Modern Physics at a Glance

2023. 08. 22.

Jiho Jun
Contents

1 Mathematics for Physics 3

2 Modern Physics at a Glance 4

2.1 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 QFT (Quantum Field Theory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.1 QED (Quantum Electrodynamics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.2 QCD (Quantum Chromodynamics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.3 SM (Standard Model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Appendix 23

2
Chapter 1

Mathematics for Physics

3
Chapter 2

Modern Physics at a Glance

2.1 Classical Mechanics

The universe’s physical laws can be described in various ways, one of which is Newtonian mechan-
ics. As scientists and mathematicians introduced new mathematical formulations for mechanics
that could elucidate previously inexplicable phenomena, they paved the way for novel branches
of physics. Prime examples of such groundbreaking discoveries include quantum mechanics and
general relativity. It is crucial to grasp these influential formulations, notably the Lagrangian
mechanics and the Hamiltonian mechanics.

Lagrangian Mechanics
Hamilton’s principle of least action says that the nature always takes the path of which
action becomes the least. Action is a physical quantity defined as:
Z t2
S= L(q, q̇; t) dt (2.1)
t1

where L is termed Lagrangian. Lagrangian is a function which determines the system’s equation
of a motion by the principle of least action. We can use the Euler–Lagrange equation, which
is the result of calculus of variations.

∂L d ∂L
− =0 (2.2)
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i

For example, in a classical system where only conservative forces act, the lagrangian and equation
of motion derived from Euler–Lagrange equation would be

1 ∂U
L = T − U = mẋi 2 − U (x, t) ⇒ mẍi = − (2.3)
2 ∂xi

where U is a poential. We see that it’s equivalent with Newtonian mechanics.

4
Hamiltonian Mechanics
Hamiltonian is defined as the Legendre transformation of lagrangian.

H(q, p; t) = p · q̇ − L(q, q̇; t) (2.4)

Here, {qi } are generalized coordinates and {pi } are their conjugate momentums. The whole
coordinate system is called canonical coordinates. Let’s apply the principle of least action to get
an equation of motion.
Z t2
δS = δ (pi q̇i − H) dt (2.5)
t1
t2  
∂H ∂H
Z
= pi δ q̇i + q̇i δpi − δqi − δpi dt (2.6)
t1 ∂qi ∂pi
Z t2      
∂H ∂H
= − ṗi + δqi + q̇i − δpi dt + pi δqi |tt21 (2.7)
t1 ∂q i ∂p i

=0 (2.8)

Therefore, we get the Hamilton’s canonical equations.

∂H ∂H
q̇i = , ṗi = − (2.9)
∂pi ∂qi

Here, p is canonical momentum whose definition comes from 2.4.

∂L
pi = (2.10)
∂ q̇i

And we rewrite the hamiltonian.

∂L
H = q̇ · −L (2.11)
∂ q̇
To gain more deeper understanding to Hamiltonian mechanics, we’d talk about the Poisson
Brackets. For functions f (q, p) and g(q, p) defined on the phase space, Poisson bracket is
defined as:
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
{f, g} =: − (2.12)
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi
We say that f and g commute when {f, g} = 0. The change of f (q, p; t) on time, using Hamilton’s
equations and Poissan bracket, would be

df ∂f ∂f ∂f
= q˙i + p˙i + (2.13)
dt ∂qi ∂pi ∂t
∂f
= {f, H} + (2.14)
∂t

The equation shows that if some function is not explicit by time and commutes with hailtonian,
it’s conserved. Hamiltonian then will be conserved if it’s just not explicit by time. Poissan bracket
is very important not just because it gives the symmetry, but is exchanged to the commutator
at quantum mechanics. We’ll deal with it later.

2.2 Special Relativity

Special relativity is based on the two following postulates.

1. The laws of physics are invariant in all inertial frames of reference.

2. The speed of light in a vacuum remains constant for all observers, irrespective of their
relative motion.

In Galilean relativity, applicable to classical situations, the spatial and temporal distances
between two events are considered invariant. However, in the context of special relativity, the
definition of the invariant interval needs revision, as these spatial and temporal distances no
longer remain conserved.
∆s2 = c2 ∆t2 − (∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 ) (2.15)

Given that these intervals are defined by an inner product, it is feasible to conceptualize a coor-
dinate system and a metric that simplifies the mathematical representation of special relativity.
An arbitrary event can be denoted as (ct, x, y, z), and the corresponding metric is represented
by η. This allows for the expression of an interval as ∆s2 = ηµν X µ X ν . This metric is called
Minkowski metric.  
1 0 0 0
 
0 −1 0 0 
η= 0 0 −1 0 
 (2.16)
 
0 0 0 −1
Transitioning to the topic of coordinate transformations, it’s essential to note that the space-
time interval remains invariant across all inertial frames. This observation leads us to consider
transformations that preserve the metric, known as the Lorentz transformations.

