Lecture Notes

UNIT – 2
2023
CEES303-Engineering
Mechanics

Prepared by
Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Annamalai University
Oct-2023
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Unit - 2
Basic Structural Analysis covering, Equilibrium in three
dimensions; Method of Sections; Method of Joints; How to
determine if a member is in tension or compression; Simple
Trusses; Zero force members; Beams & types of beams; Frames &
Machines Centroid and Centre of Gravity covering, Centroid of
simple figures from first principle, centroid of composite sections;
Centre of Gravity and its implications; Area moment of inertia-
Definition, Moment of inertia of plane sections from first principles,
Theorems of moment of inertia, Moment of inertia of standard
sections and composite sections; Mass moment inertia of circular
plate, Cylinder, Cone, Sphere, Hook.

Reference for the preparation of course material:

1. F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston (2011), Vector Mechanics for Engineers,

Vol I - Statics, Vol II, – Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Khurmi R.S. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, S. Chand & Co.
3. J.L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige, Engineering Mechanics –Statics, volume I,
Seventh edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

TEXT BOOKS
1. Irving H. Shames (2006), Engineering Mechanics, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall
2. F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston (2011), Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Vol I -
Statics, Vol II, – Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill

REFERENCES
1. R. C. Hibbler (2006), Engineering Mechanics: Principles of Statics and Dynamics,
Pearson Press.
2. Khurmi R.S. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, S. Chand & Co.

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 2
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Unit - 2
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

The Engineering Mechanics deals with various forces like internal and external
force in different bodies. In the previous section the system of forces were studied to
examine the external force acting in a particle or rigid bodies on a smooth surfaces. The
internal forces of structure in which the self-weight is neglected is considered to
examine in the field of engineering that is forces of action and reaction between the
connected members. An engineering structure is any connected system of members
built to support or transfer forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it. To
determine the forces internal to an engineering structure, this must dismember the
structure and analyse separate free-body diagrams of individual members or
combinations of members. This analysis requires careful application of Newton's third
law, which states that each action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.

Statically determinate structure is considered to determine all unknown reactions

with adequate number of equilibrium equations. In this section the internal forces acting
in several types of structures to be analyse – namely trusses, beams and frames and
machines.

HOW TO DETERMINE IF A MEMBER IS IN TENSION OR

COMPRESSION;
The simple truss structure as shown in fig.2.1 is considered to demonstrate
whether the member of truss is in tension or compression. In previous chapter, the force
on various supports were studied and drawn the free body diagram to states that the
system is in equilibrium condition to determine the unknown external forces. Whereas
this section discuss about the unknown forces of both internal and external forces.

Fig.2.2 shows that the free body diagram of simple truss structure with unknown
external force at the ends of supports. The unknown internal forces on members AB,
Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 3
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, GH, HA, BH, CG and DF are to be determined by the method of
joints or the method of section. Before that the members to be specified the direction of
force acted on each joint by the force of tension or compression in members.

W1 W2 W3
Fig.2.1 Simple truss element
H G F

A E
Rx,A B C D

W1 W2 W3 Ry,E
Ry,A
Fig.2.2 Free body diagram of simple truss
F Fe Fe F

Fi Fi

E Fi Fi E
D

W3 Ry,E Fe Fe Ry,E
a) Moment force at b)Compressive c) Tension in a d) Internal force
end E force in a member member direction
Fig.2.3 Forces at supports and members
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Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 4
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
The reaction force at end E takes moment about A and have rotation as shown in
fig.2.3 (a). The moment force by reaction force at end E applies the compressive force
on member EF. Therefore the compressive force by external (Fe) creates an internal
force (Fi) which towards the joint of member as shown in fig.2.3 (b). However the
member EF has compression due the moment force in counter clockwise at end E as
shown in fig.2.3 (c).

FC FC
H G F

FC FT FC
FT FT
FT FT

A E
Rx,A D
FT B FT C FT FT

W1 W2 W3 Ry,E
Ry,A

Fig.2.4 Representation of tension or compression force in a members

The moment force at end E by taking moment about A generates the compression
in a member EF. This direction is noted as towards the joint E and F. Similarly the
moment force at end A by taking moment about B takes the compression in a member
AH and denote towards the joint A and H. The compression of member AH and EF also
implies into the member HG and FG therefor it denoted towards the joint H, G and F
accordingly. The member AB is pulled by the load at joint B as W1. This will generates
tension in a member AB and therefore the direction is denoted away from the joint.
Similarly the member BC, CD, DE, BH, CH, CG, CF and DF have tension in a member
by the load W1, W2 and W3 accordingly. The tension and compression in a members of
simple truss structure is shown fig.2.4.

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Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 5
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

SIMPLE TRUSSES:
The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle. Three bars joined by pins at
their ends, Fig.2.5 (a), constitute a rigid frame. The term rigid is used to mean non
collapsible and also to mean that deformation of the members due to induced internal
strains is negligible. On the other hand, four or more bars pin-jointed to form a polygon
of as many sides constitute a non-rigid frame. We can make the non-rigid frame in
fig.2.5 (b) rigid, or stable, by adding a diagonal bar joining A and D or Band C and
thereby forming two triangles. We can extend the structure by adding additional units
of two end-connected bars, such as DE and CE or AF and DF, Fig.2.5(c), which are
pinned to two fixed joints. In this way the entire structure will remain rigid.

Structures built from a basic triangle in the manner described are known as
simple trusses. When more members are present than are needed to prevent collapse,
the truss is statically indeterminate. A statically indeterminate truss cannot be analysed
by the equations of equilibrium alone. Additional members or supports which are not
necessary for maintaining the equilibrium configuration are called redundant.

a) Three members b) Four members c) Nine members

Fig.2.5 Simple truss members

To design a truss we must first determine the forces in the various members and
then select appropriate sizes and structural shapes to withstand the forces. Several
assumptions are made in the force analysis of simple trusses. First, we assume all
members to be two-force members. A two-force member is one in equilibrium under
the action of two forces only, as defined in general terms with Fig. 2.6. Each member
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of a truss is normally a straight link joining the two points of application of force. The
two forces are applied at the ends of the member and are necessarily equal, opposite,
and collinear for equilibrium.

Fig.2.6 Two force members

The member may be in tension or compression, as shown in Fig.2.6. When we

represent the equilibrium of a portion of a two-force member, the tension T or
compression C acting on the cut section is the same for all sections. We assume here
that the weight of the member is small compared with the force it supports. If it is not,
or if we must account for the small effect of the weight, we can replace the weight W of
the member by two forces, each W/2 if the member is uniform, with one force acting at
each end of the member. These forces, in effect, are treated as loads externally applied
to the pin connections. Accounting for the weight of a member in this way gives the
correct result for the average tension or compression along the member but will not
account for the effect of bending of the member.

ZERO FORCE MEMBERS;

Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if we can first
identify those members which support no loading. These zero-force members are used
to increase the stability of the truss during construction and to provide added support if
the loading is changed. The zero-force members of a truss can generally be found by
inspection of each of the joints. For example, consider the truss shown in Fig.2.7 (a).
If a free-body diagram of the pin at joint A is drawn, Fig.2.7 (b), it is seen that members
AB and AF are zero-force members. (We could not have come to this conclusion if we
had considered the free-body diagrams of joints F or B simply because there are five

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
unknowns at each of these joints.) In a similar manner, consider the free-body diagram
of joint D, Fig.2.7 (c). Here again it is seen that DC and DE are zero-force members.
From these observations, we can conclude that if only two non-collinear members form
a truss joint and no external load or support reaction is applied to the joint, the two
members must be zero-force members. The load on the truss in Fig.2.7 (a) is therefore
supported by only five members as shown in Fig.2.7 (d).

Fig. 2.7 Truss and zero force members

Now consider the truss shown in Fig.2.8 (a). The free-body diagram of the pin
at joint D is shown in Fig.2.8 (b). By orienting the y axis along members DC and DE
and the x axis along member DA, it is seen that DA is a zero-force member. Note that
this is also the case for member CA, Fig.2.8 (c). In general then, if three members form
a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear, the third member is a zero-

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 8
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
force member provided no external force or support reaction has a component that acts
along this member. The truss shown in Fig.2.8 (d) is therefore suitable for supporting
the load P.

Fig. 2.8 Truss and their forces

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL REDUNDANCY:

If a plane truss has more external supports than are necessary to ensure a stable
equilibrium conditions, then the truss is said to be statically indeterminate. The extra
supports in that plane truss constitute external redundancy force.

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Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 9
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If a truss has more internal members than are necessary to prevent collapse when
the truss is removed from its supports then the extra members constitute internal
redundancy and the truss is said to be statically indeterminate.

For a truss which is statically determinate externally there is a definite relation

between the number of its members and the number of its joints necessary for internal
stability without redundancy. The equilibrium of each truss joint is specified by two
scalar force equations such that all joints have the equation as 2J.

The entire truss is composed of ‘m’ number of two force members (m is a tension
or compression forces) and having the maximum of three unknown support reaction
which equals the twice of joint in a truss. Then the relation is stated as statically
determinate as

m  3  2J
If m  3  2 J then the truss is statically indeterminate which means more
number of members present in that truss.

If m  3  2 J then the truss is not sufficient to hold the stable position thereby
the truss tends to collapse under load.

THE METHOD OF JOINTS:

In order to analyse or design a truss, it is necessary to determine the force in each
of its members. One way to do this is to use the method of joints. This method is based
on the fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is also in
equilibrium. Therefore, if the free-body diagram of each joint is drawn, the force
equilibrium equations can then be used to obtain the member forces acting on each joint.
Since the members of a plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single
plane, each joint is subjected to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent. As a
result, only  Fx  0 and  F y  0 need to be satisfied for equilibrium.

Prepared by Dr. P. Ramesh, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, FEAT, Annamalai University. Page 10
 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023
For example, consider the pin at joint B of the truss in Fig.2.9 (a). Three forces
act on the pin, namely, the 500-N force and the forces exerted by members BA and BC.
The free-body diagram of the pin is shown in Fig.2.9 (b). Here, FBA is “pulling” on the
pin, which means that member BA is in tension; whereas FBC is “pushing” on the pin,
and consequently member BC is in compression. These effects are clearly demonstrated
by isolating the joint with small segments of the member connected to the pin, Fig.2.9
(c). The pushing or pulling on these small segments indicates the effect of the member
being either in compression or tension.

Fig.2.9 Method of joints

When using the method of joints, always start at a joint having at least one known
force and at most two unknown forces, as in Fig.2.9 (b). In this way, application of
 Fx  0 and  F y  0 yields two algebraic equations which can be solved for the two

unknowns. When applying these equations, the correct sense of an unknown member
force can be determined using one of two possible methods.

