Lecture Notes

UNIT – 3
2023
CEES303-Engineering
Mechanics

Prepared by
Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Annamalai University
November-2023
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Unit - 3
Friction covering, Types of friction, Limiting friction, Laws of
Friction, Static and Dynamic Friction; Motion of Bodies, wedge
friction, screw jack & differential screw jack.

Virtual Work and Energy Method- Virtual displacements,

principle of virtual work for particle and ideal system of rigid
bodies, degrees of freedom. Active force diagram, systems with
friction, mechanical efficiency. Conservative forces and potential
energy (elastic and gravitational), energy equation for equilibrium.
Applications of energy method for equilibrium. Stability of
equilibrium.

Reference for the preparation of course material:

1. F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston (2011), Vector Mechanics for Engineers,

Vol I - Statics, Vol II, – Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Khurmi R.S. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, S. Chand & Co.
3. J.L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige, Engineering Mechanics –Statics, volume I,
Seventh edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

TEXT BOOKS
1. Irving H. Shames (2006), Engineering Mechanics, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall
2. F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston (2011), Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Vol I -
Statics, Vol II, – Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill

REFERENCES
1. R. C. Hibbler (2006), Engineering Mechanics: Principles of Statics and Dynamics,
Pearson Press.
2. Khurmi R.S. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, S. Chand & Co.

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 2
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Unit - 3
Friction Force, Virtual Work and Energy Method of Rigid Bodies

FRICTION:
A force that resist the movement of two contacting surfaces that slide relative to
one other is known as friction force or friction. This force always acts tangent to the
surface at the point of contact and is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing
motion between the surfaces.

In some types of machines and processes, this want to minimize the retarding
effect of friction forces. Examples are bearings of all types, power screws, gears, the
flow of fluids in pipes, and the propulsion of aircraft and missiles through the
atmosphere. In other situations this to maximize the effects of friction, as in brakes,
clutches, belt drives, and wedges. Wheeled vehicles depend on friction for both starting
and stopping, and ordinary walking depends on friction between the shoe and the
ground.

Friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all machines no matter
how accurately constructed or carefully lubricated. A machine or process in which
friction is small enough to be neglected is said to be ideal. When friction must be taken
into account, the machine or process is termed real. In all cases where there is sliding
motion between parts, the friction forces result in a loss of energy which is dissipated
in the form of heat. Wear is another effect of friction.

TYPES OF FRICTION;
The types of frictional resistance encountered in mechanics are

a) Dry Friction:
Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in
contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction force

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
tangent to the surfaces of contact occurs both during the interval leading up
to impending slippage and while slippage takes place. The direction of this
friction force always opposes the motion or impending motion. This type of
friction is also called Coulomb friction. The principles of dry or Coulomb
friction were developed largely from the experiments of Coulomb in 1781
and from the work of Morin from 1831 to 1834. Although we do not yet have
a comprehensive theory of dry friction. This dry friction is followed as
i) Static friction:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is rest or it is the
friction when the body tends to move.
ii) Dynamic friction:
It is the friction experience by a body when it is in motion. It is
also called kinetic friction. The dynamic friction is of the following two
types;
1) Sliding friction:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over
another body.
2) Rolling friction:

It is the friction, experienced by a body when it rolls over

another.

b) Fluid Friction:

Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas) are
moving at different velocities. This motion causes frictional forces between fluid
elements, and these forces depend on the relative velocity between layers. When
there is no relative velocity, there is no fluid friction. Fluid friction depends not
only on the velocity gradients within the fluid but also on the viscosity of the
fluid, which is a measure of its resistance to shearing action between fluid layers.
Fluid friction is treated in the study of fluid mechanics and will not be discussed
here.

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
c) Internal Friction:

Internal friction occurs in all solid materials which are subjected to

cyclical loading. For highly elastic materials the recovery from deformation
occurs with very little loss of energy due to internal friction. For materials which
have low limits of elasticity and which undergo appreciable plastic deformation
during loading, a considerable amount of internal friction may accompany this
deformation. The mechanism of internal friction is associated with the action of
shear deformation, which is discussed in references on materials science.

LIMITING FRICTION:
It has been observed that when a body, lying over another body, is gently pushed,
it does not move because of the frictional force, which prevents the motion. It shows
that the force of the hand is being exactly balanced by the force of friction, acting in the
opposite direction. If again push the body, a little harder, it is still found to be in
equilibrium. It shows that the force of friction has increased itself so as to become equal
and opposite to the applied force. Thus the force of friction has a remarkable property
of adjusting its magnitude, so as to become exactly equal and opposite to the applied
force, which tends to produce motion. There is, however, a limit beyond which the force
of friction cannot increase. If the applied force exceeds this limit, the force of friction
cannot balance it and the body begins to move, in the direction of the applied force.
This maximum value of frictional force, which comes into play, when a body just begins
to slide over the surface of the other body, is known as limiting friction. It may be noted
that when the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest,
and the friction is called static friction, which may have any value between zero and
limiting friction.

LAWS OF FRICTION
Prof. Coulomb, after extensive experiments, gave some laws of friction, which
may be grouped under the following heads :

1. Laws of static friction, and

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
2. Laws of kinetic or dynamic friction.

LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION

Following are the laws of static friction as

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which

the body tends to move, if the force of friction would have been absent.

2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force,

which tends to move the body.

3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the

normal reaction between the two surfaces. Mathematically:

F
 Cons tan t ------- (3.1)
R

Where, F = Limiting friction, and

R = Normal reaction.

4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the

two surfaces.

5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION:

Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction as

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which

the body is moving.

2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal

reaction between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that
in case of limiting friction.

3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it

decreases slightly with the increase of speed.

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MECHANISM OF DRY FRICTION:

Consider a solid block of mass ‘m’ resting on a horizontal surface, as shown in
Fig.3.1 (a). Assume that the contacting surfaces have some roughness. The experiment
involves the application of a horizontal force ‘P’ which continuously increases from
zero to a value sufficient to move the block and give it an appreciable velocity. The
free-body diagram of the block for any value of ‘P’ is shown in Fig.3.1 (b), where the
tangential friction force exerted by the plane on the block is labelled ‘F’. This friction
force acting on the body will always be in a direction to oppose motion or the tendency
toward motion of the body. There is also a normal force N which in this case equals
‘mg’ and the total force ‘R’ exerted by the supporting surface on the block is the
resultant of ‘N’ and ‘F’.

A magnified view of the irregularities of the mating surfaces, Fig.3.2 (c), helps
us to visualize the mechanical action of friction. Support is necessarily intermittent and
exists at the mating humps. The direction of each of the reactions on the block, R1, R2,
R3, etc., depends not only on the geometric profile of the irregularities but also on the
extent of local deformation at each contact point. The total normal force ‘N’ is the sum
of the n-components of the R's, and the total frictional force ‘F’ is the sum of the t-
components of the R's. When the surfaces are in relative motion, the contacts are more
nearly along the tops of the humps, and the t-components of the R's are smaller than
when the surfaces are at rest relative to one another. This observation helps to explain
the well-known fact that the force ‘P’ necessary to maintain motion is generally less
than that required to start the block when the irregularities are more nearly in mesh.

If perform the experiment and record the friction force ‘F’ as a function of ‘P’,
then obtain the relation shown in Fig.3.1 (d). When ‘P’ is zero, equilibrium requires that
there be no friction force. As ‘P’ is increased, the friction force must be equal and
opposite of ‘P’ as long as the block does not slip. During this period the block is in
equilibrium, and all forces acting on the block must satisfy the equilibrium equations.
Finally, it reach a value of ‘P’ which causes the block to slip and to move in the direction
of the applied force. At this same time the friction force decreases slightly and abruptly.

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It then remains essentially constant for a time but then decreases still more as the
velocity increases.

Fig.3.1 Mechanism of dry friction

Static Friction:
The region in Fig.3.1 (d) up to the point of slippage or impending motion is called
the range of static friction, and in this range the value of the friction force is determined
by the equations of equilibrium. This friction force may have any value from zero up to
and including the maximum value. For a given pair of mating surfaces the experiment
shows that this maximum value of static friction Fmax is proportional to the normal force
‘N’. Thus, we may write

Fmax   S N ------------ (3.2)

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
Where  k s is the proportionality constant, called the coefficient of static
friction.

Be aware that Eqn. 3.2 describes only the limiting or maximum value of the static
friction force and not any lesser value. Thus, the equation applies only to cases where
motion is impending with the friction force at its peak value. For a condition of static
equilibrium when motion is not impending, the static friction force is

F  S N ------------ (3.3)

KINETIC / DYNAMIC FRICTION:

After slippage occurs, a condition of kinetic friction accompanies the ensuing
motion. Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction
force. The kinetic friction force Fk is also proportional to the normal force. Thus,

Fk   k N ------------ (3.4)

Where  k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. It follows that  k is generally

less than  S · As the velocity of the block increases, the kinetic friction decreases
somewhat, and at high velocities, this decrease may be significant. Coefficients of
friction depend greatly on the exact condition of the surfaces, as well as on the relative
velocity, and are subject to considerable uncertainty.

Because of the variability of the conditions governing the action of friction, in

engineering practice it is frequently difficult to distinguish between a static and a kinetic
coefficient, especially in the region of transition between impending motion and
motion. Well-greased screw threads under mild loads, for example, often exhibit
comparable frictional resistance whether they are on the verge of turning or whether
they are in motion.

In the engineering literature it frequently find expressions for maximum static

friction and for kinetic friction written simply as F  N . It is understood from the
problem at hand whether maximum static friction or kinetic friction is described.
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Although it will frequently distinguish between the static and kinetic coefficients, in
other cases no distinction will be made, and the friction coefficient will be written
simply as  . In those cases it must decide which of the friction conditions, maximum
static friction for impending motion or kinetic friction, is involved. It emphasizes again
that many problems involve a static friction force which is less than the maximum value
at impending motion, and therefore under these conditions the friction relation Eqn.3.2
cannot be used.

Fig.3.1 (c) shows that rough surfaces are more likely to have larger angles
between the reactions and the n-direction than are smoother surfaces. Thus, for a pair
of mating surfaces, a friction coefficient reflects the roughness, which is a geometric
property of the surfaces. With this geometric model of friction, it describes mating
surfaces as "smooth" when the friction forces they can support are negligibly small. It
is meaningless to speak of a coefficient of friction for a single surface.

