Robotics Year 1

SECTION

2 ROBOTS AND
SOCIETY 1

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Principles of Robotic Systems

Robots and Society

INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on robots and how they operate. You will explore the key differences
between robotic and non-robotic systems and uncover the essential building blocks that
make robots work. You will also look at the interconnected subsystems like sensors,
actuators, and control systems that allow robots to perceive their environment, make
decisions, and perform tasks. This section will also examine robot control systems,
differentiating between feedback and non-feedback loops. By the end, learners will be
able to classify these systems and proficiently use logic and loop diagrams in designing
robot control systems. Knowledge from this section will help you explain how everyday
appliances like air conditioners, toasters and motion sensor lights operates.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Assess various systems and classify whether they fall under robotic or non-robotic
systems and outline the functions of the subsystems of robots.
• Classify feedback and non-feedback loop systems and demonstrate the use of logic and
loop diagrams in control systems design
• Describe robots and identify the differences between robotic and non-robotic systems.
• Describe the attributes and functionalities of a robot’s subsystems and how they
interconnect.
• Contrast non-feedback loop systems and feedback loop systems.
• Evaluate the use of logic and loop diagrams and demonstrate their use in control systems’
design.

Key Ideas
• Robots are autonomous machines that can assist humans in a variety of tasks. They are
programmed to perform complex operations.
• Robots are typically composed of mechanical, electrical, and computational components
that work together to enable their functionalities.
• The key features of a robot include autonomy, programmability, sensing and perception,
mobility and interactivity.
• Robotic systems are not only made up of single robots but also include additional
components such as controllers, communication interfaces, software systems and
multiple robots working together or in coordination with other external systems.
• Robotic systems have sensors and actuators that execute tasks autonomously or semi-
autonomously, while non-robotic systems require human intervention for operation.

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• Sensors and actuators allow robots to interact with their environment. Their control
system processes information from the sensors and makes decisions, which are then
carried out by the actuators, all powered power supply units (subsystems).
• A robot relies on interconnected subsystems for autonomy and task execution. The key
subsystems of a robotic system are the sensing subsystem, the control subsystem, the
actuation subsystem and the power subsystem.
• A control system is a collection of mechanical or electronic components that directs,
instructs, controls or monitors the actions of other systems, devices, or processes.
• Control systems are essential in regulating processes and ensuring desired outcomes in
the functioning of robots. Two major control systems of robots are the feedback loop and
the non-feedback loop.
• A feedback loop is a control system that incorporates a feedback mechanism to
continuously monitor and adjust output based on a comparison with a desired value or
reference input.
• Non-feedback loop systems are control systems where the output does not influence or
affect the control action.
• Loop diagrams, also known as control loop diagrams or process loop diagrams, are visual
representations that show flow directions and the interaction of components in a control
system
• In a control loop, various sensors gather data, process it, and if modification is required
make adjustments to keep the control process operating the way it should.
• Logic diagrams in control systems are used to represent the logical sequence of operations
in the system. They show how different components and functions are logically connected
to achieve the desired control action.
• Control systems are important in robotics because they determine how the robot operates.
The way a robotic arm moves or a machine that can navigate a maze autonomously—
this is where control system design comes into play.

ROBOTS, ROBOTICS SYSTEMS AND NON-

ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
Robotic systems and non-robotic systems may be similar, but in real-case situations
they are not. This material is developed to help you acquire knowledge of robots,
robot systems and non-robotic systems. Robots rely on interconnected subsystems
for autonomy and task execution. You will explore key components such as sensing,
actuation, control, and power systems. Knowing these subsystems helps you to
understand how robots perceive their environment, make decisions, and perform
physical actions. Here, the differences between robotic and non-robotic systems, their
roles and applications, as well as their attributes (characteristics) and functionalities of
a robot’s subsystems and how they interconnect are considered.

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Robots
The term “robot” was first used in the early 1900s by Karel Čapek, a Czech playwright,
in his play “R.U.R.” or “Rossum’s Universal Robots.” In the play, robots were
manufactured by humans and heartlessly exploited by factory owners until they
revolted and ultimately destroyed humanity. In Czech, the word “robot” translates to
“worker” or “servant.”
In today’s world, a robot is a machine designed to perform tasks automatically or with
minimal human intervention. Typically, robots are programmable devices that can
conduct a variety of actions or movements based on predefined instructions.
Robots are typically composed of mechanical, electrical, and computational components
that work together to enable their functionalities. These components are clearly
the results of advancements from the first, second and third industrial revolutions,
respectively. Currently, many robots incorporate technological advancements from the
Fourth Industrial Revolution, including artificial intelligence and connectivity.

Key Features of Robots

The following are the distinctive features of Robots:

1. Autonomy
Robots can operate independently or semi-independently, executing tasks without
continuous human intervention. This is the evidence of basic intelligence, but not
in the same way as human intelligence operates.

2. Programmability
Robots can be programmed to perform a wide range of tasks, allowing flexibility
and adaptability in their functions.

3. Sensing and perception

Robots are equipped with sensors to perceive their environment, enabling them to
gather information and make decisions based on their surroundings.

4. Mobility
Many robots can move or manipulate objects in their environment, either through
locomotion or manipulation mechanisms.

5. Interactivity
Robots often interact with humans and/or their environment in various ways. They
can receive input or commands from humans and/or their environment through
interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition, or gesture recognition. They
can also provide output or feedback through displays, speech, or other forms of
communication.

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Robotic Systems
Robotic systems are defined as systems that provide intelligent services and information
by interacting with their environment, including human beings, via the use of various
sensors, actuators, and human interfaces. They are essentially machines called robots
that replicate or substitute for human actions.
It is common for people to use the terms “robots” and “robotic systems” interchangeably,
especially in casual conversation or general discussion. However, technically speaking,
there is a distinction between the two.
A robotic system is a more complex arrangement designed to achieve specific objectives
efficiently by integrating robots with additional elements to perform interconnected
tasks or functions. In other words, Robotic systems are not only made up of single
robots but also include additional components such as controllers, communication
interfaces, software systems and multiple robots working together or in coordination
with other external systems.
Robotic systems inherently have all the distinctive features of robots in addition to the
features of the systems they integrate.
Robotic systems consist of three (3) main components:

1. Mechanical Construction
A frame, form, or shape designed to achieve a particular task. For example, a
robot designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud might use caterpillar tracks.
Click the link below to watch a video of a Robotic arm performing varied tasks

2. Electrical components
Robots need electrical components that control and power the machinery. For
example, an electric current—a battery, for example—is needed to power most
robots.

3. Software programme
Robots contain at least some level of computer programming. Without a set of
codes to instruct it on what to do, a robot would just be another piece of simple
machinery. Inserting a programme into a robot gives it the ability to know when
and how to carry out a task.