Method 1: The correct sense of direction of an unknown member force can, in many
cases, be determined “by inspection.” For example, FBC in fig.2.9 (b) must push on the
pin (compression) since its horizontal component, FBC sin 45o, must balance the 500 N
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force (  Fx  0 ). Likewise, FAB is a tensile force since it balances the vertical
component, FBC cos45o (  F y  0 ). In more complicated cases, the sense of an unknown

member force can be assumed; then, after applying the equilibrium equations, the
assumed sense can be verified from the numerical results. A positive answer indicates
that the sense is correct, whereas a negative answer indicates that the sense shown on
the free-body diagram must be reversed.

Method 2: Always assume the unknown member forces acting on the joint’s free-body
diagram to be in tension; i.e., the forces “pull” on the pin. If this is done, then numerical
solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive scalars for members in tension
and negative scalars for members in compression. Once an unknown member force is
found, use its correct magnitude and sense (T or C) on subsequent joint free-body
diagrams.

Procedure using the method of joints:

1) Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at
most two unknown forces. (If this joint is at one of the supports, then it may be
necessary first to calculate the external reactions at the support.)
2) Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of an
unknown force.
3) Orient the x and y axes such that the forces on the free-body diagram can be
easily resolved into their x and y components and then apply the two force
equilibrium equations  Fx  0 and  F y  0 . Solve for the two unknown

member forces and verify their correct sense.

4) Using the calculated results, continue to analyse each of the other joints.
Remember that a member in compression “pushes” on the joint and a member in
tension “pulls” on the joint. Also, be sure to choose a joint having at most two
unknowns and at least one known force.

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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Problems:

SP2.1: Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig.2.10. Indicate
whether the members are in tension or compression.

Fig.2.10 Truss

Solution:

A free body diagram of the entire truss is draw as below

Applying the equations of equilibrium as

 Fx  o ,  600  C x  0 ,

Cx = 600N

 M C  0 ,   Ay (6)  400(3)  600(4)  0

Ay=600N

 Fy  o ,  600  400  C y  0 ,

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Cy = 200N

The analysis can now start at either joint A or C. The choice is arbitrary since
there are one known and two unknown member forces acting on the pin at each of these
joints.

From the free-body diagram of joint A, FAB is assumed to be compressive and

FAD is tensile. Applying the equations of equilibrium, then

4
 Fy  o ,  600  FAB  0 ,
5

FAB = 750N (C)

3 3
 Fx  o ,  FAD  FAB  0 ,  FAD  (750)  0
5 5

FAD = 450N (T)

From the free-body diagram of joint D and the result of FAD, then

3 3
 Fx  o ,   F AD  FDB  600  0 ,  450  FDB  600  0
5 5

FDB = -250N (T)

4 4
 Fy  o ,   FDC  FDB  0 ,   FDC  (250)  0
5 5

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FDC = 200N (c)

From the free-body diagram of joint D, then

 Fx  o ,  FCB  600  0

FCB = 600N (C)

 Fy  o ,  FDC  C y  0 ,  200  200  0

The above equation is used to check the solution.

SP2.2: Using the method of joints, determine all the zero-force members of the Fink
roof truss shown in Fig.2.11. Assume all joints are pin connected.

Fig.2.11 Fink roof truss

Solution:

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Look for joint geometries that have three members for which two are collinear.

Now take joint G, then

 Fy  0 , FGC = 0

By considered joint C, it not conclude that the member GC is a zero force

member because there are five unknown force at joint C. But GC is a zero force member
by means that 5 kN load at C must be supported by the members CB, CH, CF anf CD.

Now take joint D, then

 R   Fx   Fy  0 , FCD = 0

Joint F, then

 Fy  0 ,  FFC cos   0 , Since   90 o , FFC = 0

Joint B, Here the coordinates of x and y are taken in the direction of the members BH
and AB respectively. Then

 Fx  0 ,  2  FBH  0 , FBH = 2 kN

Joint H, by taking vertical components

 Fy  0 ,  2 sin   FHC Sin HC  0 ,

Therefore FHC  0

THE METHOD OF SECTIONS:

When we need to find the force in only a few members of a truss, we can analyse
the truss using the method of sections. It is based on the principle that if the truss is in
equilibrium then any segment of the truss is also in equilibrium. For example, consider
the two truss members shown on the left in Fig.2.12. If the forces within the members
are to be determined, then an imaginary section, indicated by the blue line, can be used
to cut each member into two parts and thereby “expose” each internal force as
“external” to the free-body diagrams shown on the right. Clearly, it can be seen that

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equilibrium requires that the member in tension (T) be subjected to a “pull,” whereas
the member in compression (C) is subjected to a “push”.

Fig.2.12 Internal forces in members

The method of sections can also be used to “cut” or section the members of an
entire truss. If the section passes through the truss and the free-body diagram of either
of its two parts is drawn, we can then apply the equations of equilibrium to that part to
determine the member forces at the “cut section.” Since only three independent
equilibrium equations (  Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and  M O  0 ) can be applied to the free-body

diagram of any segment, then we should try to select a section that, in general, passes
through not more than three members in which the forces are unknown.

For example, consider the truss in Fig.2.13 (a). If the forces in members BC, GC,
and GF are to be determined, then section aa would be appropriate. The free-body
diagrams of the two segments are shown in Figs.2.13 (b) and (c). Note that the line of
action of each member force is specified from the geometry of the truss, since the force
in a member is along its axis. Also, the member forces acting on one part of the truss
are equal but opposite of those acting on the other part—Newton’s third law. Members
BC and GC are assumed to be in tension since they are subjected to a “pull,” whereas
GF in compression since it is subjected to a “push.”

The three unknown member forces FBC, FGC and FGF can be obtained by applying
the three equilibrium equations to the free-body diagram in Fig.2.13 (b). If, however,

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the free-body diagram in Fig.2.13 (c) is considered, the three support reactions Dx, Dy
and Ex will have to be known, because only three equations of equilibrium are available.

Fig. 2.13 Truss

When applying the equilibrium equations, we should carefully consider ways of

writing the equations so as to yield a direct solution for each of the unknowns, rather
than having to solve simultaneous equations. For example, using the truss segment in
Fig.2.13 (b) and summing moments about C would yield a direct solution for FGF. Since
FBC and FGC create zero moment about C. Likewise, FBC can be directly obtained by
summing moments about G. Finally, FGC can be found directly from a force summation
in the vertical direction since FGF and FBC have no vertical components. This ability to
determine directly the force in a particular truss member is one of the main advantages
of using the method of sections. Suppose the method of joints were used to determine
say the force in member GC it would be necessary to analyse joints A, B and G in
sequence. As in the method of joints, in this method of section also there are two ways
in which we can determine the correct sense of an unknown member force:
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 CEES303-Engineering Mechanics 2023

Procedure using the method of section:

1) Free-Body Diagram:
a) Make a decision on how to “cut” or section the truss through the members
where forces are to be determined.
b) Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to
determine the truss’s support reactions. If this is done then the three
equilibrium equations will be available to solve for member forces at the
section.
c) Draw the free-body diagram of that segment of the sectioned truss which has
the least number of forces acting on it.
d) Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of the
unknown member forces.
2) Equations of Equilibrium:
a) Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the intersection of the
lines of action of two unknown forces, so that the third unknown force can
be determined directly from the moment equation.
b) If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed
perpendicular to the direction of these unknowns to determine directly the
third unknown force.

SP2.3: Find the forces included in members KL, CL and BC by the 20 kN load on the
cantilever truss as shown in fig.2.14.

Fig. 2.14 Cantilever truss

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Solution:

The vertical components of the reaction at A and M are statically indeterminate

with the two fixed supports but all members other than A and M are statically
determinate.

From the given problem the force at KL, CL and CB is to find thereby the method
of joint is not suitable. This is due to the method of joints need many number of joints
as 13 to determine these force members. So the method of section simplifies to find the
particular force of member by passing the section through KL, CL and CB. The free
body diagram of left portion truss with statically determinate rigid body as below.

The sum of moment about L quickly verifies the assignment of CB as

compression and the sum of moment about C quickly disclose that KL is in tension. The
direction of CL is not quite so obvious until it observe that KL and CB intersect at a
point P to the right of G. The sum of moment about P eliminates reference to KL and
CB which shows that CL must be compressive to balance the moment of the 20 kN
force about P.

Now take moment about L and summing to equilibrium condition, then

The distance from B to G is five times of 4m i.e. dBG is 5x4=20m and L to B is

find from the geometry as HF+((MA-HF)/2) i.e. BL is 5+((9-5)/2)=7m.

ML  0 ,  20(d BG )  FCB (d CB )  0 ,  20(20)  FCB (7)  0

FCB = 57.14N

Next, take moment about C or P and summing to equilibrium condition, then

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The distance from C to G is four times of 4m i.e. dCG is 4x4=16m and C to K is
5m. The horizontal force at K to L is determined as ( FKL ) x  FKL cos  , therefore  is to
determine from the geometry of KLB’ (B’ is a point which obtains by line intersecting
4 16
from K and B). The height of B’L is 2m. Therefore cos is =
42  22 20

16
 M C  0 ,  20(d CG )  FKL cos  (d CK )  0 ,  20(16)  FKL (5)  0
20

FKL = 71.1N

The distance from C to P is find from the similarity of geometry as KMA’ (A’ is
a point which obtains by the line intersecting from K and A) to PKC. Therefore

d PC d KA' d 8 8
 ,  PC  , d PC  5   10m
d CK d MA' 5 (9  5) 4

The distance dPG = (dCG – dPC)= 16-10=6m

The vertical force at C to L is determined as ( FCL ) y  FCL cos  , therefore  is to

determine from the geometry of CBL. Therefore   90  BCL .

d BL 5  2
tan BCL  
d CB 4

7
BCL  tan 1  60.26 o
4

=90-60.26=29.74o

Taking moment about P and summing to equilibrium conditions, then

 M P  0 ,  20(d PG )  ( FCL ) y (d PC )  0 ,  20(d PG )  ( FCL cos  )(d PC )  0

 20(6)  ( FCL cos 29.74)(10)  0

FCL = 13.82N

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SP2.4: Determine the force in members GE, GC, and BC of the truss shown in Fig.
2.15. Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.

Fig.2.15 simple truss

Solution:

Section aa in Fig.2.15 has been chosen since it cuts through the three members
whose forces are to be determined. In order to use the method of sections, however, it
is first necessary to determine the external reactions at A or D. Why? A free-body
diagram of the entire truss is shown in above figure. Applying the equations of
equilibrium, we have

 Fx  0 ,   FAx  400  0 ,

FAx = 400N

 M A  0 ,  1200(d AC )  400(d CE )  FDy (d AD )  0

 1200(8)  400(3)  FDy (12)  0

FDy = 900N

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 Fy  0 ,  FAy  1200  900  0

FAy = 300N

Free-Body Diagram:

For the analysis the free-body diagram of the left portion of the sectioned truss
will be used, since it involves the least number of forces,.