FRICTION ANGLES:
The direction of the resultant ‘R’ in Fig.3.1 (b) measured from the direction of
F
‘N’ is specified by tan   . When the friction force reaches its limiting static value
N
Fmax, the angle  reaches a maximum value S, Thus,

tan  S   S ---------- (3.5)

When slippage is occurring, the angle  has a value  k corresponding to the

kinetic friction force. In like manner,

tan  k   k ---------- (3.6)

In practice it often see the expression tan    , in which the coefficient of

friction may refer to either the static or the kinetic case, depending on the particular
problem. The angle S is called the angle of static friction, and the angle k is called the
angle of kinetic friction. The friction angle for each case clearly defines the limiting

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direction of the total reaction ‘R’ between two contacting surfaces. If motion is
impending, ‘R’ must be one element of a right-circular cone of vertex angle 2s, as
shown in Fig.3.2. If motion is not impending, ‘R’ is within the cone. This cone of vertex
angle 2s is called the cone of static friction and represents the locus of possible
directions for the reaction ‘R’ at impending motion. If motion occurs, the angle of
kinetic friction applies, and the reaction must lie on the surface of a slightly different
cone of vertex angle 2k. This cone is the cone of kinetic friction.

Fig.3.2 Friction angles

Angle of limiting friction:

The angle of limiting friction may be defined as the angle between the resultant
reaction and the normal to the plane on which the motion of the body is impending.

Angle of repose:
It is well known that when grains (food grain, soil, sand etc.) are heaped, there
exists a limit for the inclination of the surface. Beyond this limiting inclinations the
grains start rolling down. This limiting angle up to which the grains repose (slip) is
called the angle of repose.

Consider the block of weight ‘W’ resting on an inclined plane which makes an
angle  with the horizontal as shown in fig.3.3 when  is small the block will rest on

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the plane. If  is increased gradually a stage is reached at which the block start sliding
down the plane. The angle  for which motion is impending is called the angle of
repose. Thus the maximum inclination of the plane on which a body, free from external
forces can repose (sleep) is called Angle of repose.

N


Fig.3.3 Angle of repose

Consider the equilibrium of the block shown in fig.3.3. Since the surface of
contact is not smooth, not only normal reaction, but frictional force also develops. Since
the body tends to slide downward, the frictional force will be up the plane.

Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives

N  W cos  --------- (3.7)

Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives

F  W sin  --------- (3.8)

Dividing eqn. by eqn. we get,

F
tan   --------- (3.9)
N

If  is the value of  when motion is impending frictional force will be limiting

friction and hence

F
tan      tan  or --------- (3.10)
N
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Therefore,   

Thus the value of angle of repose is same as the value of limiting angle of repose.

Factors Affecting Friction:

 The friction force is essentially independent of the apparent or projected area of

contact.
 The true contact area is much smaller than the projected value, since only the peaks
of the contacting surface irregularities support the load.
 Even relatively small normal loads result in high stresses at these contact points.
 As the normal force increases, the true contact area also increases as the material
undergoes yielding, crushing, or tearing at the points of contact.
 Dry friction are the generation of high local temperatures and adhesion at contact
points, relative hardness of mating surfaces, and the presence of thin surface films
of oxide, oil, dirt, or other substances.

TYPES OF FR ICTION PROBLEMS:

Now recognize the following three types of problems encountered in
applications involving dry friction. The first step in solving a friction problem is to
identify its type.

1. In the first type of problem, the condition of impending motion is known to

exist. Here a body which is in equilibrium is on the verge of slipping, and the friction
force equals the limiting static friction Fmax   S N . The equations of equilibrium also
hold.

2. In the second type of problem, neither the condition of impending motion nor
the condition of motion is known to exist. To determine the actual friction conditions,
in this first assume static equilibrium and then solve for the friction force ‘F’ necessary
for equilibrium. Three outcomes are possible:

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(a) F  Fmax   S N  : Here the friction force necessary for equilibrium can be
supported, and therefore the body is in static equilibrium as assumed. This
emphasize that the actual friction force ‘F’ is less than the limiting value Fmax
given by Eqn.3.2 and that F is determined solely by the equations of equilibrium.

(b) F  Fmax   S N  : Since the friction force ‘F’ is at its maximum value Fmax
motion impends, as discussed in problem type (1). The assumption of static
equilibrium is valid.

(c) F  Fmax   S N  : Clearly this condition is impossible, because the surfaces

cannot support more force than the maximum  S N . The assumption of
equilibrium is therefore invalid, and motion occurs. The friction force F is equal
to  k N from Eqn. 3.4.

3. In the third type of problem, relative motion is known to exist between the
contacting surfaces, and thus the kinetic coefficient of friction clearly applies. For this
problem type, Eqn.3.4 always gives the kinetic friction force directly.

Problems:
SP3.1: Block A weighing 1000N rests over block B which weighs 2000N as shown in
fig.3.4 Block A is tied to wall with a horizontal string. If the coefficient of friction
between blocks A and B is 0.25 and between B and floor is 1/3 what should be the value
of P to move the block (B), if 1) P is horizontal and 2) F acts at 30o upwards to
horizontal?

P
B

Fig.3.4

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Solution:

a) Find the value of P, if that force is horizontal

T
WA = A
1000N

F1
N1
F1

P
B WB = 2000N

F2

N2

Fig.3.4a

The free body diagrams of the two blocks are shown in above figure. It may be
noted that the frictional forces F1 and F2 are to be marked in the opposite directions of
impending relative motion. Considering the block A, then the equilibrium equations of
vertical,

 Fy  0 , N1  WA  0 ,  N1  1000 N

Since F1 is limiting friction,

F1 F
   0.25 ,  1  0.25
N1 1000

F1  250 N

The equilibrium equations of horizontal,

 Fx  0 ,  F1  T  0 ,  T  250 N

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Now considering the block B, then the equilibrium equations of vertical,

 Fy  0 , N 2  WB  N1  0 ,  N 2  2000  1000  3000 N

Since F2 is limiting friction,

F2 1 F 1
 ,  2 
N2 3 3000 3

F2  1000 N

The equilibrium equations of horizontal,

 Fx  0 ,  P  F1  F2  0 ,  P  250  1000  1250N

P=1250N

b) Find the value of P, if that force is inclined at 30o to horizontal

T
WA = A
1000N

F1
N1
F1
P

30o
B
WB = 2000N

F2

N2

Fig.3.4b

The free body diagrams of the two blocks are shown in above figure. It may
be noted that the frictional forces F1 and F2 are to be marked in the opposite

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directions of impending relative motion. Considering the block A, then the
equilibrium equations of vertical,

 Fy  0 , N1  WA  0 ,  N1  1000 N

Since F1 is limiting friction,

F1 F
   0.25 ,  1  0.25
N1 1000

F1  250 N

The equilibrium equations of horizontal,

 Fx  0 ,  F1  T  0 ,  T  250 N

Now considering the block B, then the equilibrium equations of vertical,

 Fy  0 , N 2  W B  N 1  P sin 30 o  0 ,

 N 2  0.5 P  2000  1000 ,  N 2  0.5 P  3000

 N 2  3000  0.5 P

Since F2 is limiting friction,

F2 1 F2 1
 ,  
N2 3 3000  0.5P  3

F2 
1
3000  0.5P   1000  0.5 P
3 3

The equilibrium equations of horizontal,

 Fx  0 ,  P cos 30 o  F1  F2  0 ,

 0 .5 
 P cos 30 o  250  1000  P  0
 3 

 0 .5 
 P cos 30 o    1250
 3 

P=1210.43N

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SP3.2: What is the maximum load (W) which a force P equal to 5 kN will hold up if
the coefficient of friction at C is 0.2 in the arrangement as shown in fig.3.5. Neglect
other friction and weight of the member. If W is 3 kN and P is 4.5 kN what are the
normal and tangential forces transmitted at C?

P
1m 0.5 m

B
A
50 mm
75 mm

Fig.3.5

Solution:

The force P is 5 kN and The coefficient of friction at C is 0.2 ()

a) Find maximum load W:

P
1m 0.5 m

RAy C

B
RAy
RCy

Fig.3.5a

Taking moment about A of beam AB, then

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 M A  0 ,  RCy  d AC  P  d AB  0

 RCy  (1)  5  (1.5)  0

 RCy  5  (1.5)  7.5kN

RCy
F

50 mm
75 mm

Fig.3.5b

Now consider Pulley, the limiting friction of pulley as

F
   0.2
Rcy

F  0.2  7.5  1.5kN

Now taking moments about the centre of the pulley,

 M Pulley Centre  0 ,  W  (0.5)  F  (0.75)  0

 W  (0.5)  1.5  (0.75)  0

 W  2.25kN

b) Normal and tangential forces transmitted at C:

Now consider a weight W equal to 3 kN suspended from the pulley and a force
P equal to 4.5 kN applied at B.

Let Rcy is Normal force or normal reaction at C and

F is Tangential force at C
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Again consider equilibrium of the beam. Taking moments about the hinge A and
equating the same

 M A  0 ,  RCy  d AC  P  d AB  0

 RCy  (1)  4.5  (1.5)  0

 RCy  4.5  (1.5)  6.75 kN

We know that the tangential force at C will be the frictional force between the
pulley and beam. Again taking moments about the centre of the pulley and equating the
same.

 M Pulley Centre  0 ,  F  (0.75)  W  (0.5)  0

0.5 0.5
 F W ( )  3  2kN
0.75 0.75

SP3.3: What should be the value of  as shown in fig.3.6. If that will make the motion
of 900N block the plane to impend? The coefficient of friction for all contact surfaces
is 1/3.

300N

900N

Fig.3.6

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Solution:

300N

 90o - 

900N
N F2
1
F1
F2

N2

Fig.3.6a

The free body diagram of the block is as shown in figure above. The block has
9000 N is on the verge of moving downward. Hence the frictional forces F1 and F2 act
up on the plane on 900N block.

Considered the equilibrium equations of normal to the plane for the block has
300N as

 Forces normal to plane  0 , then

N 1  300 cos   0 --------- (1)

From the law of friction,

F1 1 1 1
   ,  F1  N 1  300 cos 
N1 3 3 3

 F1  100 cos  --------- (2)

Considered the equilibrium equations of normal to the plane for the block has
900N as

 Forces normal to plane  0 , then

N 2  N 1  900 cos   0

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N 2  300 cos   900 cos   1200 cos  --------- (3)

From the law of friction,

F2 1 1 1
   ,  F2  N 2  1200 cos 
N2 3 3 3

 F2  400 cos  -------- (4)

The equilibrium equations of parallel to the plane for the block has 900N as

F1  F2  900 sin   0

100 cos   400 cos   900 sin 

500 cos   900 sin 

500 5
tan   
900 9

5
  tan 1    29.05 o
9

SP3.4: What is the value of P in the system as shown in fig.3.7 to cause the motion of
500 N block to the right side? Assume the pulley is smooth and the coefficient of friction
between other contact surfaces is 0.20.