Integration of Robotic systems

Robotic Systems have been integrated in some environments in the following ways:

i. Manufacturing industry
Robotic arms and automated assembly lines are extensively used in manufacturing
plants to perform tasks such as welding, painting, assembly, and packaging. These

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robotic systems may consist of robotic arms, conveyor belts, sensors, controllers,
communication modules, etc.
https://youtu.be/wHVmXiI5rCE?si=Lf5KpA6mWD8sPwXZ

ii. Healthcare facilities

Surgical robots assist surgeons in performing minimally invasive surgeries
with greater precision and control. They can also automate repetitive tasks like
medication dispensing, sterilisation, and patient transportation, improving patient
outcomes and reducing healthcare worker strain. The automated Medication
Dispensers may incorporate robotic mechanisms and medication management
software for accurate dosing and dispensing. Also, the Surgical Robotic Systems
may integrate robotic arms, end-effectors, cameras, a database of approved
surgical methods, artificial intelligence models and control consoles for precise
surgical procedures.

Fig. 2.1 Da Vinci robot surgeon performing keyhole (laparoscopic) surgery, a remote-controlled surgical
system, developed and produced by the US company Intuitive Surgical.

iii. Agriculture
Agricultural robotic systems, such as Precision Farm Drones and autonomous
tractors, help farmers monitor crops, apply fertilisers and pesticides, and harvest
produce. These robotic systems increase efficiency, optimise resource usage, and
enable precision agriculture practices for higher yields and reduced environmental

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impact. The Precision Farm Drones are usually equipped with cameras, sensors,
GPS modules, and communication systems. Also, the autonomous tractors
integrate GPS guidance systems, sensors, actuators, communication systems and
controllers for automated farming tasks.

Fig. 2.2 A self-driving tractor sows cotton seeds in the field at Yaha Township of Kuqa County, northwest
China’s Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, March 23, 2018. The smart tractor, with automatic navigation
system, can do farm work itself including ploughing and seeding.

iv. Transportation
Autonomous vehicles and drones are revolutionising transportation by providing
safer, more efficient, and environmentally friendly mobility solutions. Robotic
systems in transportation play roles in tasks such as delivery, surveillance,
mapping, and maintenance. These autonomous vehicles would usually integrate
the following Incorporate sensors (e.g., LiDAR, cameras), GPS receivers, actuators,
communication modules, access to real-time traffic information and onboard
computers for self-driving capabilities.
Click the link below to watch a video of a fully self-driving car.
https://youtu.be/tlThdr3O5Qo?si=B6-y4_SXfhebVyt-

What is a Non-Robotic System?

A non-robotic system is a system that uses human effort, mechanical machinery, or
some automated system without the advanced capabilities of robots. It may have some
of the features of robots, such as autonomy, sensing, and decision-making, but not all
the combined features of robots are present.

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Non-robotic systems are typically designed for specific purposes and have limited
interaction with the environment.
Examples of non-robotic systems are given below.

Non-robotic automated systems

Non-robotic systems perform pre-programmed tasks but lack the adaptability and
autonomy associated with robotic systems. A typical example of such automated
systems is the Automated Teller Machine (ATM). While ATMs automate certain
banking transactions such as cash withdrawals, deposits, and balance inquiries, they do
not incorporate all the features of robots. They lack robotic features such as autonomy,
decision-making, or sensing.
Other examples of non-robotic automated systems include vending machines,
automatic doors, automatic conveyor belt systems, automatic car washers, self-service
kiosks, elevators, lifts, etc.

i. Mechanised systems
Mechanised systems involve the use of machinery or mechanical devices to aid
in specific tasks. They are typically controlled by human operators and do not
possess the autonomous decision-making capabilities found in robotic systems.
Some examples include vehicles, lawnmowers, combine harvesters, escalators,
etc.

ii. Computerised systems

Computerised systems are not necessarily considered robotic systems because
they lack physical manipulation capabilities and autonomy, which are defining
characteristics of robots. While computerised systems may automate certain
processes or tasks using software and electronic controls, they do not typically
involve physical actuators or robotic arms to interact with the environment.
Instead, computerised systems rely on algorithms, sensors, and digital interfaces
to execute predefined instructions or commands. Some examples of computerised
systems, which are non-robotic systems, include Traffic Light Control Systems,
calculators, chatbots, web crawlers, Point-of-Sale (POS) Systems, Home Security
Systems, Automated Inventory Management Systems, etc.

iii. Control systems

Control systems are not considered robotic systems because they primarily
focus on regulating and coordinating the operation of mechanical or electronic
components without direct physical manipulation of the environment. While
control systems may automate processes and provide feedback mechanisms to
adjust parameters based on predefined criteria, they typically do not involve the
integration of robotic actuators or manipulators for interacting with objects or
performing tasks autonomously. Examples include Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning (HVAC) Systems, Industrial Process Control Systems, Water Level

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Control Systems, Aircraft Autopilot Systems, Speed Control Systems, Missile

Guidance Systems, etc.

Activity 2.1

1. Designing Your Dream Robot

Design your dream robot using readily available materials such as pen,
pencil, paper, cardboard, etc. Label the parts of your designed robot and add a
description on a separate sheet explaining what your robot does.
2. Discuss different systems in groups and sort them into either Robotic or Non-
Robotic Systems. Give justification for your classification. Share your findings
with other groups.

SUBSYSTEMS OF A ROBOT
Robots rely on interconnected subsystems for autonomy and task execution. This
section explores key components such as sensing, actuation, control, and power
systems. Knowing these subsystems helps you understand how robots perceive their
environment, make decisions, and perform physical actions

Subsystems of a Robot
Robotic subsystems are the fundamental components that make up a robot. They
work together to enable the robot to function effectively. Robots encompass various
subsystems that enable their autonomy and task performance. These subsystems work
together in a coordinated manner to enable the robot to perform tasks and interact
with the environment.
After the robot has been powered using the power subsystem, the sensing subsystem
perceives the environment, providing feedback to the control subsystem. The control
subsystem processes the sensor data, makes decisions, and generates commands for the
actuating subsystem. The actuating subsystem then actuates effectors to perform
physical actions, allowing the robot to interact with objects and the surrounding
environment.
Effectors are end tools attached to actuators. Examples of effectors include grippers,
end-of-arm tooling (EOAT), vacuum suction cups, cutting tools, welding torches, spray
nozzles, dispensing nozzles, etc.
This continuous loop of sensing, processing, and actuation facilitates the robot’s
functionality and enables it to complete tasks autonomously or under human guidance.
By integrating these subsystems and ensuring their proper coordination, robots can