Equations of Equilibrium:

Summing moments about point G eliminates FGE and FGC and yields a direct
solution for FBC.

 M G  0 ,   FAy (d BA )  FAx (d GB )  FBC (d GB )  0

 300 ( 4)  400 (3)  FBC (3)  0

FBC = 800N

In same manner by summing moments about point C, then

 M C  0 ,   FAy (d BA )  FGE (d GB )  0

 300 (8)  FGE (3)  0

FGE = 800N

Since FBC and FGE have no vertical components summing forces in the y direction
directly yields FGC

 3  3
 Fy  0 ,  FAy  FGC    0 ,  300  FGC    0
5 5

FGC = 500N

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NOTE: Here it is possible to tell, by inspection, the proper direction for each unknown
member force. For example,  M C  0 requires FGE to be compressive because it must
balance the moment of the 300-N force about C.

SPACE TRUSSES (EQUILIBRIUM IN THREE DIMENSIONS):

A space truss consists of members joined together at their ends to form a stable
three-dimensional structure. The simplest form of a space truss is a tetrahedron, formed
by connecting six members together, as shown in Fig.2.16 Any additional members
added to this basic element would be redundant in supporting the force P. A simple
space truss can be built from this basic tetrahedral element by adding three additional
members and a joint, and continuing in this manner to form a system of multi-connected
tetrahedrons.

Fig.2.16 Simple space truss

If the truss is statically determinate internally then the equation for any space
truss is satisfied as

m  6  3J
If m  6  3 J then the truss is statically indeterminate which means more
number of members present in that truss.

If m  6  3 J then the truss is not sufficient to hold the stable position thereby
the truss tends to collapse under load.

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Assumptions for Design:

The members of a space truss may be treated as two-force members provided the
external loading is applied at the joints and the joints consist of ball-and-socket
connections. These assumptions are justified if the welded or bolted connections of the
joined members intersect at a common point and the weight of the members can be
neglected. In cases where the weight of a member is to be included in the analysis, it is
generally satisfactory to apply it as a vertical force, half of its magnitude applied at each
end of the member.

Procedure for analysis of Space truss by:

Method of joints:
If the forces in all the members of truss are to be determined, then the method of
joints is most suitable for the analysis. Here it is necessary to apply the three equilibrium
equations  Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and  Fz  0 to the forces acting at each joint. Remember

that the solution of many simultaneous equations can be avoided if the force analysis
begins at a joint having at least one known force and at most three unknown forces.
Also, if the three-dimensional geometry of the force system at the joint is hard to
visualize, it is recommended that a Cartesian vector analysis be used for the solution.

Method of Sections:
If only a few member forces are to be determined, the method of sections can be
used. When an imaginary section is passed through a truss and the truss is separated
into two parts, the force system acting on one of the segments must satisfy the six
equilibrium equations:  Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 ,  Fz  0 ,  M x  0 ,  M y  0 and  M z  0

By proper choice of the section and axes for summing forces and moments, many of the
unknown member forces in a space truss can be computed directly, using a single
equilibrium equation.

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SP2.5: Determine the forces acting in the members of the space truss shown in Fig.2.17.
Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.

Fig.2.17 Space truss

Solution:

Since there are one known force and three unknown forces acting at joint A, the
force analysis of the truss will begin at this joint.

Joint A: Expressing each force acting on the free-body diagram of joint A as a

Cartesian vector, we have

P  4( j )

F AB  ( F AB ) m j

F AC  ( F AC ) m (  k )

rAE ( E x  Ax )i  ( E y  A y ) j  ( E z  Az )k
FAE  FAE m  FAE m
rAE ( E x  Ax ) 2  ( E y  A y ) 2  ( E z  Az ) 2

( 2  0 )i  ( 2  0 ) j  ( 0  2 ) k
F AE  F AE m
( 2) 2  ( 2) 2  ( 2) 2

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( 2  0 )i  ( 2  0 ) j  ( 0  2 ) k ( 2 )i  ( 2 ) j  (  2 ) k
F AE  F AE m  F AE m
( 2) 2  ( 2) 2  ( 2) 2 3.46

F AE  F AE m 0.578i  0.578 j  0.578 k 

For equilibrium,

 F  0 ,  P  F AB  F AC  F AE  0

 4 j  ( F AB ) m j  ( F AC ) m k  0.578( F AE ) m i  0.578( F AE ) m j  0.578( F AE ) m k  0

By equating the unit vectors I, j and k, then

 Fx  0 ,  0.578( F AE ) m  0

 Fy  0 ,  4  ( F AB ) m  0.578( F AE ) m  0

 Fz  0 ,  ( F AC ) m  0.578( F AE ) m  0

FAC = FAE = 0

FAB = 4 kN

Since FAB is known, then joint B can be analysed next.

Joint B:

1
 Fx  0 ,  ( FBE ) m 0
2

1
 Fy  0 ,  4  ( FCB ) m 0
2

1 1
 Fz  0 ,  2  ( FBD ) m  ( FBE ) m  ( FCB ) m 0
2 2

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FBE = 0,

FCB = 5.65 kN

FBD = 2 kN

The scalar equations of equilibrium can now be applied to the forces acting on
the free body diagrams of joints D and C as

FDE = FDC = FCE = 0

BEAMS:
Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied
loads. Most beams are long prismatic bars, and the loads are usually applied normal to
the axes of the bars. Beams are undoubtedly the most important of all structural
members, so it is important to understand the basic theory underlying their design. To
analyse the load-carrying capacities of a beam we must first establish the equilibrium
requirements of the beam as a whole and any portion of it considered separately.
Second, we must establish the relations between the resulting forces and the
accompanying internal resistance of the beam to support these forces. The first part of
this analysis requires the application of the principles of statics. The second part
involves the strength characteristics of the material and is usually treated in studies of
the mechanics of solids or the mechanics of materials.

Types of support:
The various types of supports and reactions developed are already discussed in
previous section of unit -1. But here at glance looks about the types as

1) Simple support
2) Roller support
3) Hinged or pinned support
4) Fixed support

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RA

Fig.2.18 Simple support

A
A A

RA RA RA

Fig.2.19 Roller support

A A
RAx RAx

RAy RAy

Fig.2.20 Hinged or pinned support

MA
RAx A

RAy

Fig.2.21 Fixed support

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Types of Beams:
The beams are classified according to the types of supports as

1) Cantilever beam
2) Simply supported beam
3) One end hinged and other on roller type of beam
4) Overhanging beam
5) Both ends hinged beam
6) Propped cantilever beam and
7) Continuous beam

1) Cantilever beam:

If a beam is fixed at one end and other end is free which is not supported by any
it is called a cantilever beam. In this there are three reaction components at fixed end
such as RAx, RAy and MA as shown in fig.2.22 and no reaction components at free end.

MA
A B
RAx
L
RAy

Fig.2.22 Cantilever beam

2) Simply supported beam:

In this type of beam both ends are simply supported as shown in fig.2.23. There
is one reaction component at each end as RAy and RBy. They act at right angles to the
support and this type of beam can resist forces normal to the beam axis. In other words
the equilibrium condition that summation of forces parallel to axis equal to zero is to be
satisfied automatically by the loading condition. Hence two equation of equilibrium are
available.

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A B
RAx
L
RAy RBy

Fig.2.23 Simple supported beam

3) One end hinged and the other on roller:

As the name suggests one end of the beam is hinged and the other end is on roller
as shown in fig.2.24. At hinge the reaction can be in both direction and at roller end it
is at right angles to the roller support. The hinged end reaction in any direction can be
represented by its two components perpendicular to each other. Thus its reaction
components for such beam as RAx, RAy and RBy.

RAx A B

RAy RBy

Fig.2.24 One end hinged and other end on roller

4) Overhanging beam:
If a beam is projecting beyond the support/ supports it is called an overhanging
beam as shown in fig.2.25 . The overhang may be on only one side or may be on both
sides.

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RAx A B

L
Over hang
RAy RBy

a) Single overhang

A B
RAx

L
Over hang
RAy RBy Over hang

b) Double overhang

Fig.2.25 Overhanging beam

5) Both ends hinged beam:

As the name suggested both ends of the beam are hinged. These are two reaction
components at each end, then the total reaction components are four such as RAx, RAy,
RBx and RBy.

RAx A B RBx

L
RBy
RAy

Fig. 2.26 Both ends hinged beam

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6) Propped cantilever beam:

In this type of beam one end of the beam is fixed and the other end is simply
supported or is on rollers. It has got four reaction components such as RAx, RAy RBy and
MA and it is shown fig.2.27

MA
A B
RAx
L
RAy

Fig.2.27 Propped cantilever beam

7) Continuous beam:
A beam having three or more supports is called continuous beam. In such beams
three or more reaction components exist as shown in fig.2.28.

a) Two length of continuous beam

MA
C D E REx
A B
RAx
L
RAy RBy RCy RDy RDy

b) Multi length continuous beams

Fig.2.28 Continuous beams

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SUPPORT REDUNDANCY OF BEAMS:

The external support reactions can be calculated by the methods of statics alone
are called statically determinate beams. Therefore the number of unknown reactions are
equal to the number of independent equations of equilibrium such beams are cantilever
beams, simply supported beams, one end hinged and the other end on roller support,
and overhanging beams. The all reaction components of beam is determined by the
equations of equilibrium only. A beam like both ends hinged, propped cantilever and
continuous beams which has more supports with number of unknown reaction
components are more than needed to provide the number of available equations of
equilibrium is called statically indeterminate. To determine the support reactions for
such a beam we must consider its load-deformation properties in addition to the
equations of static equilibrium. Fig. 2.29 shows examples of both types of beams. In
this section, the analyses are carried only by statically determinate beams.

Fig.2.29 Support redundancy of beams

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Types of loading:
Beams may also be identified by the type of external loading they support as

a) Concentrated loads
b) Distributed loads

i) Uniform distributed loads

ii) Linearly varying distributed loads

iii) Composite of uniform and varying distributed loads

iv) Non uniform distributed loads

c) External moment loads

a) Concentrated loads:
The beams in Fig. 2.29 are supporting concentrated loads, in which the loads
are acting over a very small length compared to of the beam and it is approximated as
a point load.

b) Distributed loads:

Fig.2.30 Distributed loads

The beam in Fig. 2.30 is supporting a distributed load. The intensity w of a

distributed load may be expressed as force per unit length of beam. The intensity may
be constant or variable, continuous or discontinuous. The intensity of the loading in Fig.
2.30 is constant from C to D and variable from A to C and from D to B. The intensity is

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discontinuous at D, where it changes magnitude abruptly. Although the intensity itself
dw
is not discontinuous at C, the rate of change of intensity is discontinuous.
dx

i) Uniform distributed loads:

Loading intensities which are constant over the length of beam is called
uniform distribution loads as shown in fig.2.31 , The resultant load R is
represented by the area formed by the intensity w (force per unit length of
beam) and the length L over which the force is distributed. The resultant
passes through the centroid of this area.