P
30o
500N

o
60

Fig.3.7
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Solution:

750N T
o
60 o
60

N1
F1

Fig.3.7a

The free body diagram of the block has 750N is shown in above figure. The
equilibrium equations of 750 N block is consider the force normal to the plane, then

 FN 1  0 ,  N 1  750 cos 60 o  0

 N 1  750 cos 60 o  375 N

Since the motion is impending,

F1
   0 .2 ,
N1

F1  0.2  N 1  0.2  375  75 N

Now consider the equilibrium equations for the force parallel to the plane, then

 F parallel  0 ,  T  F1  750 sin 60 o  0

 T  F1  750 sin 60 o  75  750 sin 60 o  724 .52 N

T = 724.52N

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500N

P
o
T 30

F2
N2

Fig.3.7b

The free body diagram of the block has 500N is shown in above figure. The
equilibrium equations of 500N block is consider the vertical force, then

 F y  0 ,  N 2  500  P sin 30 o  0

 N 2  500  0.5 P

From the law of friction, then

F2
   0 .2
N2

F2  0.2  N 2  0.2  500  0.5 P   100  0.1P

The equilibrium equations of 500N block is consider the Horizontal force, then

 F x  0 ,  P cos 30 o  T  F2  0

 P cos 30 o  724 .52  (100  0.1P )  0

 P (cos 30 o  0.1)  724 .52  100  824 .52

P=853.52 N

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SP3.5: Two blocks connected by a horizontal link AB are supported on two rough
planes as shown in fig.3.8 The coefficient of friction between the block A and horizontal
surface is 0.4. The limiting angle of friction between block B and inclined plane is 20o.
What is the smallest weight W of the block A for which equilibrium of the system can
exist, if the weight of block B is 5 kN?

A B

o
30

Fig.3.8

Solution:

5 kN

B
T F1
N1
o
o 30
60

Fig.3.8a

The free body diagram of the block B is as shown in above figure and the limiting
friction as

F1
   tan 20 o
N1

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The equilibrium equations of block B for vertical force as

 Fy  0 ,  N1 sin 30 o  F1 sin 60 o  5  0

 0.5 N1  N1 tan 20 0 sin 60 o  5

 N1  6.133 kN

 F1  N1    N1  tan 20  6.133 tan 20 o

F1 = 2.232 kN

The equilibrium equations of block B for horizontal force as

 Fx  0 ,  T  F1 cos 60 o  N1 cos 30 o  0

 T   F1 cos 60 o  N1 cos 30 o  2.232 cos 60 o  6.133 cos 30 o

T = 4.196 kN

T
A

F2

N2

Fig.3.8b

The free body diagram of the block A is as shown in above figure and the
equilibrium equations of block A for Horizontal force as

 Fx  0 ,  F2  T  0

 F2  T  4.196 kN

The limiting friction as

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F2 F 4.196
   0.4 ,  N 2  2 
N2 0 .4 0 .4

N2 = 10.49kN

The equilibrium equations of block A for vertical force as

 Fy  0 ,  W  N 2  0

W=10.49kN

WEDGES:

Fig.3.9 Wedge friction

A wedge is, usually, of a triangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. It is,

generally, used for slight adjustments in the position of a body i.e. for tightening fits or
keys for shafts. Sometimes, a wedge is also used for lifting heavy weights as shown in
Fig.3.9. It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the
problems of equilibrium on inclined planes. Thus these problems may be solved either
by the equilibrium method or by applying Lami’s theorem.

Now consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift the body DEFG.

Let W = Weight of the body DEFG,

P = Force required to lift the body, and

µ = Coefficient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE

Such that, tan   

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A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body,
the sliding will take place along three planes AB, AC and DE will also occur as shown
in Fig.3.10 and Fig.3.11.

Fig.3.10 Forces on the body DEFG Fig.3.11 Forces on the wedge ABC

Problems:

SP3.6: Find the minimum force required to move the wedge as shown in fig.3.12. The
angle of friction for all contact surface is 15o.

W=20 kN

=20o P

Fig.3.12

Solution:

As wedge is driven it moves towards left and block moves upwards. Force P
required to move the system is minimum when the motion is impending and hence at
this stage limiting frictional force acts. Hence resultant makes limiting angle of 15o with
normal.

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W=20 kN
R1

o
15

o
15
R2
o o
20 35
R2

=20o P

o
R3 15

Fig.3.12a

The free body diagrams for block and wedge are shown in above figure. The
force on block and wedge are redrawn in figure as given below. So that Lami’s theorem
can be applied conveniently.

R2 o
35 R3
o
15
o
15

R1
R2
o
20 kN 35

Wedge
Block

Fig.3.12b
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Applying Lamis’s theorem to the system of forces on block, then

R1 R2 20
O
 o

sin 145 sin 75 sin 140 o

R1 20
 o

sin 145 sin 140o

R1 = 17.847 kN

R2 20
o

sin 75 sin 140o

R2 = 30.047 kN

Now applying Lamis’s theorem to the system of forces on wedge, then

P R2 R3
o
 o

sin 130 sin 105 sin 125o

P 30.047
 o

sin 130 sin 105

P = 23.835 kN

30.047 R3
o

sin 105 sin 125o

R3 = 25.48 kN

SP3.7: A 15o wedge A has to be driven for tightening a body B loaded with 1000 N
weight as shown in fig.3.13. If the angle of friction for all the surfaces is 14o find the
force P which should be applied to the wedge.

Fig.3.13

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Solution:

Fig.3.13

The free body diagram of body B is as shown in above figure (a). The equilibrium
equations of body B for horizontal force is

 Fx  0 ,   R1 sin 14 o  R2 cos(15  14 ) o  0

R1  0.2419  R2  0.8746

0.8746
R1  R2  3.616 R2
0.2419

The equilibrium equations of body B for vertical force is

 Fy  0 ,   R2 sin(15  14 ) o  R1 cos 14 o  1000  0

  R2  0.4848  3.616 R2  0.9703  1000  0

 R2 3.51  0.4848   1000

 R2  330 .6 N

The free body diagram of Wedge A is as shown in above figure (b). The
equilibrium equations of wedge A for horizontal force is

 Fx  0 ,  R3 cos 14o  R2 cos(15  14)o  0

 R3  0.9703  330 .6  0.8746  0

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 R3  297 .9 N

The equilibrium equations of wedge A for vertical force is

 Fy  0 ,   P  R3 sin 14o  R2 sin(15  14) o  0

 P  R3 sin 14o  R2 sin(15  14)o  297.9  0.2419  330.6  0.4848

 P  232.3N

SCREW JACK:

Fig.3.14 Screw jack

This is a device commonly used to lift heavy loads. Screw jack works on the
principle same as that of inclined plane. A typical section of the screw jack is shown in
fig.3.14.

The device consists of a nut and a screw. Monolithically cast nut and stand form
the body of the jack. The load is carried by the screw head fitted onto the screw as
shown in the figure. The body (consisting of nut) is fixed and the screw is rotated by
means of a lever.

The axial distance moved by the nut (or by the screw, relative to each other)
when it makes one complete revolution is known as lead of the screw head. The
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distance between consecutive thread is called pitch (of a screw thread). If the screw is
single threaded, then lead of the screw is equal to the pitch. If the screw is double
threaded then lead of the screw is twice the pitch.

Let ‘R’ be the length of the lever and d be the mean diameter of the screw.

Let a load W be lifted using an effort P.

d P

R1

P1

Fig.3.15 Plan view of screw jack

P

d

Fig.3.16 Geometry of effort and circumference of screw

If an effort P is applied at the lever end it is equivalent to an effort P1 at the screw

[fig.3.15] and P1 is given by the condition:

d
P  R  P1 
2

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2 PR
P1 
d

Now consider one complete revolution of the lever. The load W is lifted up by a
distance p equal to the lead of the screw. This can be compared with that of inclined
plane having inclination is

p
tan 1
d

Where, p – lead of the screw

d – mean diameter of screw

W
P1
P

 F  R1

Fig.3.17 Force system of screw in upward

Applying an effort P at the end of the lever is as good as applying an effort P1 (at
the screw) on this inclined plane (fig.3.17).

Resolving horizontally i.e., parallel to P1

P1  R1 sin    

Where, R1 is resultant reaction and

 is limiting angle of friction.

Resolving vertically

W  R1 cos    

Dividing equation by equation

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P1 R1 Sin   

W R1Cos   

P1  W tan    

2 PR
But, P1 
d

 W tan    
2 PR
Therefore,
d

W tan    
d
P
2R

We have, tan   

Where,  is the coefficient of friction.

Then,

d tan   tan 
P W
2 R 1  tan  tan 

d tan   
P W
2 R 1   tan 

P
Where, tan  
d

W
P1
F P

 

R1

Fig.3.18 Force system of screw in downward

If the load is descending then the friction will be acting in the reverse direction
so that the resultant reaction R shifts as shown in fig.3.18

Then the equation changes to

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W tan    
d
P
2R

Torque required, T  PR

W tan    
d

2

Hence torque required while ascending

W tan    
d
T
2

And torque required while descending

W tan    
d
T
2

Now, the velocity ratio (VR)

Distanance moved by the effort 2R

VR  
Distance moved by the load P

Problems:
SP3.8: The mean radius of the screw of a square threaded screw jack is 25mm. The
pitch of thread is 7.5 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.12. What effort applied at the
end of lever 600 mm length is needed to raise a weight of 2 kN.

Solution:

Mean diameter of the screw (d) = 2r=2(25)=50mm

Lead of the screw , p=7.5mm

 = 0.12

Length of the lever, R = 600 mm

Weight to be raised, W = 2000 N

We know that,

p 7 .5
tan     0.048
d   50
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  tan 1 0.048 

tan     0.12

  tan 1 0.12 

The effort required at mean diameter of the screw to raise the weight is

  tan  0.12  0.048

P W   2000   338N
1   tan  1  0.12(0.048)

Now, the effort applied at the end of the lever may be found out from the relation

d
P1  R  P 
2

50
P1  600  338 
2

P1  14 .1N

SP3.9: A screw jack raises a load 40 kN. The screw is square threaded having three
threads per 20mm length and 40mm in diameter. Find the force required at the end of a
lever 400mm long measured from the axis of the screw, if the coefficient of friction
between screw and nut is 0.12.

Solution:

Screw diameter, d=40mm,

20
Lead of the screw, p   6.667 mm
3

Load, W = 40 kN

Lever length. R = 400mm

 = 0.12

We have,

d   tan 
P W
2 R 1   tan 

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lead 6.667
and tan     0.05305
d   40

40 0.12  0.05305
P  40000
2  400 1  (0.12  0.05305)

P=348.32 kN

SP3.10: A screw jack has square threads 50mm mean diameter and 10mm pitch. The
load on the jack revolves with the screw. The coefficient of friction at the screw thread
is 0.05. a) Determine the tangential force required at the end of 300 mm lever to lift a
load of 6000 N. and a) State whether the jack is self-locking. If not find the torque which
must be applied to keep the load from descending.

Solution:

lead p 10
tan      0.0637
d d   50

  tan 1 0.0637  3.6426 O

tan     0.05

  tan 1 0.05  2.8624O

a) Determine the tangential force,

P
d
2R
 W tan     
50
2  300
 
 6000 tan 3.6426 O  2.8624 O  57.01N

b) State whether the jack is self-locking,

2R 2  300
VR    188.496
p 10

W 6000
MA    105.245
P 57.01

Therefore, the efficiency is

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
MA 105.245
   0.5583  55.83%
VR 188.496

Hence the efficiency of screw jack is greater than 50%, then the screw jack is not self -
locking.