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adapt to varying conditions, navigate environments, manipulate objects, and perform

complex tasks, enhancing their usefulness across various industries and applications.
The main subsystems of robots are:

i. The sensing subsystem

Like the sensory organs of the human body (such as eyes, ears, nose, and skin),
the sensing subsystem of a robot perceives and collects information about the
environment. A sensor is a device that detects a change in the environment
and sends a signal to the processor for further action. Sensors such as cameras,
LiDAR, proximity sensors, and touch sensors provide input that helps robots
make informed decisions based on the data they gather.

ii. The control subsystem

Like the nervous system in humans, the control subsystem processes sensory
information, makes decisions, and coordinates the actions of the robot’s
components. The control system governs the overall operation of the robot. It
includes hardware and software components responsible for processing sensor
data, generating control signals for the actuation system, and coordinating the
robot’s actions. The control system enables robots to make decisions and execute
tasks based on their programmed instructions. It usually consists of a processor
and channels through which it transmits data or instructions to other components
or subsystems.

iii. Actuation subsystem

Comparable to the muscular system in humans, the actuating subsystem of a robot
generates physical movements or actions based on commands from the control
system. The actuation system provides robots with the capability to physically
interact with the environment. It comprises motors, servos, hydraulics, or other
mechanisms that generate motion and enable robots to manipulate objects,
navigate their surroundings, or perform specific tasks.

iv. Power subsystem

Resembling the cardiovascular system in humans, the power subsystem provides
energy to the other subsystems of the robot, enabling them to function and
perform tasks. It may consist of batteries, fuel cells, or other power sources, along
with the necessary circuits and distribution mechanisms to ensure the robot’s
proper functioning. The power subsystems supply electrical energy to the robot’s
actuators, sensors, and controllers, ensuring their proper functioning. They may
also include mechanisms for recharging or replenishing energy sources.

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Fig. 2.3: The subsystems of a robot

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Activity 2.2

Fig. 2.4 Subsystems of a robotic vacuum cleaner ().

a. Carefully examine the provided technical description of a robot vacuum

cleaner in Fig. 3.4 and classify each of its labelled parts under the robot’s
main subsystems (sensing, control, actuation, and power).
b. Provide justification for each category by briefly explaining why it belongs to
that specific subsystem.
c. Present their results using at least one of the following methods:
i. Chart/Table: Fill out a chart or table with columns for “Part Name,”
“Subsystem,” and “Justification.”
ii. Annotated List: Create a list of parts with annotations beside each one,
specifying its subsystem and justification.
iii. Mind Map: Develop a mind map with the central theme “Robot
Vacuum Cleaner Subsystems.” Branch out from the centre, listing each
subsystem and its corresponding parts with justifications.
iv. Create a short presentation explaining the classification of parts and the
role of each subsystem in the robot vacuum cleaner’s operation.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL PRINCIPLES IN

AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS:

FEEDBACK AND NON-FEEDBACK LOOP SYSTEM

In the world of automation and robotics, control systems play a crucial role in ensuring
machines operate efficiently and accurately. Control systems are essential in regulating
processes and ensuring desired outcomes in the functioning of robots and machinery
in general. Understanding the principles of control systems is essential for individuals
interested in and want to further explore robotics and automation.
In this lesson, your teacher will help you to understand the fundamentals of control
principles, focusing on the two main types of control systems; non-feedback loop and
feedback loop control systems which are crucial aspects of robotics, automation, and
process control. By the end of this section, you will be able to differentiate between
feedback and non-feedback loop systems and to classify control systems effectively.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
A Control System is a collection of mechanical or electronic components that directs,
instructs, controls, or monitors the actions of other systems, devices, or processes. A
control system is made up of three main components: a sensor, a controller, and an
actuator.
• The sensor detects a physical quantity such as temperature, pressure, or position,
and converts it into an electrical signal.
• The controller processes this signal and generates an output signal used to control
the actuator.
• The actuator is a device that translates the output signal from the controller into
a physical action, such as opening or closing a valve, turning a motor on or off, or
adjusting the speed of a motor.
Control systems in robotics are like the brains that help robots decide what to do and
how to do it. These systems take in information (inputs), such as commands you might
give or data from sensors, and then tell the robot how to respond (outputs). This could
involve moving parts of the robot, starting, or stopping motors, or adjusting sensors.
Control systems allow robots to perform tasks by themselves, making sure that they act
accurately and consistently.

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Examples of control systems are:

1. Automatic doors: These systems use sensors to detect movement and open or
close doors accordingly.
2. Automatic sprinkler/irrigation systems: They monitor soil moisture levels
and adjust watering schedules to maintain optimal plant health and conserve
water.
3. Lighting systems with motion sensors: These systems activate or deactivate
lights by detecting motion in their vicinity.
There are two main types of control systems. They are:
1. Feedback loop control system (also known as closed-loop control system)
2. Non-feedback loop control system (also known as open loop control system)

Feedback Loop Control Systems

Feedback loop control systems, also known as closed-loop control systems, are control
systems that incorporate a feedback mechanism to continuously monitor and adjust
output based on a comparison with a desired value or reference input.
In feedback loop systems, the output is fed back and compared with the desired value,
and any differences or errors are used to generate a corrective action to regulate and
maintain the output at a desired level.
In robotics, a closed-loop control system refers to a system in which feedback from
sensors is used to continuously monitor and adjust the robot’s behaviour.
Imagine you have a robot that can move around a room. Now, let us say you want the
robot to follow a line on the floor. How does the robot know if it is staying on the line
or if it is drifting away?
This is where a closed-loop control system comes in. Think of it like this: the robot has
a special sensor underneath it that can ‘see’ the line on the floor. This sensor sends
information to the robot’s brain, like how your eyes send information to your brain.
Now, the robot’s brain is like a computer. It takes the information from the sensor and
decides what the robot should do next. If the sensor detects that the robot is drifting
away from the line, the brain tells the robot to adjust its wheels to get back on track.
The robot keeps checking the sensor and adjusting it repeatedly, like a loop. That is
why it is called a closed-loop control system. It is like the robot is always checking itself
and making sure it is doing what it is supposed to be doing.
So, a closed loop control system in robotics is when a robot uses sensors to gather
information about its surroundings and then uses that information to adjust its actions
in real-time. It is like a smart robot that can stay on track and do its job effectively.

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See demonstration: https://youtu.be/lnP32gzHdvI

Key Characteristics of Feedback Loop Control

Systems
The table below shows the key characteristics of feedback loop control systems.
Table 2.1 Key characteristics of feedback loop control systems

Continuous monitoring Feedback loop systems continuously monitor

the output to compare it with a desired value or
reference input.

Error detection These systems detect errors or deviations between

the system output for a given reference input and
the desired output value for the same reference
input.

