TOPIC: EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO

1. Explain the causes of an earthquake in a named area you have studied

On 22 May 1960, Chile faced a threatening earthquake with a magnitude
of 9.5 on the Richter scale which is the largest recorded in history.
Depth= 33km, Epicentre= 160 km off the coast of Chile

-The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get
stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the
edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that
releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's
crust and cause the shaking that we feel.
The Chile earthquake which occurred on 22 May 1960 has
been one of the most deadly in the 20th century. The
earthquake was caused by the Nazca and South American
plates converging. The Nazca plate is subducting below
the South American plate, and the pressure building up
between the two plates is eventually released in the
form of an earthquake. The rate of movement of the
plates during the Chile earthquake of 1960 has been
estimated by scientists to be around 10 meters per second.

The earthquake affected parts of Southern Chile including

Valdivia leaving around 2 million people in the area
homeless with economic damages of $550 million.
2. Name an area which you have studied where there has been an earthquake.
Describe the impacts of this earthquake.’
Chile

Date: May 22, 1960

Magnitude: 9.5 on the Richter scale
 Epicentre= 160 km off the coast of Chile
Depth=33km

The Nazca plate is a small tectonic plate that is

is subducting under the South American plate. A
sudden breaking in the rocks along a roughly
560–620-mile (900–1,000-km) stretch of the Nazca
Plate caused the earthquake.

The cities of Puerto Montt and Valdivia experienced

extensive damage. Several coastal towns were
inundated by a 25-metre (80-foot) tsunami. The
combined effects of the disaster left 2 million people
homeless. Though the death toll in Chile was never
fully resolved, early estimates of deaths worldwide,
ranging into the thousands, were scaled back to
1,655. About 3,000 people were injured. The tsunami
travelled across the Pacific Ocean in the hours after
the earthquake; the waves killed 61 people in Hawaii,
nearly 140 in Japan, and 32 in the Philippines.
Long term impacts include major damage in the local
economy, buildings and infrastructures such as dams
(Riñihue and Pilmaique) and roads had to be rebuilt at
huge costs. Economic damages totalled $550 Million.
Due to the impacts of the earthquake being severe,
the Chilean government had to ask the American
leadership for assistance including hospital, and
medical aid.
Reducing impacts:- Chile developed the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
(PTWC) and the National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) to
provide warnings to Pacific Rim countries in the event of a
tsunami, enhancing regional preparedness. In response to the
earthquake, Chile established a national seismological network to
monitor seismic actTivity. This network enables the timely detection of
earthquakes, contributing to early warning systems and improved
preparedness.
Community involvement became a key focus in mitigating earthquake risks. Initiatives
such as community drills, awareness campaigns, and the establishment of emergency
response teams at the local level have empowered residents to actively participate in
their own safety. There is also programs in schools to spread awareness such as
‘Earthquake Day’ where they perform emergency drills and learn about the
procedures.
6.Many people live in areas where there are natural
hazards such as: • volcanic eruptions • earthquakes •
tropical storms • flooding • drought Name an area which
you have studied and state the natural hazard(s) faced by
the people who live there. Explain why people live in the
area.
Chile is a country located in South America that is home to a range of
natural hazards due to its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.

One example here is the in Chile in 2010 in the Maule region.

It also triggered a tsunami causing further damage along the
country’s coastline. Another examples of a natural hazard is the
Villarrica volcano which is one of the most active volcanoes
which last erupted in 2015 .
The town of Pucón, located near the Villarrica Volcano in
southern Chile, is a popular tourist destination due to its
natural hot springs, outdoor activities, and stunning views
of the volcano.

Chile has a thriving mining industry which accounts for

around 10% of the country’s GDP that is centered in the
northern part of the country, where there is a high risk of
earthquakes. There are also abundant reserves of copper,
gold, silver, and other minerals in these areas. Mining
companies here include Codelco and BHP.

Despite the risks of natural hazards in Chile, the country has

taken steps to mitigate their impact. Additionally, the country
has invested in early warning systems for earthquakes and
tsunamis, which have helped to save lives in the past.

As of 2023, Cerro Pabellón is the only geothermal power plant in

the country, the first in South America, and the highest-altitude plant
of its kind in the world, at 4,500 metres above sea level.

7. Explain the causes of an eruption of a named

volcano which you have studied. You may
use labelled diagrams in your answer.

EYJAFJALLAJÖKULL, ICELAND, 2010

Eyjafjallajökull, a stratovolcano located in southern Iceland, erupted on 20 March 2010,

causing widespread disruption in Europe. The eruption was triggered by complex
geological processes associated with the tectonic activity in the region.