The torque required to keep the load from descending is

T
d
2
W tan     
50
2
 
 600  tan 3.6426 O  2.8624 O  204.3 N  mm

DIFFERENTIAL SCREW JACK:

Differential screw jack is an improvement over simple screw jack. A typical
differential screw jack is shown in fig.3. It consists of two threaded elements A and B.
Both A and B have threads in the same direction (right handed). The element A is a
cylinder which has threads on both its outer and inner surfaces. The threads on the outer
surface of the element A fits into the nut C which also functions as the base of the whole
mechanism. The threads on the element B fit into the threads cut on the inner surface of
A. Thus the element A acts as a screw for the nut C and also as a nut for the element B.
With the help of a lever inserted in the holes made on the top of the block D, which is
attached to the element B, block D can be rotated. When D is rotated, A rotates with it.
Rotation of B is prevented by suitable arrangement.

Let DA and dB be the mean diameters of the screws A and B respectively.

Let PA and PB be the pitch of the screws A and B respectively and PA be greater
than PB.

If the lever is rotated through one complete revolution then the height through
which the element A moves up is equals to PA

In the meantime the element B moves down with respect to C.

The distance through which B comes down is equals to PB.

Therefore, net height through which load is lifted is equal to (PA – PB).

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Let R be the radial distance (from the centre line of A and B) at which an effort
P is applied.

Fig.3.19 Differential screw jack

Now, the velocity ratio (VR) is

Distanance moved by the effort 2R

VR  
Distance moved by the load PA  PB

It can be seen from the above equations that the velocity ratio in the differential
screw jack is increased as compared to that of simple screw jack.

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Problems:
SP3.11: The following are the specifications for a differential screw jack;

a) Pitch of smaller screw is 5mm,

b) Pitch of larger screw is 10mm and
c) Lever arm length from the centre of screw is 500mm

The screw jack raises a load of 15 kN with an effort of 185N. Determine the efficiency
of the differential screw jack at this load. If the above jack can raise a load of 40 kN
with an effort of 585 N, determine the law of machine.

Solution:

Now PA = 10mm

PB = 5mm

Lever arm length, R= 500mm

We know that. The velocity ratio

2R 2  500
VR    628.32
PA  PB 10  5

The mechanical advantage,

W 15000
MA    81.08
P 185

The efficiency of machine

MA 81.08
   0.129  12.9%
VR 628.32

To find law of machine:

Let law of machine be P  mW  C

From first case: 185  m  15000  C -------- (1)

From second case: 585  m  50000  C ------- (2)

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Subtracting eqn. (1) from eqn. (2) then

4
400  35000  m ,  m  ------------ (3)
350

Substituting the eqn. (3) in eqn. (1) then we get

4
185   15000  C
350

 C  13.57 N

Therefore, the law of machine is

4
P W  13.57
350

WORK OF A FORCE:

Fig.3.20 Work of a force

Consider the constant force F acting on the body shown in fig3.20 (a), whose
movement along the plane from A to A' is represented by the vector s, called the
displacement of the body. By definition the work U done by the force F on the body
during this displacement is the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement times the displacement, or

U  F cos  s

From fig.3.20 (b) it seems that the same result is obtained if multiply the
magnitude of the force by the component of the displacement in the direction of the
force. This gives

U  F s cos  

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Because this obtains the same result regardless of the direction in which it
resolves the vectors, it concludes that work U is a scalar quantity.

Fig.3.21 Work of a force act opposite of the displacement

Work is positive when the working component of the force is in the same
direction as the displacement. When the working component is in the direction opposite
to the displacement, fig.3.21, the work done is negative. Thus,

U  F cos  s  F cos  s

Fig.3.22 Force moves along the path

Now generalize the definition of work to account for conditions under which the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude and direction of the force are variable.

Fig.3.22 (a) shows a force F acting on a body at a point A which moves along the path
shown from A1 to A2. Point A is located by its position vector r measured from some
arbitrary but convenient origin O. The infinitesimal displacement in the motion from A
to A' is given by the differential change dr of the position vector. The work done by the
force F during the displacement dr is defined as

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dU  F .dr

If F denotes the magnitude of the force F and ds denotes the magnitude of the
differential displacement dr, the definition of the dot product to obtain.

dU  Fds cos

It may again interpret this expression as the force component F cos in the
direction of the displacement times the displacement, or as the displacement component

ds cos  in the direction of the force times the force, as represented in fig.3.22 (b). If it
expresses F and dr in terms of their rectangular components, then

dU  iFx  jFy  kFz .idx  jdy  kdz 

 Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz

To obtain the total work U done by F during a finite movement of point A from
A1 to A2, fig.3.22 (a), It integrates dU between these positions. Thus,

U   F .dr   Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz  or

U   F cosds

To carry out this integration, it must know the relation between the force
components and their respective coordinates, or the relations between F and s and
between cos  and s.

In the case of concurrent forces which are applied at any particular point on a
body, the work done by their resultant equals the total work done by the several forces.
This is because the component of the resultant in the direction of the displacement
equals the sum of the components of the several forces in the same direction.

WORK OF A COUPLE:
In addition to the work done by forces, couples also can do work. In fig.3.23 (a)
the couple M acts on the body and changes its angular position by an amount d. The

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work done by the couple is easily determined from the combined work of the two forces
which constitute the couple. In part b of the figure it represents the couple by two equal
and opposite forces F and -F acting at two arbitrary points A and B such that F  Mlb .
During the infinitesimal movement in the plane of the figure, line AB moves to A"B'.
Now take the displacement of A in two steps, first, a displacement drB equal to that of
B and, second, a displacement drA/B (read as the displacement of A with respect to B)
due to the rotation about B. Thus the work done by F during the displacement from A
to A' is equal and opposite in sign to that due to -F acting through the equal displacement
from B to B'. Therefore conclude that no work is done by a couple during a translation
(movement without rotation).

Fig.3.23 Work of a couple

During the rotation, however, F does work equal to F .drA / B  Fbd  , where

drA / B  bd  and where d is the infinitesimal angle of rotation in radians. Since M  Fb

, then

dU  Md

The work of the couple is positive if M has the same sense as d (clockwise in
this illustration), and negative if M has a sense opposite to that of the rotation. The total
work of a couple during a finite rotation in its plane becomes.

U   Md

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VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS:
A virtual displacement is a first-order differential change in a linear or angular
position. This change is fictitious in that it is an assumed movement which need not
take place in reality. Mathematically, a virtual displacement is treated the same as a
differential change in an actual movement. The symbol  is used for the differential
virtual change and the usual symbol d for the differential change in a real movement.

Relating the linear and angular virtual displacements of the parts of a mechanical
system during a virtual movement consistent with the constraints is often the most
difficult part of the analysis.

To do this,

1. Write the geometric relationships which describe the configuration of

the system.

2. Establish the differential changes in the positions of parts of the system

by differentiating the geometric relationship to obtain expressions for the
differential virtual movements.

VIRTUAL WORK:
The definitions of the work of a force and a couple have been presented in terms
of actual movements expressed by differential displacements having magnitudes of dr
and d. Consider now an imaginary or virtual displacement of a body in static
equilibrium, which indicates a displacement or rotation that is assumed and does not
actually exist. These movements are first-order differential quantities and will be
denoted by the symbols dr and d (delta r and delta ), respectively. The virtual work
done by a force having a virtual displacement r is

U  F cos r

Similarly when a couple undergoes a virtual rotation  in the plane of the couple
forces, the virtual work is

U  M

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PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK:

The principle of virtual work states that if a body is in equilibrium, then the
algebraic sum of the virtual work done by all the forces and couple moments acting on
the body is zero for any virtual displacement of the body. Thus,

U  0

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK FOR A PARTICLE:

Fig.3.24 System of forces on particle

Consider the particle or small body in Fig.3.24 which attains an equilibrium

position as a result of the forces in the attached springs. If the mass of the particle were
significant, then the weight mg would also be included as one of the forces. For an
assumed virtual displacement r of the particle away from its equilibrium position, the
total virtual work done on the particle is

U  F1.r  F2 .r  F3.r  .........   F .r

Now express F in terms of its scalar sums and r in terms of its component
virtual displacements in the coordinate directions, as follows:

U   F .r  i  Fx  i  Fy  k  Fz .ix  jy  kz 

  Fxx   Fyy   Fzz  0

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The sum is zero, since F = 0, which gives  Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and  Fz  0 . The

equation U  0 is therefore an alternative statement of the equilibrium conditions for

a particle. This condition of zero virtual work for equilibrium is both necessary and
sufficient, since it may applied to virtual displacements taken one at a time in each of
the three mutually perpendicular directions, in which case it becomes equivalent to the
three known scalar requirements for equilibrium.

The principle of zero virtual work for the equilibrium of a single particle usually
does not simplify this already simple problem because U  0 and  F  0 provide the
same information. However, it introduces the concept of virtual work for a particle so
that it can later apply it to systems of particles.

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK FOR A RIGID BODY:

It can easily extend the principle of virtual work for a single particle to a rigid
body treated as a system of small elements or particles rigidly attached to one another.
Because the virtual work done on each particle of the body in equilibrium is zero, it
follows that the virtual work done on the entire rigid body is zero. Only the virtual work
done by external forces appears in the evaluation of U  0 for the entire body, since
all internal forces occur in pairs of equal, opposite, and collinear forces, and the net
work done by these forces during any movement is zero.

As in the case of a particle, we again find that the principle of virtual work offers
no particular advantage to the solution for a single rigid body in equilibrium. Any
assumed virtual displacement defined by a linear or angular movement will appear in
each term in U  0 and when cancelled will leave us with the same expression would
have obtained by using one of the force or moment equations of equilibrium directly.

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Fig.3.25 Rigid body

This condition is illustrated in Fig.3.25, where it needs to determine the reaction

R under the roller for the hinged plate of negligible weight under the action of a given
force P. A small assumed rotation  of the plate about O is consistent with the hinge
constraint at O and is taken as the virtual displacement. The work done by P is –Pa ,
and the work done by R is + Rb . Therefore, the principle U  0 gives

 Pa  Rb  0

Cancelling  leaves

Pa  Rb  0

which is simply the equation of moment equilibrium about O. Therefore, nothing is

gained by using the virtual-work principle for a single rigid body. The principle is,
however, decidedly advantageous for inter-connected bodies, as discussed next.

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK FOR IDEAL SYSTEMS OF

RIGID BODIES:
Now extend the principle of virtual work to the equilibrium of an interconnected
system of rigid bodies. This treatment will be limited to so-called ideal systems. These
are systems composed of two or more rigid members linked together by mechanical

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connections which are incapable of absorbing energy through elongation or
compression, and in which friction is small enough to be neglected.