Adjustment and error Feedback loop systems generate corrective actions

correction or adjustments based on the detected errors or
deviations to regulate and maintain the output at
desired levels. Systems that can dynamically adjust
their behaviour based on feedback, allowing for
self-correction and adaptation, are known as Self-
correcting Systems.

Components of Feedback Loop Systems

Feedback loop systems, like any other system, consist of a set of components such
as the reference input, error signal, control element, control signal, actuator, and the
feedback signal.

Reference input
The reference input (or input for short) is a signal intended to drive a desired output
value or set point that the feedback loop system aims to achieve. It is the input
deliberately channelled through the system targeting a specific system’s performance.
The controller compares the actual output with an ideal expected output to the reference
input and measures feedback(error) to generate the control signal.

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Error signal
The error signal is the difference between the reference input and the feedback
information. It represents the deviation or error between the desired (reference input)
and actual system performance. The error signal serves as the basis for the controller
to generate the appropriate control action.

Controller (control element)

In a feedback loop system, a controller is a crucial component responsible for processing
the feedback received from sensors and determining the appropriate actions to achieve
the desired outcome or setpoint. The controller acts as the “brain” of the system,
making decisions based on the feedback it receives and sending commands to the
system’s actuators to adjust its behaviour accordingly. It receives information from the
sensor and compares it to the desired output value with reference to the reference
input. Based on this comparison, the controller generates a control signal or action that
is sent to the actuator to adjust the plant’s behaviour.

Control signal (manipulating variable)

The control signal is generated by the controller based on the comparison between the
desired value and the feedback information. It represents the corrective action needed
to regulate or adjust the plant’s behaviour. The control signal is sent to the actuator to
effect the necessary changes.

Actuator
The actuator is responsible for translating the control signal from the controller into
physical action or manipulation. It could be a motor, a valve, a heating element, or any
device that can modify the plant’s state or behaviour.

Feedback Signal/Path
The feedback signal/path feeds the output of the actuator back to the controller. It
provides information on the actual performance or output of the plant to compare with
the desired value with respect to reference input. This feedback enables the controller
to adjust and regulate the system.

Fig. 2.5 The structure of a feedback loop control system.

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Figure 2.5 illustrates a feedback loop control system (or closed loop control system).
The reference input sets the desired output for the system. The sensor plays a critical
role by continuously measuring the system’s actual output. This measured value is fed
back to the controller. The controller compares the actual output (feedback signal)
with the desired output (reference input) to calculate the error signal. This error signal
represents the difference between what the system is doing and what it is supposed to
be doing. Based on this error, the controller generates a control signal that is sent to the
actuator. The actuator translates this control signal into physical action, adjusting the
system’s behaviour to reduce the error and bring the actual output closer to the desired
output.
This continuous cycle of measurement, comparison, adjustment, and measurement
again ensures the system maintains the desired performance. By utilising feedback
loops, systems can achieve stability, accuracy, and regulation of the desired output.

A Real-World Example of a Feedback Loop Control

System

Figure 2.6 Air conditioner as a feedback loop control system

Imagine a home cooling system with a thermostat like an air conditioner. Air
conditioners are devices designed to regulate indoor temperature and humidity levels,
providing thermal comfort to the occupants. Air conditioners extract heat from the
indoor air and transfer it to the outdoors, thereby cooling the interior space.
The thermostat (sensor) monitors the room temperature and compares it to the set
point (desired temperature). If the room temperature is higher than the set point, the
thermostat sends a signal to the air conditioner to turn on. The air conditioner cools
the room, which causes the temperature to decrease. The thermostat continuously

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monitors the temperature and sends a signal to the air conditioner to adjust its output
(cooling capacity) based on the room temperature. Once the room temperature reaches
the set point, the thermostat sends a signal to the air conditioner to turn off or reduce
its output.
This continuous process of monitoring, adjusting, and controlling the room temperature
is a classic example of a negative feedback loop.

Non-Feedback Loop Systems

Non-feedback loop systems, also known as open-loop systems, are control systems
where the output does not influence or affect the control action. In these systems, the
control action or output is determined solely based on the input or pre-determined
instructions without actively monitoring the output.
Non-feedback loop systems operate in a one-way fashion, where the output is not
fed back for comparison or adjustment. Examples include electric bulbs, non-smart
televisions, traffic light systems, etc.
Imagine a robotic arm that is programmed to pick up an object from a specific location
A and move it to another location B. The robot is given a set of instructions (input) that
include:

Figure 2.7 An illustration of a robot picking an object from location A to B.

The robot executes these instructions (process) without any feedback or monitoring
(output) to ensure that the object has been successfully picked up or placed in the
correct location. If the object is not in the expected location or the robot encounters
an obstacle, the robot will not adjust its actions (no feedback loop) and may fail to
complete the task.
In this scenario, the robotic arm is an example of an open-loop system/non-feedback
loop system, as it does not use feedback to adjust its actions in real-time. This can
lead to errors and inaccuracies, especially in complex or dynamic environments. Non-
feedback loop systems are often used in robotics for simple, repetitive tasks where the
output requirements are well-defined, and there is no need for continuous monitoring
or adjustments based on feedback.

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Key Characteristics of Non-feedback Loop Systems

Understanding the key characteristics of non-feedback or open-loop systems is crucial
for designing and analysing control systems in various fields including engineering,
robotics, and automation. You are going to explore the defining features of open-
loop systems, including their lack of feedback, one-way communication, and limited
adaptability.
The table below shows the characteristics of a non-feedback loop control system.
Table 2.2 Key characteristics of non-feedback or open loop control system

No feedback loop There is no feedback from the output

to the input to adjust the control
action.

One-way communication Information flows only in one

direction, from input to output,
without any return path.

No real-time monitoring The system does not continuously

monitor its output or performance.

No automatic adjustment The system does not adjust its

control action based on output or
performance.

Pre-programmed instructions The system follows a pre-defined set

of instructions or algorithms without
adapting to changing conditions.

No-self correctness The system does not correct its errors

or deviations from the desired output.

Limited adaptability Open-loop systems are not very

adaptable to changing conditions or
unexpected disturbances.

Predictable output The output is predictable based on

the input and the pre-programmed
instructions.

Components of Non-feedback or Open Loop Control

Systems
i. Input
The signal or data that is sent to the system to start a certain operation or action
is known as the input. It could be any other input data needed for the system to
operate, or it could be a predetermined instruction with a set of parameters.

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ii. Controller
The controller is in charge of interpreting the input and producing the control
action following the preset guidelines. It controls the system’s behavior and how
it reacts to input. The controller can be implemented in many ways, including
mechanical mechanisms, software algorithms, and electrical circuits.

iii. Actuators
Actuators are the parts that carry out the controller’s instructions for the physical
actions or operations. After receiving the control signals from the controller, they
convert them into electrical impulses, mechanical motions, or other forms of
energy needed to carry out the intended task.

iv. Output
The outcome or consequence of the system’s operation, depending on the input
and the control action, is known as the output. It may manifest as a motion, a
signal that is generated, a particular output value, or any other output attribute
that the system specifies.