⊤
X′ ηX′ = X⊤ Λ⊤ ηΛX (2.17)
η = Λ⊤ ηΛ (2.18)

Lorentz transformations can also be represented as elements of the Lorentz group, denoted
as SO(3, 1). This representation parallels the concept that an isometry in 3-dimensional space
is an element of SO(3). Through the application of the Lorentz transformation, we can derive
properties such as time dilation and length contraction. Key parameters characterizing these
p
transformations include β = v/c and γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 .
Momentum and energy are not also conserved in their classical form, so we should get new
one. An action of a free particle is given, so apply the Euler–Lagrange equation.

mc2
Z Z  
2
S= (−mc ) dτ = − dt (2.19)
γ
We see that some value is conserved, and it must be a relativistic momentum.

p = γmv (2.20)

Hamiltonian is a Legendre transformaion of lagrangian, and since the lagrangian above is non-
explicit by time, hamiltonian is consered. It then must be a relativistic energy.

∂L
H = vi −L (2.21)
∂vi
mc2
= γmv 2 + = γmc2 (2.22)
γ

E = γmc2 (2.23)

Kinetic energy is obatained by simple calculus as K = (γ − 1)mc2 . This shows that particle with
a mass has a rest-energy of E0 = mc2 .
Event is represented with four spacetime coordinates, and we call these kinds of vectors
four-vector. Similarly, we define the four-velocity.
 
dt dr
V= c , = (γc, γv) (2.24)
dτ dτ

Then we define the four-momentum.

 
E
P = mV = ,p (2.25)
c

We can also check the following equation is true.

E 2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4 or P · P = (mc)2 (2.26)

2.3 Electromagnetism
Classical electromagnetism is governed by the Maxwell’s equations.

ρ
∇·E= (2.27)
ε0
∇·B=0 (2.28)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.29)
∂t
1 ∂E
∇×B= 2 + µ0 J (2.30)
c ∂t

Here ρ and J must satisfy the condition of charge-current conservation.

∂ρ
+∇·J=0 (2.31)
∂t
Utilizing potentials offers a more compact representation of the electromagnetic fields.

∂A
E = −∇ϕ − (2.32)
∂t
B=∇×A (2.33)

However, ϕ and A do not uniquely describe the electromagnetic field: the potentials ϕ,A and
ϕ′ ,A′ are considered to be physically equivalent if they differ by a gauge transformation.

∂χ
ϕ′ = ϕ − (2.34)
∂t
′
A = A + ∇χ (2.35)

This symmetry is called gauge symmetry. Gauge symmetry not only appears at electromag-
netism, but also at weak interactions, too. We’ll talk about it later. Anyway, we can rewrtie the
Maxwell’s equation with potentials.

∂ ρ
−∇2 ϕ − ∇·A= (2.36)
∂t ε0
1 ∂ 1 ∂2A
−∇2 A + ∇(∇ · A) + 2 ∇ϕ + 2 2 = µ0 J (2.37)
c ∂t c ∂t

A tremendous simplification of these equations can be made by transforming the potentials to

a new gauge such that
1 ∂ϕ′
+ ∇ · A′ = 0 (2.38)
c2 ∂t
This condition is known as Lorenz gauge condition. Thus, if we can find χ that satifies

1 ∂ϕ
□χ = +∇·A (2.39)
c2 ∂t

the full content of Maxwell’s equations is expressed by the wave equations together with the
Lorenz gauge condition. Read Appx.1 to find out how to get such χ.

ρ
□ϕ = − (2.40)
ε0
□A = −µ0 J (2.41)
1 ∂ϕ
+∇·A=0 (2.42)
c2 ∂t

The energy, momentum, and stress density of the electromagnetic field is also given as:
 
1 2 1 2
E= ε0 |E| + |B| (2.43)
2 µ0
P = ε0 E × B (2.44)
1
σ = ε0 E ⊗ E + B ⊗ B − EI (2.45)
µ0
Read Appx.2 to find out how to derive these quantities.
Let’s take a view of classical electromagnetism in lagrangian mechanics. The lagrangian
density is given as:  
1 1
L= ε0 |E|2 − |B|2 − ϕρ + A · J (2.46)
2 µ0
Details are in Appx.3.
Next step is to apply special relativity. We can define four-potential as:
 
µ ϕ
A = ,A (2.47)
c

A general gauge transformation then takes the form:

A′µ = Aµ + ∂µ χ (2.48)

We also define charge-current four-vector as:

J µ = (cρ, J) (2.49)

Charge-current conservation then takes the manifestly covariant form:

∂µ J µ = 0 (2.50)

The electric and magnetic fields are seen to arise from a tensor

Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ (2.51)
 
0 −E1 /c −E2 /c E3 /c
 
E1 /c 0 B3 −B2 
=  (2.52)
E2 /c −B3 0 B1 
E3 /c B2 −B1 0

called electromagnetic field-strength tensor. In this way, we’ve reformulated the electro-
magnetic field in a special relativistically covariant manner. This tensor has following properties.