Fig.3.26 Ideal systems of rigid bodies

Fig.3.26 (a) shows a simple example of an ideal system where relative motion
between its two parts is possible and where the equilibrium position is determined by
the applied external forces P and F. It can identify three types of forces which act in
such an interconnected system. They are as follows:

(1) Active forces: These are external forces capable of doing virtual work during
possible virtual displacements. In fig.3.26 (a) forces P and Fare active forces
because they would do work as the links move.

(2) Reactive forces: These are forces which act at fixed support positions where
no virtual displacement takes place in the direction of the force. Reactive forces
do no work during a virtual displacement. In fig.3.26 (b) the horizontal force FB
exerted on the roller end of the member by the vertical guide can do no work
because there can be no horizontal displacement of the roller. The reactive force
FO exerted on the system by the fixed support at O also does no work because O
cannot move.

(3) Internal forces: These are forces in the connections between members.
During any possible movement of the system or its parts, the net work done by the
internal forces at the connections is zero. This is so because the internal forces always
exist in pairs of equal and opposite forces, as indicated for the internal forces FA and
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-FA at joint A in fig.3.26 (c). The work of one force therefore necessarily cancels the
work of the other force during their identical displacements.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM:

Fig.3.27 One degree of freedom systems

The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanical system is the number of

independent coordinates needed to specify completely the configuration of the system.
Fig.3.27 shows three examples of one degree-of-freedom systems. Only one coordinate
is needed to establish the position of every part of the system. The coordinate can be a
distance or an angle.

Fig.3.28 Two degree of freedom systems

Fig.3.28 shows three examples of two – degree – of - freedom systems where

two independent coordinates are needed to determine the configuration of the system.

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By the addition of more links to the mechanism in the right-hand figure, there is no limit
to the number of degrees of freedom which can be introduced.

The principle of virtual work U  0 may be applied as many times as there are
degrees of freedom. With each application, it allows only one independent coordinate
to change at a time while holding the others constant. In this treatment of virtual work
in this section, consider only one-degree-of-freedom systems.

SYSTEMS WITH FRICTION:

Fig.3.29 Friction in a system

When sliding friction is present to any appreciable degree in a mechanical

system, the system is said to be "real." In real systems some of the positive work done
on the system by external active forces (input work) is dissipated in the form of heat
generated by the kinetic friction forces during movement of the system. When there is
sliding between contacting surfaces, the friction force does negative work because its
direction is always opposite to the movement of the body on which it acts. This negative
work cannot be regained.

Thus, the kinetic friction force k N acting on the sliding block in fig.3.29 (a)

does work on the block during the displacement x in the amount of  k N x . During a

virtual displacement x, the friction force does work equal to  k N x x . The static

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friction force acting on the rolling wheel in Fig.3.29 (b), on the other hand, does no
work if the wheel does not slip as it rolls.

In Fig.3.29 (c) the moment Mf about the centre of the pinned joint due to the
friction forces which act at the contacting surfaces does negative work during any
relative angular movement between the two parts. Thus, for a virtual displacement 
between the two parts, which have the separate virtual displacements 1 and 2 as
shown, the negative work done is  M f 1  M f  2  M f 1   2  , or simply  M f 

. For each part, Mf is in the sense to oppose the relative motion of rotation.

A major advantage of the method of virtual work is in the analysis of an entire

system of connected members without taking them apart. If there is appreciable kinetic
friction internal to the system, it becomes necessary to dismember the system to
determine the friction forces. In such cases the method of virtual work finds only limited
use.

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY:
Because of energy loss due to friction, the output work of a machine is always
less than the input work. The ratio of the two amounts of work is the mechanical
efficiency . Thus,

output work

input work

The mechanical efficiency of simple machines which have a single degree of

freedom and which operate in a uniform manner may be determined by the method of
work by evaluating the numerator and denominator of the expression fore during a
virtual displacement.

Fig.3.30 Connected body

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As an example, consider the block being moved up the inclined plane in fig.3.30.
For the virtual displacement s shown, the output work is that necessary to elevate the
block, or mg s sin. The input work is Ts  mgsin    k mg cos  s . The efficiency
of the inclined plane is, therefore,

mg s sin  1
 
mg sin    k cos  s 1   k cot 

Fig.3.31 Simple screw jack

As a second example, consider the screw jack described in previous and shown
in fig.3.31. M  Wr tan     gives the moment M required to raise the load W, where
the screw has a mean radius r and a helix angle , and where the friction angle is
  tan 1  k . During a small rotation  of the screw, the input work

M   Wr  tan    . . The output work is that required to elevate the load, or

Wr  tan . Thus the efficiency of the jack can be expressed as

Wr tan tan

 
Wr  tan(   ) tan(   )

As friction is decreased, c/J becomes smaller, and the efficiency approaches unity.

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Problems:

SP3.12: Determine the force exerted by the vice on the block when a given force P is
applied at C as shown in fig.3.32. Assume that there is no friction.

Fig.3.32

Solution:

The above free body diagram shows that the reactive and active forces in a system.
Consider the work done by the external forces for a virtual displacement. Now  is
a positive increment to  as shown in free body diagram. As per the virtual work
method, the only forces P and Q produces non-zero work.

xB increases while yC decreases then

The positive increment for xB is xB  U Q  QxB . The negative sign

indicates opposite sense of movement.

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The negative increment for yC is  y C  U P   P  y C  . The

negative sign indicates the same sense of above.

The principle of virtual work is

U  0 ,  U Q  U P  0

 U Q  U P  QxB  PyC  0

The terms xB and yC are expressed as , then

xB  2l sin  and yC  l cos 

Now differentiate w.r.t , then

xB  2l cos  and yC  l sin 

Therefore,

 QxB  PyC  Q 2l cos   P  l sin    0

 2Ql cos   Pl sin   0

1
Q P tan 
2

SP3.13: Find the magnitude of the couple M required to maintain the equilibrium of
the mechanism.

Fig.3.33

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Solution:

Fig.3.33a

Now apply the principle of virtual work, then

U  0 ,  U M  U P  0

 M  PxD  0

We know that,

xD  3l cos 

Differentiate w.r.t. ,

xD  3l sin 

Therefore, M  P  3l sin    0

M  3Pl sin 

SP3.14: Determine the angle  for equilibrium of the two member linkage as shown in
fig.3.34a. Each member has a mass of 10kg.

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Fig.3.34 a

Solution:

Fig.3.34b

The position of F and W can be specified by the position coordinates xB and yW as

x B  21 cos   ,  x B  2 sin 

yW 
1
1 sin   ,  yW  0.5 cos 
2

The principle of virtual work is

U  0 ,  WyW  WyW  FxB  0

 9.810.5 cos    98.10.5 cos    25 2 sin    0

Since 0, then

98.1cos  50 sin   0

98.1
  tan 1  63.0o
50

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SP3.15: Determine the required force P in fig.3.35a needed to maintain equilibrium of

the scissors linkage when =60o. The spring is un-stretched when =30o. Neglect the
mass of the links.

Fig.3.35

Solution:

The position of Fs and P can be specified by the position coordinates xB and xD

as

xB  0.3 sin  ,  xB  0.3 cos 

xD  30.3 sin   ,  xD  0.9 cos 

The principle of virtual work is

U  0 ,   FsxB  PxD  0

 Fs  ks ,

Where, k is the stiffness of spring constant and s is the change in position that is change
in length minus un-stretched length. If k is 5000N/m, un-stretched length is 0.3sin30o
and Change in length is 0.3sin, Then

 
 Fs  5000 0.3 sin   0.3 sin 30o  1500 sin   750 N

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Hence,

 1500 sin   750 xB  PxD  0

 1500 sin   750 0.3 cos    P 0.9 cos    0

 0.9 P  225  450 sin  cos   0

Since cos 0, then

P  500 sin   250

When =60o, then

P  500 sin 60 o  250

P=183N

SP3.16: If the box as shown in fig.3.36a has a mass 10kg determine the couple moment
M needed to maintain equilibrium when =60o. Neglect the mass of the members.

Fig.3.36

Solution:

The position of W and M can be specified by the position coordinates yE and 

as

y E  0.45 sin   b ,  y E  0.45 cos 

The principle of virtual work is

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U  0 ,  10(9.81)y E  M  0

 10(9.81)0.45 cos    M  0

Since 0, then

M  44.145 cos  0

If  = 60o, then

M  44.145 cos 60 o

SP3.17: The mass m is brought to an equilibrium position by the application of the

couple M to the end of one of the two parallel links which are hinged as shown in
fig.3.37 The links have negligible mass and all friction is assumed to be absent.
Determine the expression for the equilibrium angle  assumed by the links with the
vertical for a given value of M. Consider the alternative of a solution by force and
moment equilibrium.

Fig.3.37

Solution:

The position of W and M can be specified by the position coordinates h and  as

h  b cos   c ,  h  b sin   0

The principle of virtual work is

U  0 ,  M  Wh  0
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 M  mg ( b sin  )  0

Since 0, then

M  mgb sin 

M
  sin 1
mgb

SP3.18: For link OA in the horizontal position as shown in fig.3.38 Determine the force
P on the sliding collar which will prevent OA from rotating under the action of the
couple M. Neglect the mass of the moving parts.

Fig.3.38

Solution:

The position of P and M can be specified by the position coordinates x and 

about the point O. From the right triangle for which link AB has length as

b2  x2  y 2

Differentiate the above equation to obtain displacement along x and y, then

2 xx  2 yy  0

y
x   y
x

The vertical displacement at point A is y  a

The principle of virtual work is

U  0 ,  M  Px  0

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 y 
 M  P  a   0
 x 

Since 0, then

Mx Mx
P 
ya ha

SP3.19: Determine the reaction RA and RB developed in the simply supported beam
shown in fig.3.39 using virtual work method.

20 kN 40 kN

2m 2m 2m

Fig.3.39

Solution:

A B

Fig.3.39a

Let RA and RB be the reactions at supports A and B. let y displacement be given

to beam at B without giving any displacement at A as shown in above free body
diagram.

The corresponding displacement for the beam at 20 kN load and 40 kN load at

1 2
points are y and y respectively.
3 3
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
By the principle of virtual work,

1 2
U  0 ,  RA  0  20  y  40  y  RB  y  0
3 3

  20 80 
   RB y  0
 3 3 

Since y0, then

  20 80 
   RB   0
 3 3 

Therefore,

R=33.33 kN

A B

Fig.3.39b

Now consider the virtual displacement from the support at B, then the
corresponding displacement for the beam at 20 kN load and 40 kN load at points are
2 1
y ' and y ' respectively. The principle of virtual work is
3 3

2 1
U ' 0 ,  RA  y '20  y '40  y ' RB  0  0
3 3

 40 40 
  RA   y '  0
 3 3 

Since y0, then

40 40
RA   0
3 3

RA = 26.67 kN
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.20: Determine the reactions in the overhanging beam as shown in fig.3.40 using
virtual work method.