Figure. 2.8 The structure of a non-feedback loop control system (Chandni et al, 2017)

Non-feedback loop control systems are commonly found in applications where the
output requirements are well-defined, and there is no need for continuous monitoring
or adjustments based on feedback.

Real-world example: A pop-up toaster

A pop-up toaster is a classic example of a non-feedback loop system. Here is a breakdown
of its components and operation:
• Input: You place bread slices into the toaster (providing the initial input).
• Controller: The toaster has a built-in timer or a predetermined heating element
setting (acting as the controller). This determines the toasting duration or level of
heat applied.
• Actuator: The heating elements inside the toaster function as the actuator. They
receive the “on” signal from the controller and generate heat.
• Output: The toasted bread (slightly browned and warm) is the final output.
A pop-up toaster is a typical example of a non-feedback loop system because the
desired outcome is well-defined: toasting bread to a predetermined level of crispness.
There is no need for the toaster to constantly monitor the bread’s temperature and
adjust the heating based on feedback. The timer or fixed heating element setting

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ensures consistent results (though slight variations might occur due to bread type or
environmental factors).

Figure 2.9 A pop-up toaster as a non-feedback loop system.

EVALUATING LOGIC AND LOOP DIAGRAMS IN

CONTROL SYSTEMS DESIGN
In designing robot control systems, logic plays a key role. Logic helps robots make
decisions based on comparing collected data with the expected data. This is similar to
how you solve puzzles by reasoning through the steps. So, you can see that logic is used
in robotics for decision-making. It allows robots to evaluate situations based on a set
of programmed rules and conditions. For example, if a robot is faced with an obstacle,
logic can help it decide whether to go around it, over it, or turn back. Logic provides a
clear set of instructions that the robot can follow to perform tasks.
To visualise how information flows and actions are coordinated within these systems,
we use loop diagrams and logic diagrams. These are fundamental tools that help robots
make decisions and perform tasks without constant human intervention.

Practical Application of a Logic Diagram

Imagine you are creating a smart light system for your bedroom. You want the light to
turn on when you enter the room and turn off when you leave. Also, you want the light
to stay off if it is already daylight.

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To design this system, you will need to understand and use logic diagrams.

motion detector motion detected

(motion signal)
TRUE turn ON
light
light level is low
light sensor
(light signal)

turn ON
FALSE light
light threshold
comparator

Figure 2.10

Fig. 2.11 Basic flowchart of a control system which regulates a motion sensory light

LOGIC DIAGRAMS
Logic diagrams are graphical representations that show how different inputs (like
motion or light sensors) lead to specific outputs (like turning the light on or off). They
represent logical relationships between variables, expressions, or operations. Think of
them as visual guides that help you plan how a system will respond to different stimuli.
Some of the basic elements in logic diagrams may include Logic Gates, Symbols,
Connections, Truth Tables and Composite Circuits.

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Table 2.4: The various elements of a logic system and their descriptions

Elements in Logic Description

Diagrams

Logic Gates A logic gate is a device that executes a logical operation

performed on one or more binary inputs that produces
a single binary output. These are the fundamental
components that perform basic logical operations. These
logical operations check/test the conditions of two or
more statements before making a decision. Typical logic
operations include AND, OR, NAND, NOR and XOR.

Symbols Each type of logic gate and operation has a specific symbol
to make the operation they perform easy to understand.

Connections Lines connecting the symbols show how the inputs to logic
gates interact to perform their logic operations.

Truth Tables Truth tables are used to show how different combinations
of inputs on the logic operator interact to produce specific
outputs. In other words, it gives a relationship between
input connections and the resulting outputs.

Composite Circuits More complex systems use multiple inputs and outputs.
This requires the combination of multiple logic gates to
handle various logic conditions.

CONTROL LOGIC DIAGRAMS

A control logic diagram is a specialised type of logic diagram used to depict the control
logic of a system, typically within the context of automation, machinery, or process
control. These diagrams show how control elements like sensors, actuators, controllers,
and other components interact to regulate and control the operation of a system.
Logic diagrams and control logic diagrams differ in their lines of operation. Logic
diagrams focus on logical relationships and digital circuitry, but control logic diagrams
emphasise control strategy and mechanisms for regulating system behaviour.

Components of a Control Logic Diagram

Some components of a control logic diagram are given below.
1. Symbols: Symbols in the control logic diagrams represent different control
devices and components. Examples include shapes such as rectangles, circles,
triangles, and diamonds. These symbols also have specific meanings. For example,
rectangles may represent input or output devices.

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2. Connections: A connection indicates the flow of control signals or logic between

different components. Lines and arrows are used to connect the symbols. Every
connection has its own representation.
3. Control devices: Sensors, motors, actuators and switches are typical control
devices used in the control logic diagram. These devices are responsible for the
measurement and control of variables within a control system.
4. Logic elements: They are the decision-making parts of control logic, or logic
gates. They pick up inputs and give out reasonable outputs based on the meaning
derived from the logic operation. Some examples include AND and OR gates and
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs).
5. Sequential logic: Sequential logic systems are designed to operate in sequential
steps with the outputs depending on the current or previous state of the input.
Examples of sequential logic elements are flip-flops, latches, state machines,
and timing circuits. These elements enable the system to respond to changing
conditions or events over time.
6. Feedback loops: Feedback loops regulate system behaviour and maintain desired
set points or operating conditions. The output points are compared to the reference
points in implementing the feedback loop. Feedback loops provide information
about the system’s output or performance, which is used to adjust control actions
and/or maintain stability.
7. Interlocks and safety systems: Interlocks and Safety Systems are measures
implemented in logic systems to avoid harmful situations. Although not all
control logic diagrams have interlocks and safety systems, their inclusion may
prevent hazardous conditions or protect equipment and personnel. Examples are
pressure switches and alarms.

Representation of Control Logic Diagrams

Logic diagrams can be represented in several ways, each with its advantages and
applications. Some common ways to represent logic diagrams include flowcharts,
Ladder Diagrams (LDs), Karnaugh Maps (K-maps), State Diagrams and Truth Tables.
However, this section discusses the use of flowcharts.

Flowchart diagrams
You already know that algorithms are a step-by-step logical approach to solving a
problem or completing a task. Flowchart diagrams can also be used to represent the
steps in an algorithm. In a flowchart diagram the steps are presented graphically using
shapes and connecting lines. The shapes represent actions, decisions, inputs, and
outputs. The connecting lines show the flows between and among the shapes. The
connecting lines sometimes have arrows, which give the direction of flow.
So, in summary a flowchart is a powerful tool used in control system design to visually
represent the decision-making process and the direction of flow in the system. It
involves a visual representation of a process using symbols.