Fig.2.31 Uniform distributed loads

ii) Linearly varying distributed loads:
Loading intensities which are vary linearly over the length of beam is
called uniformly varying distributed loads as shown in fig.2.32. The resultant
load R is represented by the area formed by the intensity w (force per unit
length of beam) and the length L over which the force is distributed. The
2
resultant passes through the centroid of this area. The centroid area is L
3
1
from zero intensity load and Resultant load is wL .
2

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Fig.2.32 Linearly varying distributed loads

iii) Composite of uniform and varying distributed loads:
The composite of uniform and varying distributed loads looks like a
trapezoidal area which is broken into a rectangular and a triangular area, and
the corresponding resultants R1 and R2 of these sub-areas are determined
separately. The centroid area and resultant are considered from the
rectangular and triangular as in previous sections.

Fig.2.33 Composite uniform and varying distributed loads

iv) Non uniform distributed loads:

Fig.2.34 Non uniform distributed loads

Fig. 2.34, starts with a differential increment of force dR = w dx. The total
load R is then the sum of the differential forces, or

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R   wdx

As before, the resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under

consideration. The x-coordinate of this centroid is found by the principle of
moments R x   xwdx or

1
R
x xwdx

For the distribution as in Fig.2.34, the vertical coordinate of the centroid

need not be found. Once the distributed loads have been reduced to their
equivalent concentrated loads, the external reactions acting on the beam may
be found by a straightforward static analysis.
v) External moment loads:
MC
A B

Fig. 2.35 External moment loads

A beam may be subjected to external moments at certain points. In

fig.2.35 The beam subjected to a clockwise moment of MC at a distance x
from the support A.

SP2.6: Find the reactions developed in the cantilever beam as shown in fig.2.36.

10kN/m 20 kN 15 kN

60o
B
A

2m 1m

Fig.2.36

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Solution:

First draw the free body diagram consist of reaction force developed at fixed
support A as shown below.

10kN/m 20 kN 15 kN
MA 60o
RAx B
A

2m 1m
RAy

The equilibrium conditions about vertical,

 F y  0 ,  R Ay  ( R10 )  20 sin 60 o  15  0

 R Ay  (10  2)  20 sin 60 o  15  0 , RAy = 52.32 kN

The equilibrium conditions about horizontal,

 Fx  0 ,  R Ax  20 cos 60 o  0 , RAx = 10 kN

Taking moment about A ,

 M A  0 , M A  10  2  1  20 sin 60o  2  15  3  0

MA = 99.64 kN-m

SP2.7: Determine the reaction developed in the simply supported beam as shown in
fig.2.37.

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60 kN/m

20 kN/m
A
B

2m 4m

Fig.2.37

Solution:

The free body diagram of given space diagram as below

60 kN/m

20 kN/m
A
B
C
2m 4m
RAy RBy

The varying distributed load may be split into a uniformly distributed load of 20
kN/m as in rectangular geometry and a linearly varying load from point C to point B.
The linearly varying load at end C is zero and point B is 40 kN/m(60-20).

Taking moment about B, then

1 1
 M B  0 ,   R Ay  6  20  4  2   40  4  4  0
2 3

RAy = 44.44 kN

The equilibrium equations for vertical force,

1
 Fy  0 ,  R Ay  R By  20  4   40  4  0
2

 44.44  R By  80  80  0 , RBy = 115.56 kN

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Sp.2.8: The beam AB and CF are arranged as shown in fig.2.38. Find the reactions at
A, C and D due to the loads acting on the beam.

20kN 40kN
o
45 10kN
A
B 0.5m
C F
E 0.5m
60o 10kN
D
20kN

1m 1m 1m 1m 1m

Solution:

The free body diagrams of beams AB and CF is drawn below as

40kN
20kN
o
RAx A 45
B 10kN
REy
RAy RCy E F 0.5m
C D

60o 0.5m
10kN
RCy RDy
20kN

1m 1m 1m 1m 1m

Now consider beam AB,

Taking moment about A, then

 M A  0 ,  REy  3  20  3  40 sin 45o  4  0

REy = 57.71 kN

The equilibrium equation about horizontal, then

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 Fx  0 ,   R Ax  40 cos 45 o  0

RAx = 28.28 kN

The equilibrium equations about vertical, then

 Fy  0 ,  R Ay  20  40 sin 45  REy  0
o

 RAy  20  40 sin 45o  57.71  0

RAy = -9.43kN

Here, the negative sign indicates the direction of reaction is downwards.

Consider beam CF,

Taking moment about C, then

 M C  0 ,  RDy  3  20 sin 60 o  1  REy  2  10  1  0

 RDy  3  20 sin 60 o  1  57.71  2  10  1  0

RDy = 40.91 kN

The equilibrium equations about horizontal is

 Fx  0 ,  RCx  20 cos 60 o  0

RCx = 10 kN

The equilibrium equations about vertical is

 Fy  0 ,  RCy  20 sin 60  REy  RDy  0

o

 RCy  20 sin 60 o  57.71  40.91  0

RCy = 34.12 kN

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FRAMES AND MACHINES:

Frames and machines are two types of structures which are often composed of
pin-connected multi-force members, i.e., members that are subjected to more than two
forces. Frames are used to support loads, whereas machines contain moving parts and
are designed to transmit and alter the effect of forces. Provided a frame or machine
contains no more supports or members than are necessary to prevent its collapse, the
forces acting at the joints and supports can be determined by applying the equations of
equilibrium to each of its members. Once these forces are obtained, it is then possible
to design the size of the members, connections, and supports using the theory of
mechanics of materials and an appropriate engineering design code.

Free-Body Diagrams.
In order to determine the forces acting at the joints and supports of a frame or
machine, the structure must be disassembled and the free-body diagrams of its parts
must be drawn. The following important points must be observed:

 Isolate each part by drawing its outlined shape. Then show all the forces and/or
couple moments that act on the part. Make sure to label or identify each known
and unknown force and couple moment with reference to an established x, y
coordinate system. Also, indicate any dimensions used for taking moments. Most
often the equations of equilibrium are easier to apply if the forces are represented
by their rectangular components. As usual, the sense of an unknown force or
couple moment can be assumed.
 Identify all the two-force members in the structure and represent their free-body
diagrams as having two equal but opposite collinear forces acting at their points
of application. By recognizing the two-force members, we can avoid solving an
unnecessary number of equilibrium equations.
 Forces common to any two contacting members act with equal magnitudes but
opposite sense on the respective members. If the two members are treated as a
“system” of connected members, then these forces are “internal” and are not
shown on the free-body diagram of the system; however, if the free-body diagram
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of each member is drawn, the forces are “external” and must be shown as equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction on each of the two free-body diagrams.

SP2.9: For the frame as shown in fig.2.39, draw the free body diagram of i) each
member, ii) the pins at B and A and iii) the two members connected together.

Fig.2.39

Solution:

Fig.2.39 b Fig.2.39 c

Part (a): By inspection, members BA and BC are not two-force members. Instead,
as shown on the free-body diagrams, Fig. 2.39 b, BC is subjected to a force from each
of the pins at B and C and the external force P. Likewise, AB is subjected to a force
from each of the pins at A and B and the external couple moment M. The pin forces are
represented by their x and y components.

Part (b). The pin at B is subjected to only two forces, i.e., the force of member
BC and the force of member AB. For equilibrium these forces (or their respective
components) must be equal but opposite, Fig. 2.39 c. Realize that Newton’s third law
is applied between the pin and its connected members, i.e., the effect of the pin on the
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two members, Fig. 2.39 b, and the equal but opposite effect of the two members on the
pin, Fig. 2.39 c. In the same manner, there are three forces on pin A, Fig. 2.39 d, caused
by the force components of member AB and each of the two pin leafs.

Fig.2.39 d Fig.2.39 e

Part (c). The free-body diagram of both members connected together, yet
removed from the supporting pins at A and C, is shown in Fig. 2.39 e. The force
components Bx and By are not shown on this diagram since they are internal forces
(Fig. 2.39 b) and therefore cancel out. Also, to be consistent when later applying the
equilibrium equations, the unknown force components at A and C must act in the same
sense as those shown in Fig. 2.39 b.

SP2.10: A constant tension in the conveyor belt is maintained by using the device as
shown in fig.2.40. Draw the free body diagram of the frame and the cylinder that the
belt surrounds. The suspended blocks has a weight of W.

Fig.2.40

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Solution:

SP2.11: For the frame as shown in fig.2.41, draw the free body diagrams of i) the entire
frame including the pulleys and cords, ii) the frame without the pulleys and cords and
iii) each of the pulleys.

Fig.2.41

Solution:

Fig.2.41 a Fig.2.41 b

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Part (a): When the entire frame including the pulleys and cords is considered, the
interactions at the points where the pulleys and cords are connected to the frame become
pairs of internal forces which cancel each other and therefore are not shown on the free-
body diagram, Fig.2.41 a.

Part (b). When the cords and pulleys are removed, their effect on the frame must
be shown, Fig.2.41 b.

Part (c). The force components Bx, By, Cx, Cy of the pins on the pulleys, Fig. 2.41
c, are equal but opposite to the force components exerted by the pins on the frame,
Fig.2.41 c.

SP2.12: The 75-kg man as shown in Fig.2.41 attempts to lift the 40-kg uniform beam
off the roller support at B. Determine the tension developed in the cable attached to B
and the normal reaction of the man on the beam when this is about to occur.

Fig.2.42

Solution:

The free-body diagrams of the pulley E, the man, and the beam are shown in Fig.
2.42 b. Since the man must lift the beam off the roller B then NB = 0. When drawing
each of these diagrams, it is very important to apply Newton’s third law. The tensile
force in the cable will be denoted as T1.

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Fig.2.42 a

Equations of Equilibrium: Using the free-body diagram of pulley E, About vertical, then

 Fy  0 ,  2T1  T2  0 , T2 = 2T1 ------ (1)

Using the free body diagram of man for vertical components, then

 Fy  0 , N m  2T1  75(9.81)  0 --------- (2)

Taking moment about A on the beam, then

 M A  0 , T1  3  N m  0.8  ( 40(9.81))  1.5  0 ----------- (3)

Solving equations 2 and 3 simultaneously for T1 and Nm then using equations (1) for T2

T1 = 256 N, Nm = 224 N and T2 = 512 N.

SP2.13: The frame supports the 400-kg load in the manner shown in fig.2.43. Neglect
the weights of the members compared with the forces induced by the load and compute
the horizontal and vertical components of all forces acting on each of the members.