Fµν = −Fνµ (2.53)

!
|E|2
Fµν F µν = 2 |B|2 − (2.54)
c2
∂[λ Fµν] = 0 (2.55)

Maxwell’s equations also can be written in covariant form by using the electromagnetic field-
strengh tensor.
∂ µ Fµν = −µ0 Jν (2.56)
Applying the Lorenz gauge condition, the equation takes simpler form.

∂ µ Aµ = 0 (2.57)
□Aµ = −µ0 Jµ (2.58)

Lagrangian density is expressed as:

1
L=− Fµν F µν + Aµ J ν (2.59)
4µ0

Energy, momentum, and stress density can be also expressed by electromagnetic field-strength
tensor and are contained in the electromagnetic stress-energy-momentum tensor.
 
µν 1 µλ νρ 1 µν λρ
T = ηλρ F F − η Fλρ F (2.60)
µ0 4
!
E cP ⊤
= (2.61)
cP −σ

The energy and momentum conservation relations then can be rewritten as the single spacetime
tensor equation either:
∂µ T µν = F µν Jµ (2.62)

Details are in 2.5.3.

Finally, we’ll take a view of the charged particle. A charged particle in electromagnetic field
feels the Lorentz Force:
F = q(E + v × B) (2.63)

where q is the charge of a particle. Then, the Lagrangian of a particle would be:

mc2
L=− + q (−ϕ + v · A) (2.64)
γ
mc2 q
=− + V µ Aµ (2.65)
γ γ

For the Lagrangian, we define the canonical momentum by

∂L
p= = mγ ẋ + qA (2.66)
∂ ẋ

Here we find the following equality.

p − qA
ẋ = r (2.67)
1
m2 + 2 |p − qA|2
c
The Hamiltonian corresponding then would be:

H = p · ẋ − L (2.68)
q
= m2 c4 + c2 |p − qA|2 + qϕ (2.69)
1
≈ mc2 + |p − qA|2 + qϕ (γ ≈ 1) (2.70)
2m

2.4 Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics is a fundamental theory that provides a description of nature at the scale
of atoms and subatomic particles. It is based on following postulates.

1. A physical system is represented by a state vector, an element of complex hilbert space.

2. The measurement of the physical value is expressed as a Hermetian operator, and the
measurement value can only be an eigenvalue of the operator.

3. The probability of eigenvalue q as a measure of observable Q is proportional to |⟨q|ψ⟩|2 .

As a result of the measurement, the state vector changes from |ψ⟩ to |q⟩.

4. A physical system follows Schrödinger equation.

By the Dirac notation, we write a ”ket”(vector) as |ψ⟩ and ”bra”(dual vector) as ⟨ψ|. They
are a hermitian conjugate of each other.

⟨ψ|† = |ψ⟩ , |ψ⟩† = ⟨ψ| (2.71)

Heisenberg independently formulated an early version of quantum mechanics, now known as

Matrix Mechanics. Within this framework, the ”ket” is conceptualized as a column vector, while
the ”bra” is viewed as a row vector. The beauty of Dirac notation lies in its intuitiveness: a
fully closed ”braket” represents a scalar, while an open one can signify a vector or an operator.
In this realm, physical quantities like position and momentum are not mere numbers; they are
operators. In the context of Heisenberg’s mechanics, these operators correspond to matrices. It’s
crucial to note, however, that these matrices often have infinite dimensions.

Q̂ |q⟩ = q |q⟩ (2.72)

By projecting the state vector onto the eigenstates of position or momentum, we can express
it in the position space or momentum space. This representation is termed the wavefunction.
The wavefunction provides a comprehensive description of the system, as it can be understood
mathematically as a complex-valued function.