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By connecting these symbols with arrows, flowcharts create a clear, step-by-step

illustration of how a system operates logically.
Table 2.5: Basic flowchart symbols, names and their function

Symbol Name Function

Start/End Also known as the “Terminator Symbol,”

this symbol represents the start points,
end points, and potential outcomes of
a path. Often contains the description
“Start” or “End” within the shape.

Arrows It is used to guide the viewer along their

flowcharting path and the direction of
flow of the logic being implemented.

Input /output Also referred to as the “Data Symbol,” this

shape represents data that is available for
input or output as well as representing
resources used or generated. While the
paper tape symbol also represents input/
output, it is outdated and no longer in
common use for flowchart diagramming.

Process The process symbol is the most common

component of a flowchart and indicates a
step in the process.

Decision Indicates a question to be answered —

usually yes/no or true/false. The flowchart
path may then split off into different
branches depending on the answer or
consequences thereafter.

Connector Usually used within more complex charts,

this symbol connects separate elements
across one page.

Annotations It seeks to ask and answer questions

among team members or communicate
implementation details as a flowchart is
developed.

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Representation of a control system using a flowchart

To represent a control system with a flow chart, follow the steps below:
1. Step 1: Define the problem:
When you are representing a system using a flowchart you start by identifying the
control system’s purpose.
• What does the system control (is it temperature, water level, robot movement)?
• What sensors does it use to gather information (e.g., temperature sensor,
pressure gauge, camera)?
• What actuators does it control to influence the system (e.g., heater, valve,
motor)?
2. Step 2: Identify inputs, processes, and outputs
Determine the inputs, the processes (controllers) and the desired outputs for the
control system.
3. Step 3: Develop the flowchart
Use the appropriate flowchart symbols to represent each step of the workflow
of the control system. Connect the symbols with arrows to show the flow of
execution.
• Break down and list all the major steps involved in the process.
• Arrange the steps in a logical sequence and identify any loops or repetition
processes.
• Use standard flowchart symbols to represent different elements.
• Connect the symbols with arrows to show the flow of the process.
• Label each process box with the correct action.
• Label decision diamonds with conditional statements such as a “Yes” or “No”
or “True” or “False.
4. Step 4: Test the flowchart
Follow the flowchart step-by-step, to verify the logic and ensure that it produces
the desired outputs for different scenarios.

Example Flowchart Design: An automated coffee-brewing

machine making coffee
1. Switch ON
2. Sensor detects if the bean hopper is full
3. If the beans hopper is empty refill the beans hopper
4. If the beans hopper is full grind beans
5. If the water reservoir is full brew the coffee
6. If the water reservoir is not full, refill the water reservoir

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7. Dispense the Coffee

8. Switch OFF
These actions can now be used to draw a flowchart by matching the action with the
correct flowchart symbol. Read through the following to see how this has been done.
1. Start
Switch ON. This will be represented by an oval shape since oval shapes represent
the START of a process.
2. Check if Bean Hopper is full
The weight of the bean hopper is compared to the full weight value. If it is full the
next state is entered. If the bean hopper is not full, then the bean hopper is filled
with coffee beans. Because it is a decision the diamond shape is used.
3. Grind Beans
The coffee beans are ground and then the next state is entered. The rectangle is
used to depict that this state of the operation is a process.
4. Check if the Water Reservoir is full
The processor compares the volume of water in the reservoir to the full volume.
This step involves a DECISION being made by the system and hence, it is presented
by a ‘Diamond’ shape. If empty, refill the reservoir, if the reservoir is full then
move to the next state.
5. Brew Coffee
The coffee brewing process is initiated. This stage is represented with a process
symbol.
6. Dispense Coffee
The coffee is finally ready to be served.
7. End
Switch OFF. This is represented by an oval shape since oval shapes represent the
end of a process.

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Putting the symbols together, the basic flowchart for the control system will be
represented as in Figure 2.12.

Fig. 2.12 Basic flowchart diagram for design of an automated coffee-brewing machine making coffee

LOOP DIAGRAMS
Loop diagrams provide a visual representation of the flow and interaction of components
in a control system. They show the stages and steps in a loop, the flow of information,
including measurements, error calculations, and control action, helping to visualise
how a process is controlled.
The difference between a loop diagram and a flowchart is important. In a loop diagram
the focus is on the iteration process. Iteration simply means ‘repeating’ and that is
exactly what a loop does, it leads back to the start, so the process continues. A flowchart
is a much more general tool which describes the flow or process of a system as a series
of actions or steps.

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There are two types of loop diagrams used in control systems. The open loop diagram
and closed loop diagram.
The main difference between an open and closed loop diagram is the presence of
feedback.

Open Loop
The system operates without feedback, meaning the output is not influenced by the
input. It’s simpler and known as a non-feedback system. A household toaster is a
good example of a non-feedback system because bread is toasted to a set time without
any feedback on the condition of the bread. If the bread is dry and hard the set time
might produce burnt toast.

Closed Loop
The system uses feedback to continuously adjust and optimise its operation based on
the input, making it more stable and consistent. It is known as a feedback system. A
sensor controlled thermostat in a heating system is a great example of where feedback is
used to continuously adjust and optimise the operation of the heater or air conditioner.
You know that the thermostat uses a temperature sensor, and this monitors the room
temperature and provides the feedback to switch the heater or cooler on.

Feedback and Non-Feedback Loop Diagram

1. A closed loop diagram for a control system
A closed loop control system regulates a system’s behaviour based on feedback
from its output, ensuring that it operates as close to the desired set point as
possible. It functions to adjust itself to minimise errors that may occur.

Fig. 2.13 A feedback loop control system

2. Open loop diagram for a control system

An open loop control system does not use feedback from the output to regulate or
adjust the input. Instead, the system uses only the predetermined control actions
based on the system’s input or set point.

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Figure 2.14: A non-feedback loop control system

Elements in Loop Diagrams

Each element used in a loop diagram has a meaning. Like flowcharts the elements are
represented by shapes and lines.
These are the key elements in loop diagrams:

1. Blocks
Rectangular boxes represent system components such as sensors, controllers,
actuators, and processes (plant).

Fig. 2.15 Rectangular Block represents system components in a Loop Diagram

2. Lines
Lines indicate flow. Solid lines are used to represent the flow of information or
control signals while dashed lines signify power connections.