20 kN 60 kN 30 kN

A B
1m 4m 2m

6m

Fig.3.40

Solution:

A B

Fig.3.40a

Let RA and RB be the reactions at supports A and B. let 6 8 y displacement be

given to beam at B without giving any displacement at A as shown in above free body
diagram.

The corresponding displacement for the beam at 20 kN load , 60 kN and 30 kN

1 4
load at points are y , y and y respectively.
8 8

By the principle of virtual work,

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
1 4 6
U  0 ,  RA  0  20  y  60  y  RB  y  30  y  0
8 8 8

 20 240 6 RB 
    30 y  0
 8 8 8 

8 240 20 
Since y0, then RB   30   
6 8 8 

RB = 76.67 kN

A B

Fig.3.40b

Now consider the virtual displacement from the support at B, then the corresponding
2
displacement for the beam at 20 kN load , 60 kN and 30 kN load at points are y ' , y '
7
2
and y ' respectively.
7

The principle of virtual work is

6 2 2
U ' 0 ,   RA  y '20  y '60  y ' RB  0  30  y '  0
7 7 7

 6 120 60 
   RA  20   y '  0
 7 7 7 

Since y0, then

7 120 60 
RA   20   
6 7 7 

RA = 33.33 kN

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.21: Determine the reaction RA in the overhanging beam as shown in fig.3.41 by

virtual work method.

20 kN
20 kN/m
20 kN-m
A
B C D E
2m 1.5m 1.5m 1m

Fig.3.41

Solution:

E
A B C D
R=wl

1m 1m 1.5m 1.5m 1m

Fig.3.41a

Now consider the virtual displacement from the support at B, then the
corresponding displacement for the beam

At point A is y ,

3
At point B is y ,
5

4
At point R is y
5

y
At point C is
5
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
At point D is 0 and

1
At point E is y
5

The principle of virtual work is

4 1 1
U ' 0 ,   RA  y  20  2  y  40  y  RB  0  20  y  0
5 5 5

  R A  32  8  4 y  0

Since y0, then

RA  32  8  4

RA = 20 kN

SP3.22: What is the value of P in the system as shown in fig.3.42 to cause the motion
of 500 N block to the right side? Assume the pulley is smooth and the coefficient of
friction between other contact surfaces is 0.20.

P
o
30
500N

o
60

Fig.3.42

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Solution:

750N T
o
60 o
60

N1
F1

Fig.3.42a

The free body diagram of the block has 750N is shown in above figure. When
motion is impending up the plane. Then friction force acts down the plane as

F1
   0 .2 ,
N1

F1  0.2  N 1  0.2  375  75 N

Let us give virtual displacement s up the plane. Let the direction up the plane
be taken positive.

Then from principle of virtual work, we get

 750 sin 60 o  s   F1  s   T s   0

 750 sin 60 o  s   75  s   T s   0

 750 sin 60 o

 75  T s   0

Since s0, then

 750 sin 60 o

 75  T  0


T  750 sin 60 o  75 
T=724.52N

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

500N

P
o
T 30

F2
N2

Fig.3.42b

The free body diagram of the block has 500N is shown in above figure. When
motion is impending up the plane. Then friction force acts down the plane as

F2
   0 .2 ,
N2

F2  0.2  N 2  0.2  (500  P sin 30 o )  100  0.1PN

Let us give virtual displacement s up the plane. Let the direction up the plane
be taken positive.

Then from principle of virtual work, we get

P cos 30 o  s   F2  s   T s   0

0.87 P  s   (100  0.1P )  s   724 .52s   0

0.87 P  (100  0.1P )  724 .52 s   0

Since s0, then

0.97 P  824 .52   0

 824.52 
P 
 0.97 

P=850.02N

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.23: Determine the force P required to make the motion impending to the left for
the system of connected bodies as shown in fig.3.43a. Coefficient of friction for all
contacting surface is 0.25. Pulleys are smooth.

Fig.3.43

Solution:

Since motion is impending to the left, frictional forces are acting in the directions
shown in fig.3.43b.

F1  0.25 N 1  0.25  250  62.5 N

F2  0.25 N 2  0.25  1000 cos 45 o  176 .78 N

F3  0.25 N 3  0.25  500  12 .5 N

Let us give a virtual displacement towards left. Taking the displacement of the
system to left as positive, then the virtual work equation is

P s   F1 s   1000 sin 45 o s   F2 s   F3 s   0

 ( P  F1  1000 sin 45 o  F2  F3 )s   0

Since s0, then

P  F1  1000 sin 45 o  F2  F3 ,  P  62.5  707  176.78  125

P=1071.38N

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.24: Using the principle of virtual work find the weight WB for which the motion
of block A is impending up the plane. The coefficient of friction between block A and
the plane is 0.3 and pulleys are smooth as shown in fig.3.44

Fig.3.44

Solution:

Now determine  from the geometry of plane as

3
tan  
4

3
  tan 1  36.87 o
4

The motion is impending, then

F

N

F  N  W cos 

F  0.3  200 cos 36.87 o

F=48N

Let us give virtual displacement of s up the plane to block A. Component of

block A down the plane is W A sin 

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The component normal to the plane do not do any work since thre is no
displacement normal to the plane.

s
When block A moves by s, weight B moves down by
2

Hence the virtual work equation is

 200 sin  s   F s   WB

s   0
2

 W 
  200 sin   F  B s   0
 2 

Since s0, then

 W 
  200 sin   F  B   0
 2 

 W 
  200 sin 36.87  48  B   0
 2 


WB  2 200 sin 36 .87 o  48 
WB = 336 N

SP3.25: Ladder AB of length 4m and weight 200 N is held in position by applying

force P as shown in fig.3.45. Assuming smooth wall and floor determine the force P. If
instead of force P for preventing from slipping, a horizontal rope is tied at a distance of
1m from A, what is the tension in the rope?

Fig.3.45
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Solution:

a) P at floor level

AB = l = 4m

Let ladder rotate by angle  as shown in figure 3.45b

Now taking C as origin then the coordinate of A is x

x=-4sin

Differentiate the above equation as

x  4 cos 

P moves by -4cos

l
Now, y  cos 
2

l
y   sin   2 sin  , since l  4m
2

The reactions RA and RB are not doing any work since there is no
movement of their point of applications in the direction they act. Applying
principle of virtual work we get

Px  200y  0

P  4 cos    200  2 sin    0

P  4 cos    400 sin   0

400 sin 
P  100 tan   100 tan 30 o
4 cos 

P=57.735N

b) If a rope is used instead of force P, the system of forces is as shown in

fig.3.46 a

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Fig.3.46

The system of forces in this case are as shown in fig.3.46b Taking C as origin.

x D  3 sin 

Differentiate the above equation as

x D  3 cos 

y G  2 cos 

Differentiate the above equation as

y G  2 sin 

There is no displacement in the direction of RA and RB. Hence from the principle
of virtual work,

T x D   200 y G   0

T  3 cos    200  2 sin    0

 3T cos   400 sin    0

Since 0, then

400 400
3T cos   400 sin  , T  tan   tan 30 o
3 3

T=76.98N

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.26: The ladder as shown in fig.3.47a is 6m long and is supported by a horizontal

floor and vertical wall. The coefficient of friction between the floor and the ladder is
0.4 and between the wall and the ladder is 0.25. The weight of the ladder is 200N. The
ladder also supports a vertical load of 900N at C which is at a distance of 1m from B.
Determine the least value of  for which the ladder may be placed without slipping.
Also determine the reaction at the stage.

Fig.3.47

Solution:

The various forces acting on the ladder when it is on the verge of slipping are as
shown in fig.3.47b. note frictional forces always oppose impending motions and they
are equal to  x normal reactions where  is coefficient of friction. To calculate virtual
works we need the displacement in the direction of forces. Normal reactions NA and NB
are not going to do any work since displacements in direction of those forces is always
zero. Taking O as origin now,

x A  6 sin  ,  x A  6 cos 

yG  3 cos  ,  yG  3 sin 

yC  5 cos  ,  yC  5 sin  and

y B  6 cos  ,  y B  6 sin 

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
Applying principles of virtual work we get,

 0.4 N A 6 cos   200 ( 3 sin  )  900 ( 5 sin  )  0.25 N B ( 6 sin  )  0

Since 0, then

 2.4 N A cos   600 sin   4500 sin   1.5 N B sin   0

From the equilibrium conditions,

 Fx  0 ,  0.4 N A  N B and

 Fy  0 ,  N A  0.25 N B  900  200  0

N A  0.250.4 N A   1100

NA = 1000N

Hence, NB = 0.4 x 1000 = 400N

Substituting these value in above equations then we get,

 2.4  1000 cos  600 sin   4500 sin   1.5  400 sin   0

2400
4500 sin   2400 cos , tan  
4500

  28.073 o

SP3.27: Determine the force in the member FH of the truss shown in fig.3.48 Each
load is 10 kN and all triangles are equilaterals with sides 4m.

Fig.3.48

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Solution:

Fig.3.48

1 1
Due to symmetry, R A  RB  total load   10  7  35kN
2 2
Take section 1-1 as shown in fig.3.a and consider left side portion as shown in fig.3.48b.
Imagine a rotation of  about point G.

Vertical displacement of A = 12

Vertical displacement of B = 10

Vertical displacement of D = 6  and

Vertical displacement of F = 2 

Horizontal displacement of FFH=2 tan 60o towards right

Therefore from the principle of virtual displacement, we have

R A12   10  10  10  6  10  2  FFH 2 tan 60 o   0

240
2 FFH tan 60 o   R A12  100  60  20 , FFH 
2 tan 60 o

FFH=-69.28 kN

The negative sign indicates the direction of FFH is to be reverted and is

compressive force.

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.28: Determine the force developed in the member DF of the truss shown in
fig.3.49

Fig.3.49

Solution:

Take the section 1-1 as shown in fig.3.49a and consider left side portion. Imagine
a virtual rotation  at support E. Then

Vertical displacement of point A = 10

Vertical displacement of point B = 5

Vertical displacement of point D = 0 and

Horizontal displacement of point D = 5

Therefore, from virtual work principle,

 100  10  100  5  FDF cos 45o  5  0

FDF 5 cos 45 o  100  10  100  5  1500

1500
FDF   300 2  424.26kN (tensile)
5 cos 45o

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.29: Neglecting the friction determine the effort required to lift a load by the screw
jack as shown in fig.3.50 Take pitch of the jack =p.

Fig.3.50

Solution:

Let P be the effort required. Let a virtual rotation  be given to effort.

Therefore virtual work done by P = PR

For one full rotation of effort, the load moves by distance p definition of pitch)

P
Therefore for  rotation distance through which weight W moves = 
2

From virtual work principle total work done is zero.

p Wp
PR  W  ,  P 
2 2R

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SP3.30: Neglecting friction determine the pressure applied by screw press when effort
P is applied as shown in fig.3.51.