ψ(r) = ⟨r|ψ⟩ , ϕ(p) = ⟨p|ψ⟩ (2.73)

In quantum mechanics, the act of observation alters the state of a system, causing it to
collapse into a specific eigenstate associated with the observed operator. This phenomenon is
termed the wavefunction collapse. It’s crucial to remember that only Hermitian operators
are observable, as they yield real eigenvalues. Additionally, the orthogonality of eigenstates is
a fundamental property. In the realm of matrix mechanics, operators possess eigenstates that
serve as the basis of the state space. As a result, every quantum state can be expressed as a
linear combination of these eigenstates. According to the Copenhagen Interpretation, the
coefficients in this combination represent probability amplitudes.
X X
|ψ⟩ = cn |ψn ⟩ ⇒ ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = |cn |2 (2.74)
n n
|cn |2
(probability to observe ψn ) = (2.75)
⟨ψ|ψ⟩

So if the state vector is normalized, ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1, the probability to observe ψn becomes |cn |2 .
Schrödinger equation is an axiom of the quantum mechanics. Since an energy operator is
iℏ∂t (Appx.4), the time-dependent form of equation is:

∂
Ĥ |Ψ⟩ = iℏ |Ψ⟩ (2.76)
∂t

Assuming a time-independent Hamiltonian, it becomes possible to separate the state vector into
the time-term and the Hamiltonian eigenfunction-term. Employing the separation of variables
technique, we derive the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian. While these eigenfunctions are not
exhaustive solutions to the Schrödinger equation, every solution to the Schrödinger equation can
be represented as a linear combination of these eigenfunctions, making them a complete basis
set for the state space.
|Ψ(t)⟩ = T (t) |ψ⟩ (2.77)

Then we get time-independent Schrödinger equation.

Ĥ |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩ (2.78)

The final solution is then:

 
X En
|Ψ(t)⟩ = ⟨ψn |Ψ(0)⟩ exp −i t |ψn ⟩ (2.79)
n
ℏ

Therefore, if we fully know the state vector at origin, it is possible to describe how the system
changes over time.
As alluded to earlier, in the transition from classical to quantum mechanics, the role played
by the Poisson bracket in Hamiltonian mechanics is supplanted by the commutator. The com-
mutator of two operators  and B̂ is defined as:

[Â, B̂] = ÂB̂ − B̂ Â (2.80)

For example, since the momentum operator is p = −iℏ∇, we get the following commutation
relation.

[xi , xj ] = 0 (2.81)
[pi , pj ] = 0 (2.82)
[xi , pj ] = iℏδij (2.83)

This is called the canonical commutation relation. This mathematical construct captures
the non-commutative nature of quantum operations. In essence, the order in which quantum
operations are applied can affect the outcome, different from classical mechanics. The best
example would be the uncertainty principle. This principle fundamentally states that certain
pairs of physical properties, like position and momentum, cannot both be precisely determined
simultaneously. Mathematically, the uncertainty relation is given by:

1
σA σB ≥ ⟨[Â, B̂] ⟩ (2.84)
2

Read Appx.5 for the derivation. By the uncertainty relation, there exists a Heisenberg limit of
two physical quantities if the two respective operators are not commutating. However, if the
two operators commute, then there isn’t a Heisenberg limit, which means the two quantities are
simultaneously measurable.
ℏ
[x̂, p̂] = iℏ ⇒ σx σp ≥ (2.85)
2
Relationship with Hamiltonian mechanics also appears at Ehrenfest’s theorem.
* +
d i ∂ Q̂
⟨Q̂⟩ = ⟨[Ĥ, Q̂] ⟩ + (2.86)
dt ℏ ∂t

It is easy to find that only {· , · } has changed to [· , · ]/iℏ from 2.14. Read Appx.6 for the deriva-
tion.
Next topic is the angular momentum. Using the definition of classical angular momentum
L = r × p, orbital angular momentum operator is defined as:

L̂i = ϵijk xˆj pˆk (2.87)

= −iℏϵijk xj ∂k (2.88)

Like any vector, the square of a magnitude can be defined for the orbital angular momentum
operator. Then we get following commutation relations.

[L̂i , L̂j ] = iℏϵijk L̂k (2.89)

[L̂2 , L̂i ] = 0 (2.90)

This indicates that individual components of angular momentum cannot be measured simul-
taneously with absolute precision. However, the square magnitude of the angular momentum
and any one of its components are simultaneously measurable. This implies that they share a
common set of eigenstates. When we choose the z-axis as our reference, the associated eigenvalue
equation can be expressed as:

L̂2 |α, β⟩ = α |α, β⟩ (2.91)

L̂z |α, β⟩ = β |α, β⟩ (2.92)

If we define following operators,

L̂± = L̂x ± iL̂y (2.93)

we get the commutation relation.

[L̂2 , L̂± ] = 0 (2.94)

[L̂z , L̂± ] = ±ℏL̂± (2.95)

This shows that L̂+ operator preserves the eigenvalue of L̂2 while increasing the eigenvalue of
L̂z by ℏ. Conversely, the L̂− operator preserves the eigenvalue of L̂2 but decreases the eigenvalue
of L̂z by ℏ. Given these properties, L̂+ is termed the raising operator and L̂− the lowering
operator. Together, they are often referred to as the ladder operators. To continue the
discussion, a component of a vector cannot be greater than the size of the vector. This indicates
that the maximum and minimum of β; β+ and β− exist for each α.