Tectonic Setting

Eyjafjallajökull is situated along a divergent plate boundary where the North American
and Eurasian tectonic plates are moving apart at a rate of about 2 centimeters per year
in Iceland. This movement results in the formation of numerous volcanoes and
geothermal features in the region.

Magma Composition and Chamber Pressure

The eruption occurred due to the interaction of two distinct types of magma within the
volcano. One body of magma, primarily composed of the common volcanic rock
basalt, met another type of magma rich in silica, known as trachyandesite. The mixing
of these magma types led to increased pressure within the volcano's magma chamber.

As magma accumulates in the chamber, it can build up enough pressure to force its
way to the surface and erupt. The composition and viscosity of the magma play crucial
roles in determining the explosivity of the eruption.

Fissure Eruption

During the Eyjafjallajökull eruption, magma flowed from a fissure in the Earth's surface
rather than from a single vent. This type of eruption, known as a fissure eruption, is
caused by the movement of magma along a long crack or fissure in the Earth's crust.
The fissure eruption allowed for the widespread release of volcanic gases, ash, and
lava across the area.

Response and Economic Impact

Immediate responses to the eruption included the emergency evacuation of more than
800 people from nearby areas. Long-term responses involved the reconstruction of
damaged houses and roads, along with ongoing research on the effects of volcanic ash
on airplanes and the environment.

The economic losses due to the eruption and the closure of European airspace were
substantial, estimated at over $5 billion. The disruption to air travel affected millions of
passengers and cargo shipments, highlighting the interconnectedness of global
transportation networks and the vulnerability of modern societies to natural disasters.

Volcanic eruptions are another natural hazard.

For a named example of a volcanic eruption which
you have studied, describe its effects.[7]
Eyjafjallajökull is a stratovolcano located in southern Iceland, which
erupted on March 20 2010.

Lava eruptions in March 2010 were followed by an explosive eruption on

April 14th 2010.The lava flows damaged many homes; and roads and
services were disrupted due to evacuation measures.
Flooding of Markarfljót and Krossá rivers was caused as glacial ice
melted and torrents of water were flowing down the slopes of the land.
Also, ash covered large plots of agricultural land, killing the crops.
In general, the ash clouds (10 km high) were carried by the prevailing
westerly winds across northern Europe blocking air traffic in large parts
of Europe including UK, Belgium and France for several days, leaving
tourists and business people stranded at their destinations. According to
Air Transport Association, around 100,000 flights were cancelled and the
global airline industry lost around $1.7 billion in revenue as a result of
the ash cloud. During the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010, the nearby village of
Þórsmörk was significantly affected. Þórsmörk, known for its natural beauty, was
closed due to risks from volcanic ash, lava flows, and potential flooding. Infrastructure
damage occurred, disrupting tourism activities and impacting local businesses. This
highlights the vulnerability of communities in volcanic regions and the importance of
preparedness measures.
Immediate responses included an emergency evacuation of more than
800 people. Long Term responses are the reconstruction of damaged
houses and roads and research on the effect of ash on airplanes. The
economic losses due to the eruption and the closure of European airspace were
estimated at over $5 billion.

For a named example which you have studied, explain why

people live close to a volcano.
EyjafjallajökullFirstly, Iceland is a geologically active country with many active
volcanoes, and living near one is part of the country's cultural and historical heritage.
The area surrounding Eyjafjallajökull has several geothermal power plants, including the
Hellisheidi and Nesjavellir plants, which provide electricity and hot water to nearby
communities.

The natural beauty of the area around Eyjafjallajökull attracts many people who enjoy
outdoor activities such as hiking, skiing, and sightseeing. The town of Skógar located 30
km far from the volcano is a popular destination spot because of waterfalls and hiking
trails. Also the volcanic activity in the area has created rich and fertile farmland that
supports a thriving farming community. The village of Vík í Mýrdal, located about 40 km
east of Eyjafjallajökull, is known for its potato farming and has a population of around
300 people.

Other than that mitigation measures like The Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO)
monitoring the volcano around the clock and uses a variety of sensors and instruments
to detect any signs of volcanic activity is being done.

TOPIC: RIVERS

THE OPPORTUNITIES PRESENTED BY A RIVER

The River Nile and its fertile Nile Delta are vital for Egypt, supplying two-thirds of its
food. The delta's richness offers diverse opportunities.

Industry prospers, notably the Sugarcane Factory in Luxor, Egypt, capitalizing on the
fertile lands. Agriculture is robust, encompassing arable farming (rice, wheat, bananas,
sugarcane, peanuts) and cotton farming, contributing significantly to Egypt's cotton
industry.