Fig.2.43

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Solution:
First, the three supporting members which constitute the frame form a rigid
assembly can be analysed as a single unit. It also observe that the arrangement of the
external supports makes the frame statically determinate.

From the free-body diagram of the entire frame we determine the external
reactions. Thus,
 M A  0 ,  400  9.81(5.5)  R Dx (5)  0 ,

RDx = 4.32 kN

 Fx  0 ,  R Ax  R Dx  0 ,  R Ax  4.32  0

RAx = 4.32 kN

 F y  0 ,  R Ay  ( 400 )( 9 .81)  0

RAy = 3.92 kN

Next we dismember the frame and draw a separate free-body diagram of each
member. The diagrams are arranged in their approximate relative positions to aid in
keeping track of the common forces of interaction. The external reactions just obtained
are entered onto the diagram for AD. Other known forces are the 3.92-kN forces exerted
by the shaft of the pulley on the member BF, as obtained from the free body diagram of
the pulley. The cable tension of 3.92 kN is also shown acting on AD at its attachment
point.

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Next, the components of all unknown forces are shown on the diagrams. Here it
observes that CE is a two-force member. The force components on CE have equal and
opposite reactions, which are shown on BF at E and on AD at C. This may not recognize
the actual sense of the components at B at first glance, so they may be arbitrarily but
consistently assigned. The solution may proceed by use of a moment equation about B
or E for member BF, followed by the two force equations. Thus,

1
 M B  0 ,  400  9.81(5)  REx (3)  0 ,
2

REx = 13.08 kN

 Fx  0 ,   R Bx  R Ex  400 (9.81)  0 ,   R Bx  13.08  3.92  0

RBx = 9.15 kN

1
 F y  0 ,   RBy  REx  (400)(9.81)  0
2

RBy = 2.62 kN

Positive numerical values of the unknowns mean that we assumed their

directions correctly on the free body diagrams. The value of Cx = Ex = 13.08 kN
obtained by inspection of the free-body diagram of CE is now entered onto the diagram
for AD, along with the values of Bx and By just determined. The equations of
equilibrium may now be applied to member AD as a check, since all the forces acting
on it have already been computed. The equations give

 M C  0 ,  R Ax (3.5)  R Dx (1.5)  400 (9.81)( 2)  R Bx (1.5)  0 ,

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 4.32(3.5)  4.32(1.5)  400(9.81)(2)  9.15(1.5)  0

 Fx  0 ,  R Dx  RCx  R Bx  ( 400 )(9.81)  R Ax  0 ,

 4.32  13.08  9.15  3.92  4.32  0

1
 Fy  0 ,   RCx  RBy  R Ay  0
2

1
  13.08  2.62  3.92  0
2

SP2.14: In the particular position as shown in fig.2.44, the excavator applies a 20-kN
force parallel to the ground. There are two hydraulic cylinders AC to control the arm
OAB and a single cylinder DE to control arm EBIF. i) Find the force in the hydraulic
cylinders AC and the pressure PAC against their pistons, which have an effective
diameter of 95 mm, ii) Also find the force in hydraulic cylinder DE and the pressure
PDE against its 105 mm diameter piston. Neglect the weights of the members compared
with the effects of the 20 kN force.

Fig.2.44
Solution:

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i) The constructing a free body diagram of the entire arm assembly is shown in
above figure a. In this only dimensions are necessary for the portion of problem – details
of the cylinders DE and GH are unnecessary at this time.
 M O  0 ,  20(3.95)  2 FAC cos  (0.68)  2 FAC sin  ( 2)  0

  20 (3 .95 )  2 F AC cos 41 .3 o ( 0 .68 )  2 F AC sin 41 .3 o ( 2 )  0

FAC = 48.8 kN

FAC 48800
From FAC = PACAAC, PAC    6.89(10 6 ) Pa or 6.89MPa
AAC  0.0952 
  
 4 

ii) For cylinder DF, cut the assembly at a location which makes the desired cylinder
force external to our free body digram. This means isolating the vertical arm EBIF along
with the bucket and its applied force.
 M B  0 ,  20(3.5)  FDE cos  (0.73)  FDE sin  (0.4)  0

 20(3.5)  FDE cos 11.31o (0.73)  FDE sin 11.31o (0.4)  0

FDE = 88.1kN

FDE 88100
PDE    10.18(10 6 ) Pa or 10.18MPa
ADE  0.105  2
  
 4 

CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY COVERING:

The plane geometry like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc. or space geometry
have only areas or volume, but no mass. The centre of area/ volume of such figures is
known as centroid. The method of finding out the centroid of a figure is the same as
that of finding out the centre of gravity of a body. The centre of gravity is similar to the
centroid but mass is accounted.

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Difference between Centre of Gravity and Centroid:

Sl. No Centre of Gravity Centroid

1 The point where the total weight of It is referred to the geometrical centre
the body focuses upon of a body

2 It is the point where the gravitational It is referred to the centre of gravity

force (weight) acts on the body of uniform density objects

3 It is denoted by g It is denoted by c

4 Centre of Gravity in a uniform The centroid is a point in a plane area

gravitational field is the average of in such a way that the moment of area
all points, weighted by local density about any axis throughout that point
or specific weight is 0

5 It is a physical behaviour of the It is a geometrical behaviour. It is the

object, a point where all the weight centre of measure of the amount of
of an object is acting geometry.

Methods for Centroid:

The centroid may be found out by any one of the following methods:

1. by geometrical considerations

2. by moments

3. by graphical method

As a matter of fact, the graphical method is a tedious and cumbersome method

for finding out the centroid of simple figures. So this graphical method is not include
here. Before to discuss the method of moments, the procedure for finding out the
centroid of simple figures by geometrical considerations as follows.

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Centroid by Geometrical Considerations:

The centroid of simple figures may be found out from the geometry of the figure
as given below.

1. The centroid of uniform rod/ length is at its middle point.

2. The centroid of a rectangle (or a parallelogram) is at the point, where its
diagonals meet each other. It is also a middle point of the length as well as the
breadth of the rectangle as shown in Fig. 2.45.

Fig.2.45 Rectangular geometry

3. The centroid of a triangle is at the point, where the three medians (a median is a
line connecting the vertex and middle point of the opposite side) of the triangle
meet as shown in Fig. 2.46.

Fig.2.46
4. The centroid of a trapezium with parallel sides a and b is at a distance of
h  b  2a 
  measured form the side b as shown in Fig.2.47.
3  ba 

Fig.2.47 Trapezium
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4r
5. The centroid of a semicircle is at a distance of from its base measured along
3
the vertical radius as shown in Fig.2.48.

Fig.2.48 Semicircle
6. The centroid of a circular sector making semi-vertical angle  is at a distance of
2r sin 
 from the centre of the sector measured along the central axis as shown
3 
in Fig.2.49.

Fig.2.49 Circular sector

l
7. The centroid of a cube is at a distance of from every face (where l is the length
2
of each side).
d
8. The centroid of a sphere is at a distance of from every point (where d is the
2
diameter of the sphere).
3r
9. The centroid of a hemisphere is at a distance of from its base, measured along
8
the vertical radius as shown in Fig.2.50.

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Fig.2.50 Hemisphere solid
h
10. The centroid of right circular solid cone is at a distance of from its base,
4
measured along the vertical axis as shown in Fig.2.51.

Fig.2.51 Right circular solid

3 2r  h 
2
11. The centroid of a segment of sphere of a height h is at a distance of 
4 3r  h 
from the centre of the sphere measured along the height as shown in Fig.2.52.

Fig.2.52 Sphere segment

CENTROID BY FIRST PRINCIPLE (MOMENTS):

The centroid of a body may also be found out by moments as discussed below:

Consider a body of area A whose centroid is required to be found out. Divide the
body into small areas, whose centroids are known as shown in Fig.2.53. Let a1, a2, ….
etc., be the areas of the particles and (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), ...... be the co-ordinates of
the centroids from a fixed point O as shown in Fig.2.53.

Let x and y be the co-ordinates of the centroid of the body. From the first
principle of moments, we know that

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X
O
x1
x2
x3

Fig.2.53 Centroid by moments

 ax
A x  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  a 3 x 3 ............... or x 
A

 ay
Similarly, y 
A

Where, A  a1  a 2  a 3  .....

AXIS OF REFERENCE:

The centroid of a body is always calculated with reference to some assumed axis
known as axis of reference (or sometimes with reference to some point of reference).
The axis of reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure
for calculating y and the left line of the figure for calculating x .

CENTROID OF SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS:

Sometimes, the given section, whose centroid is required to be found out, is

symmetrical about X-X axis or Y-Y axis. In such cases, the procedure for calculating the
centroid of the body is very much simplified; as it has only to calculate either x or y .
This is due to the reason that the centre of gravity of the body will lie on the axis of
symmetry.

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CENTROID OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS:

Sometimes, the given section, whose centroid is required to be found out, is not
symmetrical either about X-X axis or Y-Y axis. In such cases, it has to find out both the
values of x and y .

CENTROID OF SIMPLE FIGURES FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE:

The calculation of centroids falls within three distinct categories, depending on
whether it can model the shape of the body involved as a line, an area, or a volume.

(1) Lines: For a slender rod or wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, and density,
Fig.2.54, the body approximates a line segment, and dm  AdL . If  and A are
constant over the length of the rod, the coordinates of the centre of mass also
become the coordinates of the centroid C of the line segment, which, may be written
as

x
 xdL , y
 ydL and z   zdL
L L L

Fig.2.54 Slender rod or wire

Note that in general the centroid C will not line on the line. If the rod lies
on a single plane, such as the x-y plane only two coordinates need to be
calculated.
(2) Areas: When a body of density p has a small but constant thickness t, it can model
as a surface area A, Fig.2.55. The mass of an element becomes dm  tdA . Again,

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if p and t are constant over the entire area, the coordinates of the centre of mass of
the body also become the coordinates of the centroid C of the surface area, and the
coordinates may be written

x
 xdA , y
 ydA and z   zdA
A A A
The numerators in above equations are called the first moments of area. If the
surface is curved, as illustrated in Fig.2.55 with the shell segment, all three
coordinates will be involved. The centroid C for the curved surface will in general
not lie on the surface. If the area is a flat surface in, say, the x-y plane, only the
coordinates of C in that plane need to be calculated.

Fig.2.55 Surface area

(3) Volumes: For a general body of volume V and density p, the element has a mass
dm  dV . The density  cancels if it is constant over the entire volume, and the

coordinates of the centre of mass also become the coordinates of the centroid C of
the body.

x
 xdV , y
 ydV and z   zdV
V V V

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Fig.2.56

These equations represent a balance of the moments of the volume of the body.
Therefore, if the volume possesses two planes of symmetry, then its centroid must lie
along the line of intersection of these two planes. For example, the cone in Fig.2.57 has
a centroid that lies on the y axis so that x  z  0 . The location y can be found using a
single integration by choosing a differential element represented by a thin disk having
a thickness dy and radius r = z. Its volume is dV   r 2 dy   z 2 dy and its centroid is at
~ ~ ~
x  0 , y  y and z  0 .