L̂± |α, β± ⟩ = 0 (2.96)

By using the following equality,

L̂± L̂∓ = L̂2 − L̂2z ± ℏL̂z (2.97)

we get
2
L̂∓ L̂± |α, β± ⟩ = (α − β± ∓ ℏβ± ) |α, β± ⟩ = 0 (2.98)

Therefore, magnitude of β+ and β− are same. If n times of required from β− to β+ ,

β+ = −β− (2.99)
β+ − β− = ℏn (2.100)
n n  ℏn
α = ℏ2 + 1 , β± = ± (2.101)
2 2 2

In common, we define l = n/2 to write it simpler.

 
2 1
α = ℏ l(l + 1) 0≤l∈ Z (2.102)
2
β = ℏml (ml = −l, −l + 1, . . . , l) (2.103)
Summarizing,

L̂2 |l, ml ⟩ = ℏ2 l(l + 1) |l, ml ⟩ (2.104)

L̂z |l, ml ⟩ = ℏml |l, ml ⟩ (2.105)

Mathematically, such eigenstate is a function called spherical harmonics.

s
2l + 1 (l − ml )! ml
Ylml (θ, ϕ) = (−1)ml P (cos θ)eiml ϕ (2.106)
4π (l + ml )! l

Additionally, we can check the following equality.

p
L̂± |l, ml ⟩ = ℏ l(l + 1) − ml (ml ± 1) |l, ml ± 1⟩ (2.107)

In general, the angular momentum may be defined as an operator satisfying 2.89. Experi-
ments demonstrate that electrons possess an intrinsic form of angular momentum, distinct from
orbital angular momentum. This inherent property is termed spin. Schrödinger equation can-
not explain the spin property of particles, but we can demonstrate it as ad hoc. Since it has a
property of angular momentum, it can be defined as:

[Ŝi , Ŝj ] = iℏϵijk Ŝk (2.108)

Then it satisfies the eigenvalue equation:

 
1 3
Ŝ 2 |s, ms ⟩ = ℏ2 s(s + 1) |s, ms ⟩ s = 0, , 1, , . . . (2.109)
2 2
Ŝz |s, ms ⟩ = ℏms |s, ms ⟩ (ms = −s, s + 1, . . . , s) (2.110)

where s is called spin quantum number or spin, and ms spin magnetic quantum number. Each
elementary particle has its own spin, and the electron has a spin of 1/2. Therefore, ms can be
1/2 or −1/2, and each are called up spin and down spin.

3 ℏ
Ŝ 2 |1/2, ↑⟩ = ℏ2 |1/2, ↑⟩ Ŝz |1/2, ↑⟩ = |1/2, ↑⟩ (2.111)
4 2
3 ℏ
Ŝ 2 |1/2, ↓⟩ = ℏ2 |1/2, ↓⟩ Ŝz |1/2, ↓⟩ = − |1/2, ↓⟩ (2.112)
4 2

Therefore, an arbitary state can be represented as a linear combination of up state and down
state. " #
c↑
ψ = c↑ |1/2, ↑⟩ + c↓ |1/2, ↓⟩ = (2.113)
c↓

Here ψ is a physical quantity called spinor(in this situation it would be spin-1/2 spinor). In
this context, spin operators can be represented as 2 by 2 matrices.
" #
3 2
2 3 2 1 0
S = ℏ I= ℏ (2.114)
4 4 0 1
" # " # " #
ℏ 0 1 ℏ 0 −i ℏ 1 0
Sx = Sy = Sz = (2.115)
2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1
" # " #
0 1 0 0
S+ = ℏ S− = ℏ (2.116)
0 0 −1 0

By using Pauli matrices, we can write it shorter.

ℏ ℏ ℏ
Sx = σ1 Sy = σ2 Sz = σ3 (2.117)
" #2 " 2 # 2" #
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = (2.118)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

Pauli matrices are the generator of SU(2) which is three-dimensional Lie group, and so they
form the basis of Lie algebra su(2). They are Hermitian, involutory, and unitary.