Fig.3.51

Solution:

Let a rotation  be given to the screw press by applying efforts P as shown in

fig.3.51b Work done by effort.

 2 Pa

If p is the pitch of the screw, work done by the load W is

p
W  
2

Hence from principle of virtual work

p
2 Pa  W 
2

Wp
P
4a

SP3.31: Determine the horizontal and vertical component of reactions developed at

end B of the pin jointed plane frame loaded as shown in fig.3.52a.

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Fig.3.52

Solution:

i) Horizontal reaction:
Removing the restrain to support B and allowing it to roll in x direction with
a horizontal force HB, let the angle of rotation of the members of frame be
.
Now, y C  a sin  ,  yC  a cos 

Similarly, y D  a sin   y D  a cos 

x  6a cos   x  6a sin 

Considering work done by all the active forces, virtual work equation is
(  P )y C  (  P )y D  (  H B )x  0

 Pa cos   Pa cos   H B  6a sin    0

2 P cos  P
HB   cot 
6 sin  3
ii) Vertical reaction:

Let y be vertical displacement given to joint B after removing restraint in

vertical direction. The corresponding vertical force at B be VB.
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
Vertical displacement of C;

a sin  1
y C  y B  y B
6a sin  6

Vertical displacement of D;

3a sin  1
y D  y B  y B
6a sin  2

Therefore the virtual work equation is

(  P )y C  (  P )y D  V B y B  0

1 1
 P y B  P y B  V B y B  0
6 2

Since yB0, then

4 2
VB  P P
6 3

SP3.32: An inextensible string is subjected to equal loads W at distance L and 2L from

end A. If a horizontal force is applied at other end, the equilibrium position is as shown
in fig.3.53 Express the angles 1 and 2 with the vertical in terms of F and W.

Fig.3.53

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Solution:

With respect to the coordinate system as shown in fig.3.53 the three active force
are W, W and F. It is a system of two degrees of freedom in which 1 and 2 can vary
independently.

Therefore the principle of virtual work is

U U
U  1   2  0
1  2

Keeping 1 constant and varying 2 the principle of virtual equation is

W y C  F x  0


W L cos  2  2  F  L sin  2  2  0
 2  2

 WL sin  2  FL cos  2  0

F
tan 2 
W

Now, keeping 2 constant and varying 1,

y B  L cos1

y B   L sin 11

yC  L cos 1  L cos  2

Since 2 is constant,

yC   L sin 11

xC  L sin 1  L sin  2

Since 2 is constant,

xC  L cos 11

The principle of virtual work is

W  y B  W  y C  F  xC  0

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W  L sin 1 1  W  L sin 1 1  F L cos 1 1  0

F
tan 1 
2W

CONSERVATIVE FORCES:
When a force does work that depends only upon the initial and final positions of
the force, and it is independent of the path it travels, then the force is referred to as a
conservative force. The weight of a body and the force of a spring are two examples of
conservative forces.

a) Weight:

Fig.3.54 Displacement of rigid body

Consider a block of weight W that travels along the path as shown in
fig.3.54 (a). When it is displaced up the path by an amount dr, then the work is
dU  W.dr or dU   W dr cos    Wdy , as shown in fig.3.54 (b). In this case,

the work is negative since W acts in the opposite sense of dy. Thus, if the block
moves from A to B, through the vertical displacement h, the work is
h
U    Wdy  Wh
0

The weight of a body is therefore a conservative force, since the work

done by the weight depends only on the vertical displacement of the body, and
is independent of the path along which the body travels.

b) Spring Force:

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Fig.3.55 Deformation of elastic body

Now consider the linearly elastic spring as shown in fig.3.55, which

undergoes a displacement ds. The work done by the spring force on the block is
dU   Fs ds  ksds . The work is negative because Fs acts in the opposite sense

to that of ds. Thus, the work of F when the block is displaced from s = s1 to s =
s2 is

s1 1 1 
U    ksds   ks 22  ks12 
s1
2 2 

Here the work depends only on the spring’s initial and final positions s1
and s2, measured from the spring’s un-stretched position. Since this result is
independent of the path taken by the block as it moves, then a spring force is also
a conservative force.

Friction: In contrast to a conservative force, consider the force of friction exerted on a

sliding body by a fixed surface. The work done by the frictional force depends on the
path; the longer the path, the greater the work. Consequently, frictional forces are non-
conservative, and most of the work done by them is dissipated from the body in the
form of heat.

POTENTIAL ENERGY:

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A conservative force can give the body the capacity to do work. This capacity
measured as potential energy, depends on the location or “position” of the body
measured relative to a fixed reference position or datum. The concept of potential
energy is useful for determining the stability of equilibrium by two methods. They are

1) Elastic potential Energy

2) Gravitational potential energy

1) Elastic Potential Energy:

The work done on an elastic member is stored in the member in the form of
elastic potential energy Ve. This energy is potentially available to do work on some
other body during the relief of its compression or extension.

Fig.3.56 Elastic potential energy

x x
Ve   Fdx   kxdx , or
0 0

1 2
Ve  kx
2

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Thus, the potential energy of the spring equals the triangular area in the diagram
of F versus x from 0 to x.

During an increase in the compression of the spring from x1 to x2, the work done
on the spring equals its change in elastic potential energy or

x2
Ve   kxdx 
x1
1
2

k x 22  x12 
which equals the trapezoidal area from x1 to x2.

During a virtual displacement x of the spring, the virtual work done on the
spring is the virtual change in elastic potential energy.

Ve  Fx  kxx

During a decrease in the compression of the spring as it is relaxed from x = x2 to

x = x1, the change (final minus initial) in the potential energy of the spring is negative.
Consequently, if x is negative, Ve is also negative.

When we have a spring in tension rather than compression, the work and energy
relations are the same as those for compression, where x now represents the elongation
of the spring rather than its compression. While the spring is being stretched, the force
again acts in the direction of the displacement, doing positive work on the spring and
increasing its potential energy.

Because the force acting on the movable end of a spring is the negative of the
force exerted by the spring on the body to which its movable end is attached, the work
done on the body is the negative of the potential energy change of the spring.

A torsional spring, which resists the rotation of a shaft or another element, can
also store and release potential energy. If the torsional stiffness, expressed as torque per
radian of twist, is a constant kT, and if  is the angle of twist in radians, then the resisting

torque is M  k T  . The potential energy becomes Ve   k T d or
0

1
Ve  kT  2
2

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which is analogous to the expression for the linear extension spring.

The units of elastic potential energy are the same as those of work and are
expressed in joules (J) in SI units and in foot-pounds (ft-lb) in U.S. customary units.

2) Gravitational Potential Energy:

In the previous section the work of a gravitational force or weight acting on a
body treated in the same way as the work of any other active force. Thus, for an upward
displacement h of the body in fig.3.57 the weight W = mg does negative work
U   mgh . If, on the other hand, the body has a downward displacement h, with h

measured positive downward, the weight does positive work U   mgh .

Fig.3.57 Gravitational forces

An alternative to the foregoing treatment expresses the work done by gravity in

terms of a change in potential energy of the body. This alternative treatment is a useful
representation when we describe a mechanical system in terms of its total energy. The
gravitational potential energy Vg of a body is defined as the work done on the body by
a force equal and opposite to the weight in bringing the body to the position under
consideration from some arbitrary datum plane where the potential energy is defined to

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be zero. The potential energy, then, is the negative of the work done by the weight.
When the body is raised, for example, the work done is converted into energy which is
potentially available, since the body can do work on some other body as it returns to its
original lower position. If consider Vg to be zero at h = 0, fig.3.57, then at a height h
above the datum plane, the gravitational potential energy of the body is

V g  mgh

If the body is a distance h below the datum plane, its gravitational potential
energy is  mgh .

Fig.3.58 Gravitation forces with reference datum

Note that the datum plane for zero potential energy is arbitrary because only the
change in potential energy matters, and this change is the same no matter where it places
the datum plane. Note also that the gravitational potential energy is independent of the
path followed in arriving at a particular level h. Thus, the body of mass m as shown in
fig.3.58has the same potential-energy change no matter which path it follows in going
from datum plane 1 to datum plane 2 because h is the same for all three paths.

The virtual change in gravitational potential energy is simply

V g  mgh

where oh is the upward virtual displacement of the mass centre of the body. If the mass
centre has a downward virtual displacement, then Vg is negative.

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The units of gravitational potential energy are the same as those for work and
elastic potential energy, joules (J) in SI units and foot-pounds (ft-lb) in U.S. customary
units.

ENERGY EQUATION:
The work done by a linear spring on the body to which its movable end is
attached is the negative of the change in the elastic potential energy of the spring. Also,
the work done by the gravitational force or weight mg is the negative of the change in
gravitational potential energy. Therefore, when apply the virtual-work equation to a
system with springs and with changes in the vertical position of its members, it may
replace the work of the springs and the work of the weights by the negative of the
respective potential energy changes.

It can use these substitutions to write the total virtual work U in equation U  0
as the sum of the work U’ done by all active forces, other than spring forces and weight
forces, and the work  Ve  V g  done by the spring and weight forces. Equation

U  0 then becomes

U 'Ve  V g   0 or U '  V

Where V  Ve  V g stands for the total potential energy of the system. With this

formulation a spring becomes internal to the system, and the work of spring and
gravitational forces is accounted for in the V term.

ACTIVE-FORCE DIAGRAMS:
With the method of virtual work it is useful to construct the active force diagram
of the system these are analysing. The boundary of the system must clearly distinguish
those members which are part of the system from other bodies which are not part of the
system. When includes an elastic member within the boundary of system, the forces of
interaction between it and the movable members to which it is attached are internal to
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the system. Thus these forces need not be shown because their effects are accounted for
in the Ve term. Similarly, weight forces are not shown because their work is accounted
for in the Vg term.

Fig.3.59 Active force diagrams

Fig.3.59 illustrates the difference between the use of equation U  0 and

U 'Ve  V g   0 or U '  V . It consider the body in part  of the figure to be a

particle for simplicity, and it assumes that the virtual displacement is along the fixed
path. The particle is in equilibrium under the action of the applied forces F1 and F2, the
gravitational force mg, the spring force kx, and a normal reaction force. In fig.3.59 (b),
where the particle alone is isolated, U includes the virtual work of all forces shown on
the active-force diagram of the particle. (The normal reaction exerted on the particle by
the smooth guide does no work and is omitted.). In Fig.3.59 (c) the spring is included
in the system, and U’ is the virtual work of only F1 and F2, which are the only external
forces whose work is not accounted for in the potential energy terms. The work of the
weight mg is accounted for in the Vg term, and the work of the spring force is included
in the Ve term.