Fig.2.57 Cone solids

SP2.15: Locate the centroid of the rod bent into the shape of a parabolic arc as shown
in fig.2.58.

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Fig.2.58 Rod bent

Solution:

The differential element of the length dL can be expressed in terms of the

differential dx and dy using the Pythagorean theorem.

 2

  dx  
dL  (dx)  (dy )  
2 2
   1 dy
  dy  
 

dx
Since x  y 2 , then  2 y . Therefore expressing dL in terms of y and dy, then
dy

dL   (2 y)  1dy
2

Assume the centroid of the element is located at x  x and y  y

From the equation,

     y  4 y  1dy
1m 1m 1m

 x 4 y  1 dy  x 4 y  1 dy
2 2 2 2

x
 xdL  0
 0
 0

  4 y  1dy   4 y  1dy
1m 1m 1m
L
 dL
2 2

0 0 0

0.6063
x  0.410m
1.479

 y   y   y 
1m 1m 1m
4 y  1 dy
2
4 y  1 dy
2
4 y 2  1 dy
y
 ydL  0
 0
 0

  1 dy   1 dy
1m 1m 1m
L
 dL
2
4y 4y2
0 0 0

0.848
y  0.574m
1.479

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SP2.16: Locate the centroid of a circular arc as shown in fig.2.59

Fig.2.59 Circular arc

Solution:

Fig.2.59a

Assume that the given figure is a symmetry about x axis and make the centroid
by y axis is zero i.e y  0 . A differential element of arc has length dL  rd expressed
in polar coordinates and the x – coordinate of the element is r cos  . Applying the first
principle and substituting L  2r in equation


 xdL  (r cos  )(rd )

x , x 

L 2r

x
r 2
sin  



r 2 (sin   (sin( )) r 2 (2 sin  )

2r 2r 2r

r sin 
x


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SP2.17: Find the distance h from the base of a triangle of altitude h to the centroid of
its area.

Solution:

Fig.2.60 Triangle

The x axis is taken to coincide with the base. A differential strip of area dA  xdy
x b
is chosen. By similar triangles  . Applying the equations as
h y h

y
 ydA ,  A  bh and x
b(h  y)
A 2 h

 b(h  y ) 
 yxdy  y  h
 dy

y ,  y
A A

 h 2 h 3 
h
 y2 y3   3h 3  2h 3 

2 h  
 2 h   2 
  2
2( hy y ) dy  2 3 0  2 3   6 
y   
h2 h2 h2 h 2

h
y
3

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SP2.18: Locate the centroid of the area of a circular sector with respect to its vertex.

Solution: method 1,

Fig.2.61 Circular sector

The x axis is chosen as the axis symmetry and y  0 . The area may cover by
moving an element in the form of a partial circular ring as shown in the figure from the
centre to the outer periphery. The radius of the ring is ro and its thickness is dro , so that
its area is dA  2rO drO .

rO sin 
The x coordinate to the centroid of the circular arc element is x c  ,

where rO replaces r in the formula. Thus, the equations as

 rO sin  
r

 c 0  
x dA  
( 2rO drO ) 2 r 3 sin 
x  3 2
A 2 r 
(r 2 )
2

2 r sin 
x
3 

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Method 2:

Fig.2.61a

The area may also be covered by swinging a triangle of differential area about
the vertex and through the total angle of the sector. This triangle shown in the figure

and it has an area dA   rd  , where higher order terms are neglected. The centroid
r
2
of the triangular element of area is two thirds of its altitude from its vertex, so that the
2
x-coordinate to the centroid of the element is xc  r cos . The equation as
3

2  1 
  3 r cos  2 r d  2 3
2
r sin 
x
 xc dA  

 3
A r 2 r 2

2 r sin 
x
3 

SP2.19: Locate the centroid for the area of a quarter circle as shown in fig.2.62

Fig.2.62 Quarter circle

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Solution:

R2
The area of the element is dA  R Rd  
1
d and the centroid of the
2 2
~ 2 ~ 2
element (assumed as triangle) is located at x  R cos and y  R sin  .
3 3

From the equations

  
2 R 2 
2~ 2 2 2

 xdA   x dA 0  3 R cos   2 d  R   cos d

3 0 4R
x 0
  
dA 
2

R2
2

2 3
 dA
0
0 2 d  d
0

  
2 R 2 
2~ 2 2 2

 ydA   y dA 0  3 R sin   2 d  R   sin d

3  0 4R
y 0
  
dA 
2

R2
2

2 3
 dA
0
0 2 d  d
0

SP2.20: Locate the centroid of the area as shown in fig.2.63

Fig.2.63

Solution: method 1
~ ~ y
The area of the element is dA  ydx , and its centroid is located at x  x and y 
2

From the equations,

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1m ~ 1m 1m

 x dA  xydx  x
3
dx
x
 xdA  0
 0
 0

0.250
 0.75m
1m 1m 1m
dA 0.333
 dA  ydx x
2
dx
0 0 0

1m ~ 1m
 y
1m
 x2  2
 ydA  y dA 0  2  ydx 0  2  x dx
 0.100
y  0
1m
 1m
 1m
  0.3m
dA 0.333
 dA  ydx x
2
dx
0 0 0

Method 2:

The area of the element is dA  (1  x)dy , and its centroid is located at

~
1 x  1 x ~
x  x   and y y
 2  2

From the equations,

1  x 
1m ~ 1m 1m

 xdA   0  2 (1  x)d y  (1  y)dy

x dA
0.250
x 0
1m
 1m
 1m0   0.75m
dA 0.333
 dA
0
 (1  x)dy
0
 (1 
0
y )dy

1m ~ 1m 1m
3

 ydA   y dA  y(1  x)dy  ( y  y 2 )dy 0.100

y 0
1m
 0
1m
 0
1m
  0.3m
dA 0.333
 dA
0
 (1  x)dy
0
 (1 
0
y )dy

SP2.21: Locate the centroid of the semi elliptical area as shown in fig.2.64

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Fig.2.64

Solution: Method 1
~ ~ y
The area of the element is dA  ydx and its centroid is located at x  x and y 
2
. Since the area is symmetrical about the y axis, then x  0 .

From the equation,

2m ~ 2m
y 
2m
x2 4 
 ydA   y dA  2
( ydx ) 
2m 
1  dx 4

y 2m
 2m
  3  0.424 m
dA 2m 2m 2m  2  
 dA  ydx  1  x dx
4 
2m 2m 2m 

Method 2:
~ ~
The area of the element is dA  xdy and its centroid is located at x  0 and y  y

. Since the area is symmetrical about the y axis, then x  0 . Here x  2 1  y 2  

From the equation,

 y 4 
1m ~ 1m 1m

 ydA  y dA  y(2 xdy) 1  y 2 dy 4

y  0
 0
 0
 3  0.424m
 4 dy 
1m 1m 1m
dA
 dA
0
 (2 xdy)
0 0
1 y2

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SP2.22: Locate the centroid of the volume of a hemisphere of radius with respect to its
base.

Solution:

Fig.2.65 Hemisphere solids

With the axes chosen as shown in the figure, x  z  0 by symmetry. The most
convenient is a circular slice of thickness dy parallel to the x – z plane. Since the
hemisphere intersect the y-z plane in the circle y 2  z 2  r 2 , the radius of the circular

slice is z  r 2  r 2 . The volume of the elemental slice becomes

dV   ( r 2  y 2 ) dy

The equation becomes,

y
y c dV r r

,  y   (r  y )dy   y (r 2  y 2 )dy
2 2

V 0 0

Where, y c  y and integrating the above gives

2 3 1 3
r y  r 4 ,  y  r
3 4 8

CENTROID OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS:

A composite body consists of a series of connected “simpler” shaped bodies,
which may be rectangular, triangular, semi-circular, etc. Such a body can often be
sectioned or divided into its composite parts and, provided location of the centroid of

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each of these parts are known, it can then eliminate the need for integration to determine
the centroid for the entire body. The centroid by moments is used as

 ax a1 x1  a 2 x 2  a3 x3  ......
x 
A a1  a 2  a3  ....

SP2.23: Find the centre of gravity of a 100mm x 150mm x 30mm of T section.

Solution:

Fig.2.66 T section

As the section is symmetrical about Y-Y axis, bisecting the web, therefore its
centre of gravity will lie on this axis. Split up the section into two rectangles ABCH and
DEFG.

Let bottom of the web FE be the axis of reference.

1) Rectangle ABCH,

a1  100  30  3000 mm 2 and

 30 
y1  150    135 mm
 2 

2) Rectangle DEFG,
a 2  120  30  3600 mm 2 and

 120 
y2     60 mm
 2 

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We know that distance between centroid of the section and bottom of the flange
FE.

a1 y1  a1 y1 (3000  135)  (3600  60)

y   94.1mm
a1  a 2 3000  3600

SP2.24: Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100mm x 80mm x 20mm.

Solution:

As the section is not symmetrical about any axis, therefore we have to find out
the values of x and y for the angle section. Split up the section into two rectangles.

Let left face of the vertical section and bottom face of the horizontal section be
axes of reference.

Fig.2.67 L section

1) Rectangle 1,

a1  100  20  2000 mm 2

 20 
x1     10 mm and
 2 

 100 
y1     50 mm
 2 

2) Rectangle 2,
a 2  (80  20)  20  1200 mm 2

 60 
x 2   20    50 mm and
 2 

 20 
y 2     10 mm
 2 

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We know that distance between centroid of the section and left face.

a1 x1  a1 x1 (2000  10)  (1200  50)

x   25mm
a1  a 2 2000  1200

Similarly, distance between centroid of the section and bottom face.

a1 y1  a1 y1 ( 2000  50 )  (1200  10 )
y   35 mm
a1  a 2 2000  1200

SP2.25: Find the centroid of a segment of height 30mm of a sphere of radius 60mm.

Solution:

Fig.2.68 Segment of sphere

Let O be the centre of the given sphere and ABC is the segment of this sphere
as shown in figure. As the section is symmetrical about X-X axis, therefore its centre
of gravity lies on this axis.

Let O be the reference point. We know that centre of gravity of the segment of
sphere.