Fig. 2.16 Solid and Dashed Lines used in Loop Diagrams

3. Circular shapes
Circular shapes in loop diagrams are less common than rectangular blocks, but
they are used to represent the following:
a. Summation Point: A circle with multiple lines entering it can represent a point
where several signals are summed or averaged before proceeding further in
the loop. This might be used, for example, to combine data from multiple
temperature sensors in a building automation system.

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b. Logic Operation: In some loop diagram notations, a circle can signify a logical
operation like AND, OR, or NOT. This would be like how logic gates are
represented in logic diagrams. For instance, a circle with “AND” written inside
could indicate that two conditions need to be met (signals entering the circle)
before a certain action is taken.
c. Special Process: Occasionally, a circle might be used to represent a specific
process within the control loop that is too complex to depict with a simple
block. This could be a mathematical function, a lookup table, or another sub-
system with its internal workings. The circle would have a label explaining its
function.

Fig. 2.17 Circular Shape used in a Loop Diagram.

What to consider when using Loop Diagrams to

represent control systems
Consider the following when using Loop Diagrams:

1. Signal flow representation

Loop diagrams should clearly show the flow of signals within the loop, for example
between different components, such as sensors, controllers, actuators, and from
any power sources.

2. Feedback connections
The presence and proper representation of feedback connections in loop diagrams
are crucial for understanding how the system adjusts and regulates its behaviour
based on feedback information.

3. Clarity and completeness

Loop diagrams should be clear and complete, ensuring that all relevant components
and connections within the control loop are accurately represented.

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Fig. 2.18 A closed loop diagram of an automatic electric iron

Representation of a Control System using a

Flowchart
Creating a logic diagram for a control system involves a series of steps to ensure accurate
representation of the process and effective communication of the control logic. Here
are the detailed steps:
Step 1: Gather Information about the Process
• Gain a thorough understanding of the process you are controlling. This includes
the sequence of operations, conditions that initiate or terminate actions, and
any safety or operational constraints. This is where you identify all the inputs
(sensors) and outputs (actuators) involved in the process and clearly define
the conditions under which the process starts, stops, or changes state.
Step 2: Identify the Specific Instruments Involved and Connect Them to the
Control System
• Identify all the specific devices used in the process, such as sensors, actuators,
controllers, and interfaces and understand how these instruments are connected
to the control system, including wiring, signal types, and communication
protocol.
Step 3: Choose the Appropriate Tool for the Design
• Decide on the tools you will use to create the logic diagram. Common tools
include paper, pen, and pencil for initial drafts. Software tools like CAD
programs, diagramming software (e.g., Microsoft Visio, Lucidchart), or
specialised control system design softwares can be used for more complex
design.
Step 4: Develop the Loop Diagram Layout
• Use standard symbols discussed above such as blocks, lines, and circular
shapes to represent each instrument and component. Symbols should conform
to industry standards (e.g., ISA-5.1 for instrumentation symbols). Draw
connections between the symbols to illustrate the control logic. Use lines or
arrows to indicate the flow of signals and actions. Label each symbol and
connection clearly, indicating signal types, operational states, and any relevant
details such as setpoints or thresholds.

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Step 5: Maintain Clarity and Consistency

• Organise the diagram in a logical manner, ensuring that the flow of control
is easy to follow from start to finish. Use consistent labelling conventions
throughout the diagram. This includes using the same terminology, symbols,
and abbreviations.
Step 6: Do a Peer Review with a Learner to Finalise the Design
• Present the logic diagram to a peer or learner who is familiar with the process
but not directly involved in the design. This helps identify any unclear or
ambiguous elements.

Activity 2.3

1. Follow the steps below to design a loop diagram to represent the control
system for a home cooling system which regulates room temperature. Share
and compare your diagrams with other learners.
Step 1. Gather information about the process that is being controlled.
Step 2. Identify the specific instruments involved and connect them to the
control system.
Step 3. Choose the appropriate tool for the design (paper, pen, pencil).
Step 4. Develop the loop diagram layout i.e. using standard symbols to
represent specific instruments and connecting them appropriately.
Step 5. Maintain clarity and consistency i.e. ensure the diagrams are clearly
labelled, and logically organised to show control flows.
Step 6. Do a peer review with other learners to finalise the design.

Activity 2.4

1.
A. Watch this simple video on how traffic light systems work at 4-way and a
pelican crossing without pedestrians crossing the road. Here Two phase
traffic signal Animated explanation || Traffic studies

B. Under the supervision of your teacher, visit a nearby town with a traffic
light system and observe how the traffic light system works.
Precaution: Ensure road and traffic rules are strictly adhered to.

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Activity 2.5

Design a flowchart and loop diagram for a basic traffic light control system for a
pelican crossing with pedestrians crossing the road. [This activity can be done as
an individual or in group].
Scenario
Imagine you are a traffic engineer responsible for designing a control system for
traffic lights at a busy pelican crossing. Your goal is to ensure that vehicles from
both directions can pass and also allow pedestrians to cross safely and efficiently,
without causing traffic jams or accidents. To achieve this, you will design a
flowchart and a loop diagram to outline the steps and logic the traffic light control
system will follow.
The Traffic Flow
The intersection has 2 approaches labelled A and B to indicate the direction of
vehicles, and direction C and D to indicate pedestrians crossing the road. Each
approach can have a red, yellow, or green light, and the lights will change in a
specific sequence to control the traffic flow.
Materials needed: Pen, pencil, paper
a. Follow the steps below to design the flowchart for the system
Step 1: Define the problem
Step 2: Identify inputs, processes, and outputs
Step 3: Develop the flowchart
Step 4: Test the flowchart
b. Follow the steps to design the loop diagram for the system.
Step 1. Gather information about the process that is being controlled.
Step 2. Identify the specific instruments involved and connect them to the
control system.
Step 3. Choose the appropriate tool for the design (paper, pen, pencil).
Step 4. Develop the loop diagram layout i.e. using standard symbols to
represent specific instruments and connecting them appropriately.
Step 5. Maintain clarity and consistency i.e. ensure the diagrams are clearly
labelled, and logically organised to show control flows.
Step 6. Do a peer review with a learner to finalise the design.
Hint on system operation
• Start: This is where the system begins its operation.
• Initialise System: Set up initial conditions, such as turning on the system and
setting all lights to red.
• Turn the green light on for approach A and B. At the same time, turn the red
light on for approaches C, and D ( for the pedestrians).
• Allow the green light for A and B to stay on for a set period (e.g., 30 seconds).
• Yellow Light for A and B.