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STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM:

Fig.3.60 Mechanical system changes with gravitational and elastic potential

energy

Consider now the case of a mechanical system where movement is accompanied

by changes in gravitational and elastic potential energies and where no work is done on
the system by non-potential forces. The mechanism as shown in fig3.60 is an example
of such a system. With U '  0 the virtual-work relation, equation U 'Ve  V g   0

or U '  V , becomes

V e  V g   0 or V  0

The above equation expresses the requirement that the equilibrium configuration
of a mechanical system is one for which the total potential energy V of the system has
a stationary value. For a system of one degree of freedom where the potential energy
and its derivatives are continuous functions of the single variable, say, x, which
describes the configuration, the equilibrium condition V  0 is equivalent
mathematically to the requirement

dV
0
dx

The above equation states that a mechanical system is in equilibrium when the
derivative of its total potential energy is zero. For systems with several degrees of
freedom the partial derivative of V with respect to each coordinate in turn must be zero
for equilibrium.

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Fig.3.61 Stability of equilibrium

dV
There are three conditions under which equation  0 applies, namely, when
dx
the total potential energy is a minimum (stable equilibrium), a maximum (unstable
equilibrium), or a constant (neutral equilibrium). Fig.3.39 shows a simple example of
these three conditions. The potential energy of the roller is clearly a minimum in the
stable position, a maximum in the unstable position, and a constant in the neutral
position.

It may also characterize the stability of a mechanical system by noting that a

small displacement away from the stable position results in an increase in potential
energy and a tendency to return to the position of lower energy. On the other hand, a
small displacement away from the unstable position results in a decrease in potential
energy and a tendency to move farther away from the equilibrium position to one of
still lower energy. For the neutral position a small displacement one way or the other
results in no change in potential energy and no tendency to move either way.

When a function and its derivatives are continuous, the second derivative is
positive at a point of minimum value of the function and negative at a point of maximum
value of the function. Thus, the mathematical conditions for equilibrium and stability
of a system with a single degree of freedom x are:

dV
Equilibriu m 0
dx

d 2V
Stable 0
dx 2

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d 2V
Unstable 0
dx 2

The second derivative of V may also be zero at the equilibrium position, in which
case we must examine the sign of a higher derivative to ascertain the type of
equilibrium. When the order of the lowest remaining nonzero derivative is even, the
equilibrium will be stable or unstable according to whether the sign of this derivative is
positive or negative. If the order of the derivative is odd, the equilibrium is classified as
unstable, and the plot of V versus x for this case appears as an inflection point in the
curve with zero slope at the equilibrium value.

Stability criteria for multiple degrees of freedom require more advanced

treatment. For two degrees of freedom, for example, it uses a Taylor- series expansion
for two variables.

Problems:

SP3.33: The 10 kg cylinder is suspended by the spring which has a stiffness of 2kN/m.
Plot the potential energy V of the system and show that it is minimum at the equilibrium
position.

Fig.3.62

Solution:

The elastic potential energy for an arbitrary position x is

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1 2
Ve  kx
2

The gravitational potential energy for an arbitrary position x is

Vg   mgx

The total potential energy is

1 2
V  Ve  Vg  kx  mgx
2

The equilibrium of potential energy is obtained by

dV dV
 0,   kx  mg  0
dx dx

mg
x
k

10  9.81
x  0.049m
2000

X=49mm

Substituting numerical values gives

1
V  (2000)(0.049) 2  10  9.81  0.049
2

The minimum value at equilibrium position of potential energy is

V  2.4 N  m

The below plot shows the different forms of potential energies. The minim value
dV d 2V
of V occurs at x = 0.049m where  0 and is positive.
dx dx 2

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SP3.34: The two uniform links, each of mass m, are in the vertical plane and are
connected and constrained as shown in fig.3.63. As the angle  between the links
increases with the application of the horizontal force P, the light rod, which is connected
at A and passes through a pivoted collar at B, compresses the spring of stiffness k. If
the spring is uncompressed in the position where  = 0, determine the force P which
will produce equilibrium at the angle.

Fig.3.63

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Solution:

The compression x of the spring is the distance which A has moved away from

B, which is x  2b sin
2

The elastic potential energy of the spring is

 
2
1 1 
Ve  kx 2 ,  Ve  k  2b sin   2kb2 sin 2
2 2  2 2

With the datum for zero gravitational potential energy taken through the support
at O for convenience, the expression is

 
Vg  2mgx  2mg  b cos 
 2


The distance between O and C is 4b sin , so that the virtual work done by P is
2

 
U '  P  4b sin 
 2

The principle of virtual work is

U 'V  0 ,  U 'Ve  Vg  0

     
 P  4b sin     2kb 2 sin 2      2mgb cos   0
 2  2  2

  
 2 Pb cos   2kb 2 sin cos   mgb sin   0
2 2 2

Since 0, then

 1 
P  kb sin  mg tan
2 2 2

SP3.35: The ends of the uniform bar of mass m side freely in the horizontal and vertical
guides. Examine the stability conditions for the positions of equilibrium. The spring of
stiffness k is un-deformed when x =0.

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Fig.3.64

Solution:

The system consists of the spring and the bar. Since there are no external active
forces the given sketch serves as the active force diagram. It will take the x axis as the
datum for zero gravitational potential energy. In the displaced position the elastic and
gravitational potential energies are

1 2 1 2 2 b
Ve  kx  kb sin  and Vg  mg cos
2 2 2

The total potential energy is then,

1 2 2 1
V  Ve  Vg  kb sin   mgb cos
2 2

dV
The equilibrium occurs for  0 , so that
d

dV 1  1 
 kb 2 sin  cos  mgb sin    kb 2 cos  mgb  sin   0
d 2  2 

The two solutions to this equation are given by

mg
sin   0 and cos 
2kb

Now determine the stability by examining the sign of the second derivative of V
for each of the two equilibrium positions. The second derivative is

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d 2V
d 2
  1
 kb 2 cos 2   sin 2   mgb cos
2

d 2V
d 2
  1
 kb 2 2 cos 2   1  mgb cos
2

Solution 1: sin   0 , =0

d 2V  mg 
 kb 2 2  1  mgb  kb 2 1 
1

d 2
2  2kb 

mg d 2V
If k  , Then  2  possitive value ( stable)
2b dx

mg d 2V
If k  , Then  2  Negative value (unstable)
2b dx

Thus, if the spring is sufficiently stiff, the bar will return to the vertical position
even though there is no force in the spring at that position.

Solution 2:

mg mg
cos  ,   cos 1
2kb 2kb

d 2V 
2   mg 
2
 1  mg    mg 2 
 kb 2  1  mgb   kb     1
  2kb 
2

d 2  2  2 kb   2 kb 
   

Since the cosine must be less than unity, then this solution is limited to the case
mg
where k  , which makes the second derivative of V negative. Thus equilibrium for
2b
mg
solution 2 is never stable. If k  , then no longer have solution 2 since the spring
2b
will be too weak to maintain equilibrium at a value of  between 0 and 90o.

SP3.36: The uniform link as shown in fig.3.65a has a mass of 10kg. If the spring is un-
stretched when =0o, determine the angle  for equilibrium and investigate the stability
at the equilibrium position.

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Fig.3.65

Solution:

The datum is established at the bottom of the link as shown in fig.3.65b. When
the link is located in the arbitrary position, the spring increases its potential energy by
stretching and the weight decreases its potential energy. Hence

1 2
V  Ve  Vg  ks  Wy
2

l
Since l  s  l cos or s  l 1  cos   and y  cos then
2

1 
kl 1  cos    W  cos  
1 2
V 
2

2 2 

The equilibrium condition,

 kl 2 1  cos sin  
dV Wl
sin   0 or
d 2

 W
l  kl 1  cos    sin   0
 2

This equation is satisfied by sin   0 , =0o,, Therefore,

 W  1  10  9.81 
  cos 1 1    cos 1    53.8
o

 2 kl   2  200  0 . 6 
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The second derivative of V is

d 2V
 kl 2 l  cos   cos   kl 2 sin  sin  
Wl
cos 
d 2
2

d 2V
 kl 2 cos   cos 2  
Wl
cos 
d 2
2

Substituting values for the constant with =0o and =53.8o, Then

d 2V 10  9.81  0.6
 200(0.6) 2 (cos 0o  cos 0o )  cos 0o
d 2  0o
2

d 2V
 29.4  0 (Unstable equilibrium at =0o)
d 2  0 o

d 2V 10  9.81  0.6
 200(0.6) 2 (cos 53.8 o  cos 107.6 o )  cos 53.8 o
d 2   53.8 o
2

d 2V
 46.9  0 (Stable equilibrium at =53.8o)
d 2   53.8 o

SP3.37: If the spring AD as shown in fig.3.66a has a stiffness of 18 kN/m and is un-
stretched when  = 60o, determine the angle  for equilibrium. The load has a mass of
1.5 Mg. Investigate the stability at the equilibrium position.

Fig.3.66
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Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 102
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Solution:

The gravitational potential energy for the load with respect to the fixed datum as
shown in fig.3.66b is

Vg  mgy  1500(9.81)4 sin   h   58860 sin   14715 h

Where h is a constant distance. From the geometry of the system, the elongation
of the spring when the load is on the platform is

s  4 cos   4 cos 60 o  4 cos   2

Thus, the elastic potential energy of the system is

ks  18000 4 cos  2   90004 cos  2 

1 2 1
Ve 
2 2

2 2

The potential energy function for the system is therefore

V  Ve  Vg  58860 sin   14715h  90004 cos  2 

2

When the system is in equilibrium, then

dV
 58860 sin   18000(4 cos  2)(4 sin  )  0
d

58860 cos  288000sin  cos  144000sin   0

Since sin 2  2 sin  cos , then

58860 cos  144000sin 2  144000sin   0

Solving by trail and error, then

  28 .18 o and   45.51o

Taking the second derivative of equation, then

d 2V
 58860 sin   288000 cos 2  144000 cos
d 2

Substituting   28.18o , then

d 2V
 60402  0 (Unstable)
d 2
Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 103
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Now,   45.51o

d 2V
 64073  0 (Stable)
d 2

SP3.38: The uniform block having a mass m rests on the top surface of the half
cylinder, fig.3.67a. Show that this is a condition of unstable equilibrium if h >2R.

Fig.3.67

Solution:

The datum is established at the base of the cylinder, fig.3.67b. If the block is
displaced by an amount u from the equilibrium position, the potential function is

V  Ve  Vg  0  mgy

From the geometry of fig.3.b,

 h
y  R   cos  R sin 
 2

Thus,

 h 
V  mg  R   cos  R sin 
 2 

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 104
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
The equilibrium conditions, then

dV   h 
 mg   R   sin   R sin   R cos   0
d   2 

 h 
mg   sin   R cos    0
 2 

Note that   0o satisfies this equation.

Taking the second derivative of V for the stability, then

d 2V  h 
 mg   cos   R cos   R sin  
d 2
 2 

At   0o ,

d 2V h 
  mg   R 
d 2  0o 2 

Since all the constants are positive, the block is in unstable equilibrium provided
d 2V
h>2R, because then  0.
d 2

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 105