3(2r  h) 2 3(2  60  30) 2

x   40.5mm
4(3r  h) 4(3  60  30)

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SP2.26: Loacte the centroid of the wire as shown in fig.2.69

Fig.2.69 Wire geometry

Solution:

Fig.2.69

The wire is divided into three segments as shown in figure.

i)Segment 1:

L1  r    60  188.5mm , x1  r  60 mm ,

 
L 2 2

 ydL  r sin  (rd ) r sin d

2

2r 2  60
y1  0
 0

 0

   38.2mm
L 2 2  
 rd
0
 rd
0

and z 1  0
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ii) Segment :

L2  40mm

y2
x2  0 , y2   20mm and z 2  0
2

iii) Segment:

L3  20 mm

z3
x3  0 , y 3  0 and z 3   10mm
2

We know that distance between centroid of the section

L1 x1  L2 x 2  L3 x3 (188.5  60)  (40  0)  (20  0)

x   45.5mm
L1  L2  L3 188.5  40  20

L1 y1  L2 y 2  L3 y 3 (188.5  38.2)  (40  20)  (20  40)

y   22.5mm
L1  L2  L3 188.5  40  20

L1 z1  L2 z 2  L3 z 3 (188.5  0)  (40  0)  (20  10)

z   0.805mm
L1  L2  L3 188.5  40  20

SP2.27: A semi-circular area is removed from a trapezium as shown in fig.2.70 Find

the centroid of the remaining area.

Fig.2.70 Composite section

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Solution:

Fig.2.70a

As the section in not symmetrical about any axis, therefore we have to find out
the values of x and y for the area. Split up the area into three parts as shown in Figure.
Let left face and base of the trapezium be the axes of reference.

1) Rectangle ,

a1  80  30  2400 mm 2

 80 
x1     40 mm and
 2 

 30 
y1     15 mm
 2 

2) Triangle,
80  30
a2   1200mm 2
2
 80  2 
x2     53 .3mm and
 3 
30
y 2  30   40mm
3
3) Semicircle,
 
a3   r 2   (20) 2  628.3mm 2
2 2

 40 
x 3   40    60 mm and
 3 

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4r 4  20
y3    8.5mm
3 3

We know that distance between centroid of the section and left face of trapezium.

a1 x1  a1 x1  a3 x3 (2400  40)  (1200  53.3)  (628.3  60)

x   41.1mm
a1  a 2  a3 2400  1200  628.3

Similarly, distance between centroid of the section and base of the trapeium.

a1 y1  a1 y1  a3 y 3 (2400  15)  (1200  40)  (628.3  8.5)

y   26.5mm
a1  a 2  a3 2400  1200  628.3

SP2.28: A solid consists of a right circular and a hemisphere with a cone cut out from
the cylinder as shown in fig.2.71 Find the centroid of the body.

Fig.2.71 Composite solids

Solution:

As the solid is symmetrical about horizontal axis, therefore its centroid lie onb
this axis.

Let the left edge of the hemispherical portion € be the axis of reference.

i) Hemisphere ADE,

2 2
v1   r3   60 3  144000 mm 3 and
3 3

5r 5  60
x1    37.5mm
8 8

ii) Right circular cylinder ABCD

v 2    r 2  h    60 2  150  540000 mm 3 and

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150 5  60
x2  60    135mm
2 8

iii) Cone BCF

 
v3   r 2  h   60 2  150  180000 mm3 and
3 3

3
x3  60  150   172.5mm
4

We know that distance between centroid of the solid and left edge of the
hemisphere, then

v1 x1  v 2 x 2  v3 x3
x
v1  v 2  v3

(144000  37.5)  (540000  135)  (180000  172.5)

x  93.75
144000  540000  180000

CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS:

The centre of gravity is a geometric property of any object. The centre of gravity
is the average location of the weight of an object. It can completely describe
the motion of any object through space in terms of the translation of the centre of
gravity of the object from one place to another, and the rotation of the object about its
centre of gravity if it is free to rotate. If the object is confined to rotate about some other
point, like a hinge, it can still describe its motion.

In flight, both airplanes and rockets rotate about their centres of gravity. A kite,
on the other hand, rotates about the bridle point. But the trim of a kite still depends on
the location of the centre of gravity relative to the bridle point, because for every object
the weight always acts through the centre of gravity.

Determining the centre of gravity is very important for any flying object. How
do engineers determine the location of the centre of gravity for an aircraft which they
are designing? In general, determining the centre of gravity (cg) is a complicated

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procedure because the mass (and weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout
the object. The general case requires the use of calculus. If the mass is uniformly
distributed, the problem is greatly simplified. If the object has a line (or plane)
of symmetry, the centre of gravity lies on the line of symmetry. For a solid block of
uniform material, the centre of gravity is simply at the average location of the physical
dimensions. (For a rectangular block, 50 X 20 X 10, the centre of gravity is at the point
(25,10, 5) ). For a triangle of height h, the centre of gravity is at h/3, and for a semi-
4r
circle of radius r, the centre of gravity is at where  is ratio of the circumference of
3
the circle to the diameter.

For a general shaped object, there is a simple mechanical way to determine the centre
of gravity:

1. If just balance the object using a string or an edge, the point at which the object
is balanced is the centre of gravity. (Just like balancing a pencil on your finger!)

2. Another, more complicated way, is a two-step method shown on the slide.

In Step 1, you hang the object from any point and drop a weighted string
from the same point. Draw a line on the object along the string.

For Step 2, repeat the procedure from another point on the object and now
it has two lines drawn on the object which intersect. The centre of gravity is the
point where the lines intersect. This procedure works well for irregularly shaped
objects that are hard to balance.

If the mass of the object is not uniformly distributed, it must use calculus to
determine centre of gravity. It will use the symbol  dW to denote the integration of a

continuous function with respect to weight. Then the centre of gravity can be
determined from:

x W   x dW

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Where x is the distance from a reference line, dw is an increment of weight,
and W is the total weight of the object. To evaluate the right side, it has to determine
how the weight varies geometrically. From the weight equation, we know that:

W mg

Where m is the mass of the object, and g is the gravitational constant. In turn,

the mass m of any object is equal to the density , of the object times the volume, V:

m  V

Now, it can combine the last two equations:

W   gV

Then

dW   g dV

dW   ( x, y, z ) g (dx dy dz )

If it has a functional form for the mass distribution, then it can solve the equation for
the center of gravity:

c..g  W  g    ( x, y, z )dxdydz

where  indicates a triple integral over dx, dy and dz. If don't know the

functional form of the mass distribution, it can numerically integrate the equation using
a spreadsheet. Divide the distance into a number of small volume segments and
determining the average value of the weight/volume (density times gravity) over that
small segment. Taking the sum of the average value of the weight/volume times the
distance times the volume segment divided by the weight will produce the centre of
gravity.

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MOMENT OF INERTIA:
The moment of a force (F) about a point, is the product of the force and
perpendicular distance (d) between the point and the line of action of the force
(i.e.M=dF). This moment is also called first moment of force. If this moment is again
multiplied by the perpendicular distance (d) between the point and the line of action of
the force i.e. M  (d .d ) F  d 2 F , then this quantity is called moment of the moment of
a force or second moment of force or moment of inertia (briefly written as M.I. or I).
Sometimes, instead of force, area or mass of a figure or body is taken into consideration.
Then the second moment is known as second moment of area or second moment of
mass. But all such second moments are broadly termed as moment of inertia.

AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA- DEFINITION:

Consider a plane area, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Split up the whole area into a number of small elements.

Let a1, a2, a3, ... = Areas of small elements, and

r1, r2, r3, ... = Corresponding distances of the elements from the line about
which the moment of inertia is required to be found out.

Now the moment of inertia of the area,

I  a1 r 2  a 2 r 2  a 3 r 3  ....   ar 2

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MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE SECTIONS FROM FIRST

PRINCIPLES:

X
O

Fig.2.72 Moment of inertia of plane sections

The moment of inertia of an area may also be found out by the method of
integration as discussed below:

Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out

about X-X axis and Y-Y axis as shown in Fig.2.72. Let us divide the whole area into a
no. of strips. Consider one of these strips.

Let dA = Area of the strip

x = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on X-X axis and

y = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on Y-Y axis.

We know that the moment of inertia of the strip about Y-Y axis

= dA . x2

Now the moment of inertia of the whole area may be found out by integrating
above equation. i.e.,

I YY   dA.x 2

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Similarly I xx   dA.y 2

THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA:

1. Theorem of parallel axis
2. Theorem of perpendicular axis

1) Theorem of parallel axis:

It states, If the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis through its centre
of gravity is denoted by IG, then moment of inertia of the area about any other axis AB,
parallel to the first, and at a distance ‘h’ from the centre of gravity is given by:

I AB  I G  ah 2

where , IAB = Moment of inertia of the area about an axis AB,

IG = Moment of Inertia of the area about its centre of gravity

a = Area of the section, and

h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and axis AB.

Fig.2.73 Circular lamina

Proof:

Consider a strip of a circle, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out

about a line AB as shown in Figure.

Let da = Area of the strip,

y = Distance of the strip from the centre of gravity the section and

h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and the axis AB.
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We know that moment of inertia of the whole section about an axis passing
through the centre of gravity of the section

= da. y2

and moment of inertia of the whole section about an axis passing through its centre of
gravity,

I G   da ..y 2

∴ Moment of inertia of the section about the axis AB,

I AB   da ( h  y ) 2   da ( h 2  y 2  2hy )

I AB  (  h 2 .da )  (  y 2 .da )  (  2hy.da )

I AB  ah 2  I G  0

It may be noted that ∑ h2 . da = a h2 and ∑ y2 . da = IG

Now the ∑ y. da is the algebraic sum of moments of all the areas about an axis through
centre of gravity of the section and is equal to a.. y , where y is the distance between
the section and the axis passing through the centre of gravity, which obviously is zero.

2) Theorem of perpendicular axis

It states, If IXX and IYY be the moments of inertia of a plane section about two
perpendicular axis meeting at O, the moment of inertia IZZ about the axis Z-Z,
perpendicular to the plane and passing through the intersection of X-X and Y-Y is given
by:

I ZZ  I XX  IYY

Fig.2.74 Theorem of perpendicular axis

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Proof:

Consider a small lamina (P) of area da having co-ordinates as x and y along OX

and OY two mutually perpendicular axes on a plane section as shown in Figure.

Now consider a plane OZ perpendicular to OX and OY.

Let (r) be the distance of the lamina (P) from Z-Z axis such that OP = r.

From the geometry of the figure, we find that

r 2  x2  y2

We know that the moment of inertia of the lamina P about X-X axis,

I XX  y 2 .da

Similarly, I yy  x 2 .da and

I zz  z 2 .da  r 2 .da  ( x 2  y 2 ).da

I zz  x 2 .da  y 2 .da  IYY  I XX

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF STANDARD SECTIONS:

1) A rectangular section:

Fig.2.75 Rectangular section

Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown in Fig. whose moment of inertia

is required to be found out.

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Let b = Width of the section and

d = Depth of the section.