σj2 = I, det σj = −1, tr σj = 0 (2.119)

su(2) = span{iσ1 , iσ2 , iσ3 } (2.120)
{σk , σl } = 2δkl I (2.121)

Also, their commutation relation is:

[σk , σl ] = 2iϵklm σm (2.122)

The structure constant of su(2) is levi-civita tensor, the same with so(3). We can apply this
formulation to particles with higher spins. For example, for spin 1:
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
Sx = 1 0 1 Sy =  i 0 −i Sz = 0 0 0  (2.123)
     

0 1 0 0 i 0 0 0 −1

Although this is not a flawless way to compute spin, it’s a good tool to combine with norelativistic
quantum mechanics using Schrödinger equation. For example, we can calculate the perturbation
Hamiltonian of an electron in magnetic field as:

H ′ = −µ · B (2.124)
e
= (L + 2S) · B (2.125)
2m

Let’s summarize about the angular momentums. (Note that J = L + S is the total angular
momentum.)
 operator eigenvalue quantum number
L2 ℏ2 l(l + 1) l = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Lz ℏml ml = −l, l + 1, . . . , l
S2 ℏ2 s(s + 1) s = 0, 1/2, 1, . . .
Sz ℏms ms = −s, s + 1, . . . , s
J2 ℏ2 j(j + 1) j = 0, 1/2, 1, . . .
Jz ℏmj mj = −j, j + 1, . . . , j

Finally, we’ll talk about electromagnetic quantum dynamics. Using the nonrelativistic Hamil-
tonian 2.70, we can write the Schrödinger equation as:
 
1 2 ∂
(−iℏ∇ − qA) + qϕ ψ = iℏ ψ (2.126)
2m ∂t

Even if we apply the guage transformation, the equation should be uniform.

∂Λ
ϕ′ = ϕ − , A′ = A + ∇Λ (2.127)
∂t

Substituting in the equation, we get how the wavefunctinon transforms. Generally, the guage
transformation is:  
iq
ψ ′ = exp Λ ψ, A′µ = Aµ + ∂µ Λ (2.128)
ℏ
However, this guage symmetry does not hold when we use the relativistic Hamiltonian 2.69.
This apparently shows that the Schrödinger equation is not relativistically guage invariant. And
this problem is solved together with the spinor problem through the Dirac equation, developing
into the quantum field theory.

2.5 QFT (Quantum Field Theory)

Quantum field theory (QFT) is a blend of classical field theory, special relativity, and quan-
tum mechanics. In QFT, particles are seen as excited states of their respective fields. The way
particles interact is captured by specific terms in the Lagrangian that relate to their quantum
fields. These interactions can be visually mapped out using Feynman diagrams, based on the
principles of perturbation theory in quantum mechanics. Note that in QFT, natural units are
used. (c = ℏ = G = 1)

2.5.1 QED (Quantum Electrodynamics)

Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is a thoery which explains the electromagnetic interac-
tions of relativistic particles. In QED, a bispinor field is used to describe particles with half-spin.
Bispinors change in a specific ”spinorial” way when influenced by the Lorentz group. The term
”bispinor” comes from the fact that they’re made up of two basic component spinors, known as
Weyl spinors. These two component spinors behave differently under the two unique complex-
conjugate spin-1/2 representations of the Lorentz group. In other words, bispinors are elements
of a 4-dimensional complex vector space (1/2, 0) ⊕ (0, 1/2) representation of the Lorentz group.
In the Weyl basis, a bispinor consists of left-handed spinor and right-handed spinor.
!
ψL
ψ= (2.129)
ψR

Meanwhile, the Dirac basis is more commonly used in QFT.

" # !
1 1 1 1 ψR + ψL
ψ→√ ψ=√ (2.130)
2 −1 1 2 ψR − ψL

Bispinors are not physical quantities in own, just as like wavefunctions. However, with Dirac
matrices or gamma matrices, they can represent scalars, vectors, and tensors under the Lorentz
group.
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
   
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
γ0 =   γ1 =   (2.131)
0
 0 −1 0 

 0 −1 0
 0
0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
(2.132)
   
0 0 0 −i 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 i 0 0 0 0 −1
γ2 =  γ3 = 
 
0

−1
 (2.133)
 i 0 0  0 0 0
−i 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

The defining property for the gamma matrices is the anticommutation relation.

{γ µ , γ ν } = 2η µν I (2.134)

Then, properties such as ψ̄ψ is scalar and ψ̄γ µ ψ is vector. Here, ψ̄ is Dirac adjoint, defined as:

ψ̄ = ψ † γ 0 (2.135)

A suitable real Lagrangian density of a free spin-1/2 particle then can be constructed as:

L = ψ̄ (iγ µ ∂µ − m) ψ (2.136)

Applying Euler-Lagrange equation for ψ̄, we get the Dirac equation.