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Turn the yellow light on for approach A and B while keeping C, and D red.
• Allow the yellow light for A and B to stay on for a shorter period (e.g., 5
seconds).
• Switch the light from yellow to red for the approaches A and B for a short
while (1 second) and turn green light for the pedestrian (approaches C and
D).
• Wait and allow the green light for C and D to stay on for a while (15 seconds).
• Now, turn on the red light for the pedestrian (i.e. approaches C and D), at the
same time turn on the yellow light for the vehicles from the approaches A
and B and then wait for a short while like 5 seconds).
• The process begins by looping back to “Turn the green light on for approach
A and B. At the same time, turn the red light on for approaches C, and D ( for
the pedestrians)”.

Comparison of Non-Feedback and Feedback Loop

Control Systems
The table below shows the key differences between non-feedback (open-loop) systems
and feedback (closed-loop) systems in robotics and automation.
Table 2.3 Key differences between non-feedback (open loop) systems and feedback (closed loop) systems

FEATURE NON-FEEDBACK LOOP FEEDBACK LOOP CONTROL

CONTROL SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

Definition Systems that operate without Systems that adjust themselves

checking their output. by checking their output.

Response to Direct response without considering The response includes

Input changes in output or external adjustments based on output and
conditions. changes in conditions.

Complexity Simpler design and operation. More complex due to

components like sensors and
controllers.

Cost Generally, less expensive due to More expensive due to additional

simplicity. components and technology.

Accuracy Less accurate, potential for errors Higher accuracy through

due to lack of adjustment to external continuous adjustment to
factors. conditions and outputs.

Use Cases Suitable for applications where Ideal for applications requiring
conditions are constant, and high precision and adaptability.
accuracy is less critical.

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FEATURE NON-FEEDBACK LOOP FEEDBACK LOOP CONTROL

CONTROL SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

Scenarios These systems are best used where Feedback systems shine in
the input conditions are known environments where the output
and constant. For example, a non- needs constant fine-tuning.
feedback system is suitable for These systems are crucial
a conveyor belt in a controlled in scenarios where safety,
environment where the speed does precision, and adaptability to
not need to change once set environmental changes are
required.

Suitability They are ideal for simple, cost- They are essential in complex
effective solutions in stable and critical applications such
environments where the output as in medical devices like
does not need constant adjustment. pacemakers, where the device
Examples include electric heaters must adapt to the patient’s
with a fixed operating time or physiological conditions, or in
simple automated lights in a room. automotive systems like anti-lock
braking systems (ABS) which
adjust braking force dynamically
to prevent wheel lockup.

Example Basic household appliances like Thermostats, automatic pilots in

Applications toasters, and simple lighting aircraft, and industrial robotic
systems. arms.

Activity 2.6

1. In a group, select one of the following real-world scenarios that require a

control system.
• Automatically watering a potted plant
• Automatically maintaining water temperature in a fish tank
• Automatically regulating room temperature in an office space
• Thoroughly blending powdery ingredients
Identify if the selected scenario will require a feedback or non-feedback
control system and provide justification.
2. As a group, design the selected control system to address the scenario using
simple materials (cardboard and straws).

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Extended Reading
• MIT OpenCourseWare - Introduction to Robotics:
• Lecture Notes | Introduction to Robotics | Mechanical Engineering | MIT
OpenCourseWare

• Control system definition, types, and applications:

https://www.electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/learn-electronics/control-
system-definition-types-applications-and-faqs
• Katy Borner (2021). Atlas of Forecasts: Modelling and Mapping, MIT Press.
• C.P. Basso (2012) Design Control Loops for Linear and Switching Power Supply, A
Tutorial Guide. Artech House

References
• Katy Borner (2021) Atlas of Forecasts: Modelling and Mapping, MIT Press.
• C.P. Basso (2012) Design Control Loops for Linear and Switching Power Supply, A
Tutorial Guide. Artech House.
• T. E. Marlin (2007) Designing Process and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance.
McGrew Hills Publication.
• M. A. Clifford (2004) Instrumentation and Control System Documentation. The
Instrumentation System and Automation Society.
• After 40 Years, The Mac Is Immortal. (2024). Everand. https://www.everand.com/
article/706071578/After-40-Years-The-Mac-Is-Immortal
• Amofa, N. A. (2023, November 7). Nana Akua Amofa: Is the Use of Digital
Public Relations Engaging Audiences Better? BellaNaija. https://www.bellanaija.
com/2023/11/nana-akua-amofa-digital-pr/
• Arnold, C. (2016). Disruptive innovation, toxic poison and LAT - who is stopping
your company innovating? Disruptive innovation, toxic poison and LAT - who
is stopping your company innovating? Disruptive innovation, toxic poison and
LAT - who is stopping your company innovating? Retrieved March 22, 2024, from

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https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/disruptive-innovation-toxic-poison-lat-who-
stopping-chris-arnold.
• Briefing, C. (2016, June 2). The Adoption of Advanced Robotics in Manufacturing:
A Reality Today, or a Revolution for the Future? - China Briefing News. China
Briefing News. https://www.china-briefing.com/news/adoption-advanced-
robotics-manufacturing-reality-today-revolution-future/
• Duranton, S. (2023). Thomas A. Edison exhibits a replica of his first successful
incandescent lamp, ... [+]. Lightbulb Moment: Big Business Needs “mini-Edisons”
To Drive Invention. Retrieved March 8, 2024, from https://www.forbes.com/
sites/sylvainduranton/2023/04/28/lightbulb-moment-big-business-needs-mini-
edisons-to-drive-invention/?sh=13caa06e2228.
• Murray, J. Q. (2017). Machining History: Lathe, the Mother of all Tools. https://
blog.mmi-direct.com/machining-history-lathe-the-mother-of-all-tools
• Players, B. C. (2020, December 16). Governor Baker, regulating facial recognition
technology is a racial justice issue. BostonGlobe.com. https://www.bostonglobe.
com/2020/12/16/opinion/governor-baker-regulating-facial-recognition-
technology-is-racial-justice-issue/
• Rutkowska, M., & Sulich, A. (2020). Green Jobs on Green Jobs on the background
of Industry 4.0. Procedia Computer Science, 176, 1231-1240.
• Past And the Present: The History and Evolution of Robots, Ishan Daftardar, 2023.
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/history-evolution-robots-robotics-
pathfinder-hal-nadine.html
https://www.britannica.com/technology/robot-technology
• https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/developing-trends-in-power-and-
networking-technologies-for-intelligent-cities/46626
• Robotics technology, Sam Daley, 2024. https://builtin.com/robotics
• Robotics: Construction of a Robots – Subsystems, Actuators, Sensors, Controllers,
and algorithms. https://www.brighthubengineering.com/robotics/26214-
robotics-construction-of-a-robot/30/04/2024

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SECTION 2 ROBOTS AND SOCIETY 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution

Griffith Selorm Klogo Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Asare Boakye Ansah Kumasi Technical University

Gershon Normenyo Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Nero Kofi Etornam Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Novor

Samuel Quarm GES, Kumasi

Olatunde

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