation between the two sets of
scores is calculated.
ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY
OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

▪ INTERNAL CONSISTENCY – this method is used in

assessing reliability of questions measured on an interval or

ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a single form
of test administered on a single occasion.
DESIGNING THE
QUESTIONNAIRE
▪ STEPS:
1. Background
2. Questionnaire Conceptualization
3. Establish the Validity of Questionnaire
4. Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire
5. Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire
6. Revise the Questionnaire
EVALUATION
1. It refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting the study.
a. Sampling c. Research Design
b. Instruments d. None of these

2. Alex wants to conduct a research study about the “Effectiveness of School Rules
and Policies among the selected students of Tanza National Comprehensive High
School”. What quantitative research design should he use?
a. Evaluation c. Descriptive
b. Correlational d. None of these
EVALUATION
3. Sidney wants to conduct a research study about the “Relationship of Academic
Stress to the Academic Performance of the Grade 12 Students of Tanza National
Comprehensive High School”. What quantitative research design she should use?
a. Descriptive c. Correlational
b. Evaluation d. None of these

4. Evan wants to conduct a research study about the “Comparison of Academic

Performance and Level of Anxiety of Working and Non-working Senior High
School Students of Tanza National Comprehensive High School.” What
quantitative research design he should use?
a. Evaluation c. Descriptive
b. Correlational d. Comparative
EVALUATION
5. Which of the following refers to the group that do not receive the treatment being
studied?
a. Experimental c. Isolated
b. Control d. None of these

6. It is also known as “the man on the street” interviews conducted frequently by

television news program to get quick reading of public opinion.
a. Accidental c. Purposive
b. Quota d. None of these
EVALUATION
7. A kind of research design that is used when the researcher intends to provide a
quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by
studying a sample of that population is
a. comparative c. ex-post facto
b. correlational d. survey

8. A quantitative research design that is used to gather information on current situations

and conditions and provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where and
the how of a particular research study is
a. descriptive research design c. exploratory research design
b. causal research design d. ex-post facto research design
EVALUATION
9. It is a quantitative research design that is used to gather information on current
situations and conditions and provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where and the how of a particular research study.
a. Causal c. Exploratory
b. Descriptive d. Ex-post facto

10. Which research design is appropriate for the study “The Effect of Computer-
Assisted Instruction on Students’ Achievement in Mathematics”?
a. Exploratory research design c. Descriptive research design
b. Qualitative research design d. Causal research design
EVALUATION
1. Kyle wishes to ensure that she has equal numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors in
her sample. She separates the population into subpopulations according to class rank and draws
random samples from each subpopulation. Kyle has engaged in ___________ sampling.
a. Convenience c. Replacement
b. Non-random d. Stratified random

2. Which of the following is a good strategy to increase the representativeness of a sample?

a. Increase the sample size
b. Decrease the sample size
c. Use convenience sampling
d. Use random sampling without replacement
EVALUATION
3. It is used to calculate the sample size when you need to determine how respondents
will be needed to represent a given population in a research study.
a. Sample mean c. Standard deviation
b. Slovin’s formula d. Weighted mean

4. Bernadyn and Erika want to conduct a survey to science high school students on
testing the functionality, reliability, usability of their research entitled DATA: Digital
Access to Abstracts in 2018 Scientific Research. How many samples will they need if
the population of the school is 1000 using a margin of error of 5%?
a. 300 c. 248
b. 275 d. 286
EVALUATION
5. Which of the following refers to the process of selecting and getting the respondents
of the study such that resulting observation will be representative of the entire
population?
a. Instruments c. Method
b. Sampling d. None of these

6. This sampling technique means that you choose every “nth” participant from a
complete list. For example, you could choose every 10th person listed.
a. Cluster c. Stratified Random
b. Systematic d. Simple Random
EVALUATION
7. What sampling technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty in locating
members of a population?
a. Snowball sampling c. Quota sampling
b. Purposive sampling d. Cluster sampling

8. Which of the following is not a reason for using samples?

a. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census.
b. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete
census.
c. A sample allows less attention to be given to a number of elements.
d. Some research studies may only be performed on a sample of items.
EVALUATION
9. Jane grouped her population according to age before getting her samples. What
sampling procedure did she use?
a. Simple random sampling c. Cluster sampling
b. Stratified random sampling d. Convenience sampling

10. What should be the sample size for a population of 35 000 if the confidence interval
is 95%?
a. 31 588 c. 395
b. 33 250 d. 1750
REFERENCES
Prieto, N. G., Naval, V. C. and Carey, T. G. (2017). Practical
Research 2 for Senior High School Quantitative.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
Tavares, Alyzza Marie A. et al. “Proficiency in English
Language and Academic Achievement of Grade 10
Students in Naic National High School.”(Quantitative
Research, Naic National High School, 2018).