(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ = 0 (2.137)

By simple observations, we notice that the action has U (1) symmetry. Therefore, by the Noether’s
theorem, such value is conserved:
j µ = ψ̄γ µ ψ (2.138)

and we denote it as a current of dirac spinor field. Let’s next talk about the whole action of
QED. The entire action is the sum of the particle part, the electromagnetic field part, and the
interaction part.
1
L = ψ̄(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ − qAµ j µ − Fµν F µν (2.139)
4
This Lagrangian also has the guage symmetry of ??. If we define the new derivative:

Dµ = ∂µ − iqAµ (2.140)

under the gauge transformation we have:

Dµ ψ → eiqΛ Dµ ψ (2.141)

so Dµ ψ transforms in the same way as the field ψ itself. This derivative is called the gauge
covariant derivative. Also, the curvature of the electromagnetic field is proportional to the
electromagnetic field strength tensor.

1
Fµν = − [Dµ , Dν ] (2.142)
iq

Using the gauge covariant derivative, we can write the whole action of QED as:
 
1
Z
4 µν µ
S= dx − Fµν F + ψ̄(iγ Dµ − m)ψ (2.143)
4

2.5.2 QCD (Quantum Chromodynamics)

Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is the theory of the strong interaction between quarks
mediated by gluons. QCD is a type of quantum field theory with symmetry group SU(3). The
QCD analog of electric charge is a property called color or color charge. Gluons are the force
carriers, just as photons are for the electromagnetic force in QED. There are three types of color
charges; red, green, and blue. Particles with different colors attract each other while particles
with same color feel the repulsion.
 R
- -
B R
G
G B
R -
G
- -
B G
- R G B
G R B

- - -
R G B

In daily-life energy levels, color charge of hadrons are always zero (white). This is called
the color confinement: due to the force between two color charges remaining constant as
they are separated, the energy grows until a quark–antiquark pair is simultaneously created. In
consequence, the initial hadron turns into a pair of hadrons instead of isolating a color charge.
Since there are three types of color charge, QCD has a SU(3) gauge symmetry. The basis of
su(3) are the eight Gell-Mann matrices.
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
λ1 = 1 0 0 λ2 =  i 0 0 λ3 = 0 −1 0 (2.144)
     

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
     
0 0 1 0 0 −i 0 0 0
λ4 = 0 0 0 λ 5 = 0 0 0 λ 6 = 0 0 1 (2.145)
     

1 0 0 i 0 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 
λ7 = 0 0 −i λ8 = √ 0 1 0  (2.146)
  
3
0 i 0 0 0 −2

They have the structure constant of:

[λa , λb ] = 2ifab c λc , (2.147)

√
1 3
f12 3 = 1 f14 7 = f16 5 = f24 6 = f25 7 = f34 5 = f37 6 = f45 8 = f67 8 = (2.148)
2 2

In QCD, the gauge covariant derivative is:

Dµ = ∂µ − igs ta Aaµ (2.149)

where gs is the coupling constant of the strong force, ta = λa /2, and Aµ are the quark potentials.
a is a color index which value is 1 from 8. Then, the gluon field strength tensor can be defined
just as electromagnetic field strength tensor is defined.

1
Gµν = − [Dµ , Dν ] (2.150)
igs
= ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ − igs [Aµ , Aν ] (2.151)
= ta Gaµν (2.152)

Here, Gaµν is:

Gaµν = ∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ − gs f a bc Abµ Acν (2.153)

The main distinction between QED and QCD lies in the gluon field strength of QCD, which
has additional terms causing gluons to interact with each other, leading to the phenomenon
of asymptotic freedom. This makes the strong force in QCD inherently non-linear, unlike
the straightforward linear nature of the electromagnetic force in QED. In essence, QCD is a
non-abelian gauge theory.
The Lagrangian density of QCD is:

1
L = − tr (Gµν Gµν ) + ψ̄(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ (2.154)
2
1
= ψ̄i iγ µ (Dµ )ij − mδij ψj − Gaµν Gµν
 
a (2.155)
4

where ψ is a quark field,  

ψ1
ψ = ψ2  (2.156)
 

ψ3
consists of three spinor fields. The equations of motion for the quark fields are:

(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ = 0 (2.157)

and the equations of motion for the gluon fields are:

[Dµ , Gµν ] = gs j ν (2.158)

which are respectively similar to the Dirac equation and the Maxwell’s equations. Also, if we
define the four-current of color fields as:

j µ = ta jaµ , jaµ = ψ̄γ µ ta ψ (2.159)

we get the color charge conservation.