Now consider a strip PQ of thickness dy parallel to X-X axis and at a distance y

from it as shown in the figure

∴ Area of the strip = b.dy

We know that moment of inertia of the strip about X-X axis,

= Area × y2 = (b. dy) y2 = b. y2. dy

Now the moment of inertia of the whole section may be found out by integrating the
d d
above equation for the whole length of the lamina i.e. from  to .
2 2
d d
2 2
I xx   b. y .dy  b  y 2 .dy
2

d d
2 2

d
 y3  2
I xx  b    b 2 
  
 d 3 d 3
2   bd
3 
 3 d 2  3 3  12
 

Similarly,

db 3
I xx 
12

2) Circular Section:

Fig.2.76 Circular section

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Consider a circle ABCD of radius (r) with centre O and XX' and Y-Y' be two axes
of reference through O as shown in Figure.

Now consider an elementary ring of radius x and thickness dx. Therefore area of
the ring,

da = 2  x.dx

and moment of inertia of ring, about X-X axis or Y-Y axis

= Area × (Distance)2

= 2  x.dx × x2

= 2  x3.dx

Now the moment of inertia of whole section, about the central axis, can be found
out by integrating the above equation for the whole radius of the circle i.e., from 0 to r.
r r
I ZZ   2x .dx  2  x 3 dx
3

0 0

r
 x4   
I ZZ  2    (r ) 4  (d ) 4 [since r = d/2]
 4 0 2 32

We know that from theorem of perpendicular axis that

IZZ = IXX +IYY,

I ZZ 1 
If I XX  I YY    (d ) 4
2 2 32

3) A triangular section:

Fig.2.77 Triangular section

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Consider a triangular section ABC whose moment of inertia is required to be
found out.

Let, b = Base of the triangular section and

h = Height of the triangular section.

Now consider a small strip PQ of thickness dx at a distance of x from the vertex

A as shown in Fig. 7.8. From the geometry of the figure, we find that the two triangles
APQ and ABC are similar.

Therefore

PQ x BC.x bx
 or PQ   [since BC = base = b]
BC h h h

We know that area of the strip PQ

bx
 .dx
h

and moment of inertia of the strip about the base BC

bx bx
= Area × (Distance)2  dx(h  x) 2  (h  x) 2 dx
h h

Now moment of inertia of the whole triangular section may be found out by
integrating the above equation for the whole height of the triangle i.e., from 0 to h.
h
bx
I BC   (h  x) 2 dx
0
h

h h
bx 2 b
I BC   (h  x 2  2hx)dx   ( xh 2  x 3  2hx 2 )dx
0
h h0

h
b  x 2 h 2 x 4 2hx 3  bh 3
I BC      
h 2 4 3  0 12

We know that distance between centre of gravity of the triangular section and
base BC.

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h
d
3

Since, the moment of inertia of the triangular section about an axis through its centre of
gravity and parallel to X-X axis.

I G  I BC  ad 2

2
bh 3  bh  h  bh 3
IG      
12  2  3  36

Note: The moment of inertia of section about an axis through its vertex and parallel to
the base
2
bh 3  bh  2h  9bh 3 bh 3
 I G  ad 
2
     
36  2  3  36 4

Moment of inertia of composite sections:

The moment of inertia of a composite section may be found out by the following
steps:

1. First of all, split up the given section into plane areas (i.e., rectangular,
triangular, circular etc., and find the centre of gravity of the section).

2. Find the moments of inertia of these areas about their respective centres of
gravity.

3. Now transfer these moment of inertia about the required axis (AB) by the
Theorem of Parallel Axis, i.e.,

I AB  I G  ah 2

where IG = Moment of inertia of a section about its centre of gravity and parallel
to the axis.

a = Area of the section,

h = Distance between the required axis and centre of gravity of the

section.

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4. The moments of inertia of the given section may now be obtained by the
algebraic sum of the moment of inertia about the required axis.

Sp2.29: Find the moment of inertia of the area as shown in fig2.78 About the x axis.

Fig.2.78 A rectangular with circular hole

Solution:

Fig.2.78a

First split the given figure into separate plane areas such as rectangular section
and circular section.

From the parallel axis theorem, we know that

1. Rectangular section:

I X  I G  Ah 2

1
I XR  (100)(150) 3  (100)(150)(75) 2  112.5(10 6 ) mm 4
12

2. Circular section:
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1
I XC   (25) 4   (25) 2 (75) 2  11.4(10 6 ) mm 4
4

Composite section:

I X  I XR  I XC  112.5(10 6 )  11.4(10 6 )  101.1(10 6 ) mm 4

SP2.30: Find the moments of inertia for the cross sectional area of the member as shown
in fig.2.79 about the x and y centroid axes.

Fig.2.79

Solution:

Fig.2.79a

First split the given figure into separate plane areas such as rectangular section
and denoted each section as A, B and D.

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From the parallel axis theorem, we know that

1. Rectangular section A and D:

I X  I G  Ah 2

1
I XA  (100)(300) 3  (100)(300)(200) 2  1425(10 6 ) mm 4
12

1
I YC  (300)(100) 3  (300)(100)(250) 2  1900(10 6 ) mm 4
12

2. Rectangular section B:
1
I XB  (600)(100) 3  0  50(10 6 ) mm 4
12
1
I YB  (100)(600) 3  0  1800(10 6 ) mm 4
12

Composite section:

I X  I XA  I XC  I XD  1425(10 6 )  50(10 6 )  1425(10 6 )  2900 (10 6 ) mm 4

I Y  I YA  I YC  I YD  1900 (10 6 )  1800 (10 6 )  1900 (10 6 )  5600 (10 6 ) mm 4

MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA:

Fig.2.80 Rigid body

The mass moment of inertia of a body is a measure of the body’s resistance to

angular acceleration. Since it is used in dynamics to study rotational motion. Consider
the rigid body as shown in Fig.2.80. It define the mass moment of inertia of the body
about the z axis as
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I   r 2 dm
m

Here r is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the arbitrary element dm.
Since the formulation involves r, the value of I is unique for each axis about which it is
computed. The axis which is generally chosen, however, passes through the body’s
mass centre G. Common units used for its measurement are kg-m2.

Fig.2.81 solid object

If the body consists of material having a density , then dm =  dV, Fig.2.81.

Substituting this into above equations, the body’s moment of inertia is then computed
using volume elements for integration; i.e.,

I   r 2 dV
V

For most applications, r will be a constant, and so this term may be factored out
of the integral, and the integration is then purely a function of geometry.

I    r 2 dV
V

Mass moment inertia of circular plate:

Integrating to find the moment of inertia of circular plate i.e., a uniform thin disk
about an axis through its centre (Fig.2.82).

Since the circular plate is thin, it can take the mass as distributed entirely in the
xy-plane and start with the relationship for the surface mass density, which is the mass
per unit surface area. Since it is uniform, the surface mass density  is constant.

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m

A

Fig.2.82 Circular plate

So dm   (dA)

The area can be made up of a series of thin rings, where each ring is a mass
increment dm of radius r equidistant from the axis, as shown in part (b) of the figure.
The infinitesimal area of each ring dA is therefore given by the length of each ring (2πr)
times the infinitesimmal width of each ring dr:

A  r 2 , dA  d (r 2 )  2rdr

The full area of the circular plate is then made up from adding all the thin rings
with a radius range from 0 to R. This radius range then becomes our limits of integration
for dr, that is, it integrate from r=0 to r=R. Putting this all together, we have
R
R R
r4 
I ZZ   r  (2r )tdr  2t  r dr  2t  
2 3

0 0  4 0

 R4  m R4 m R4 1
I ZZ  2t   0  2  2  mR 2
 4  A 4 R 4
2
2

SP2.31: A 25-kg child stands at a distance r=1.0m from the axis of a rotating merry-go-
round (Fig.2.83). The merry-go-round can be approximated as a uniform solid disk with
a mass of 500 kg and a radius of 2.0 m. Find the moment of inertia of this system.

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Fig.2.83 Merry – go – round with child

Solution:

1
For the child, I C  mC r 2 and for the merry – go – round I m  mm r 2 . Therefore
2

1
I total  25(1) 2  (500)(2) 2  25  1000  1025kg.m 2
2

Mass moment inertia of Cylinder:

Fig.2.84 Cylinder solids

The shell element is considered to resolve the mass moment of inertia of cylinder
as shown in fig.2.84b. Thus only a single integration is required. The volume of the
element is dV=(2r)(h)dr and so its mass is dm=dV = (2hrdr). Since the entire
element lies at the same distance r from the z axis, the moment of inertia of the element
is

 2
R
dI Z Z   r 2 dm   2h  r 3dr  Rh
m 0 2

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Since the mass of the cylinder is
R
m   dm   2h  rdr  hR 2
m 0

Then,

1
I ZZ  mR 2
2

Mass moment inertia of Cone:

dx

O r x

x
h

Fig.2.85 Moment of inertia of cone

A circular slice of radius r and thickness dx is chosen as the volume element. By

R
the similarity of the triangle r  x . The volume of element dV  r 2 dx and its
h
elemental mass dm  dV  r 2 dx . Also to recall the moment of inertia of elemental
disc which is

1 1 1
 dmr 2  r 2 dx  r 2  r 4 dx
2 2 2

R
We know that, r  x
h

The moment of inertia about the X-axis of the cone is

 1  R 4   1  R4  
h
 R 4  x5 
h h h
1  
I XX   ( dm)r     x  dx      4 x 4  dx 
2
 
  h   h  2 h4  5  0
0 2 02 02

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 R 4  h5  R 4 h
I XX   
2 h4  5  10

But mass of the cone

h
R 2  x 3  R 2 h
h h
R2
m   r dx    2 x 2 dx 
2
  
0 0 h h2  3  0 3

Therefore,

3
I XX  mR2
10

Mass moment inertia of Sphere:

Fig.2.86 Moment of inertia 0f sphere

A circular slice of radius y and thickness dx is chosen as the volume element.

1 1
The volume of element dV  y 2 dx and its mass dm  dV  y 2 dx . The moment
2 2
of inertia about the x-axis of the elemental cylinder is

 2 2  2
1 
dI XX  ( dm ) y 2   y 2 dx  y 2   
y dx   2
r  x 2 dx 
2  2 2

Where  is the constant density of the sphere. The total moment of inertia about
the axis is


r
8
I XX  
2 r
(r 2  x 2 ) 2 dx  r 5
15

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Since the mass of the sphere is
r
r r
 x3 
m   dm    y dx    (r  x )dx   ( xr 2  )
2 2 2

m r r  3  r

 2 r3  r3   2r 3 2r 3  4  3
m   (rr  )  (rr 
2
)       r
 3 3   3 3  3

Therefore,

4 2 2
I XX   r 3  r 2  mr 2
3 5 5

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