Dµ j µ = 0 (2.160)

2.5.3 SM (Standard Model)

With the similar analogy to the electromagnetic field, the weak field, the strong field, and the
Higgs field, we can define the gauge covariant derivative of the Standard Model (SM), the
 1
st 2nd rd 3 generation Goldstone outside
standard matter unstable matter force carriers bosons standard model

2.3 MeV 1.28 GeV 173.2 GeV 125.1 GeV

2/3 2/3 2/3
charge

R
/G

/G

/G
/B

/B

/B
u c t
colors

strong nuclear force (color)

mass
H
(+6 anti-quarks)
6 quarks

up charm top spin Higgs

1/2 1/2 1/2 0

4.8 MeV −1/3 95 MeV −1/3 4.7 GeV −1/3

R

co
/G

/G

/G
g

electromagnetic force (charge)

lo
/B

/B

/B
s

r
d
down 1/2
strange 1/2
b
bottom 1/2
gluon 1

weak nuclear force (weak isospin)

511 keV −1 105.7 MeV −1 1.777 GeV −1

e µ τ γ

gravitational force (mass)

(+6 anti-leptons)
6 leptons

electron 1/2
muon 1/2 tau 1/2
photon 1

< 2 eV < 190 keV < 18.2 MeV 80.4 GeV ±1 91.2 GeV

νe νµ ντ W ±
Z
e neutrino 1/2
µ neutrino 1/2 τ neutrino 1/2 1 1
graviton

12 fermions 5 bosons
(+12 anti-fermions) (+1 opposite charge W )
increasing mass →

Figure 2.1: Elementary Particles of the Standard Model

theory which explains (almost) everything except the gravity.

g′ g gs
Dµ = ∂µ − i Y Bµ − i σj Wµj − i λα Gαµ (2.161)
2 2 2

The guage symmetry of SM is U(1) × SU(2) × SU(3), the product of the electroweak Lie group
U(1) × SU(2) and the color symmetry Lie group SU(3). The Lagrangian density of SM is:

1
L = − Fµν F µν + ψ̄γµ Dµ ψ + |Dh|2 − V (|h|) + ψψh (2.162)
4 Dirac Higgs Yukawa
Maxwell
Yang-Mills
Appendix

Green’s function for d’Almbertian

□G(t, x; t′ , x′ ) = δ(x − x′ )δ(t − t′ )

|x − x′ |
 
1
G(t, x; t′ , x′ ) = δ t − t ′
−
4π|x − x′ | c

□χ = f
Z
χ= G(t, x; t′ , x′ )f (t′ , x′ ) dt′ d3 x′
1 f (t − |x − x′ |/c, x′ ) 3 ′
Z
= d x
4π |x − x′ |

Electromagnetic stress-energy-momentum tensor

 
1 2 1 2
E= ε0 |E| + |B|
2 µ0

 
1 1 ∂E
J·E= E · (∇ × B) − 2 E ·
µ0 c ∂t
1 1 ∂E
= − ∇ · (E × B) + B · (∇ × E) − ε0 E ·
µ0 µ0 ∂t
1 ∂B ∂E
= −c2 ε0 ∇ · (E × B) − B · − ε0 E ·
µ0 ∂t ∂t
∂E
= −c2 ∇ · P −
∂t

23
 f = ρE + J · B
1 ∂E
= ε0 (∇ · E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε0 ×B
µ0 ∂t
 
1 1 ∂ ∂B
= ε0 (∇ · E)E + (B · ∇)B − ∇|B|2 − ε0 (E × B) + ε0 B ×
µ0 2 ∂t ∂t
   
1 1 ∂P
= ε0 (∇ · E)E − E × (∇ × E) + (B · ∇)B − ∇|B|2 −
µ0 2 ∂t
   
1 2 1 1 2 ∂P
= ε0 (∇ · E)E + (E · ∇)E − ∇|E| + (∇ · B)B + (B · ∇)B − ∇|B| −
2 µ0 2 ∂t
 
1 ∂P
= ∇ · ε0 E ⊗ E + B ⊗ B − EI −
µ0 ∂t
∂P
=∇·σ−
∂t

Lagrangian denisty of electromagnetic field

∂L ∂ ∂L ∂ ∂L
= +
∂ϕ ∂xi ∂(∂i ϕ) ∂t ∂ ϕ̇
∂ ∂Ej
−ρ = (ε0 Ej )
∂xi ∂(∂i ϕ)
∂Ej
= ε0 (−δij )
∂xi
= −ε0 ∇ · E

∂L ∂ ∂L ∂ ∂L
= +
∂Ai ∂xj ∂(∂j Ai ) ∂t ∂ Ȧi
 
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂Ej
Ji = − Bk ϵklm ∂l Am + (ε0 Ej )
∂xj µ0 ∂(∂j Ai ) ∂t ∂ Ȧi
1 ∂Ej
= − ∂j Bk ϵkji + ε0 (−δij )
µ0 ∂t
∂Ei 1
= −ε0 + [∇ × B]i
∂t µ0

Momentum and energy operator

Uncertainty principle

Ehrenfest’s theorem