SOUTH EASTERN UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

MTM 11222 VECTOR ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

By
M.A.A.M. Faham

2022 / 2023

References

1. Shanti Narayan and Mittal P.K., A Textbook of vector calculus, S. Chand and Company
Ltd. 2007.
2. Murray R. Spiegel, Schaum’s outlines – Vector Analysis, Mc-Grew Hill, 2005.
3. M. D. Raisinghaniya, Vector Analysis, S. Chand and Company Ltd. 2007.

1 INTRODUCTION

Vectors are central to the study of physics, engineering and applied mathematics.

There are two main complimentary ways to look at vectors:

1. Algebraic - Treats a vector as set of ordered scalar values as a single entity.
2. Geometric - A directed line segment represents a vector.

1.1 Scalar and Vector quantities

• A quantity is something measurable.

We write the measurement as a number usually followed by a unit.
Examples:- time 𝑡 = 30 𝑠, velocity 𝑣 = 60 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 , number of students 𝑛 = 50.

Is fairness a quantity? Can we measure fairness? If so, what is the measure?

Vector quantities (vectors): A quantity having magnitudes and a direction.

Examples: displacement, velocity, force, weight, etc.

Scalar quantities (scalars): A quantity having magnitude only.

Examples: distance, speed, mass, temperature, etc.

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1.2 Representation and notation of a vector

Directed line segments: Any given portion of a given straight line wherefore the two
end points are distinguished as initial and terminal is called a directed line segment.
Initial point 𝐴, Terminal point 𝐵

Directed line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
𝐵

𝐴
Exercise: How many directed line segments are determined by three given points?
Answer

6. They are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐴, 𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Module: The module (magnitude) of a directed line segment is the positive

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | or
number which is the measure of its length. It is usually denoted by the symbol |𝐴𝐵
simply AB.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝐴
Clearly, |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.

Sense: The sense of a directed line segment is from its initial point to terminal point.
The sense of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is from A to B and that of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 is from 𝐵 to 𝐴 .

• Any vector can be represented as a directed line segment whose magnitude is

proportional to the length of the line segment provided the directions are the same.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be used to specify the vector quantity in measure and direction.
That is, 𝐴𝐵

• Let A be any point in space. It is useful to consider ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐴 also as a directed line segment.
It has length zero and its direction is indeterminate.

• The vectors may also be denoted by the symbols 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 etc., and their modules by
the corresponding italics 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.

1.3 Basic definitions

• Two vectors are said to be equal if they have
a. the same magnitude
b. the same sense.
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are equal, symbolically we denote 𝑎 = 𝑏.

• A vector whose modulus is one unit is called a unit vector in the direction of the given
vector. We shall use 𝑎̂ to denote a unit vector in the direction of 𝑎.
𝑎
• |𝑎̂| = 1, 𝑎̂ = |𝑎|

that is, the unit vector is obtained by dividing the vector by its modulus
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 • 𝑎 = |𝑎| 𝑎̂,
that is, a vector can be written as multiplication of its modulus and unit vector parralel to that vector.

• A vector whose modulus is zero units is called a zero vector and is denoted by 0.
All zero vectors are equal irrespective of directions.
Geometrically, a zero vector represents a point in the space.

• The negative of a vector 𝑎, denoted by −𝑎, is defined to be the vector having the
same magnitude and opposite sense.
In addition, we define −0 = 0.

• Position vector: We take any arbitrary point 𝑂 to be called the origin of

reference. Any vector 𝑟 whose initial point is the origin 𝑂 and the terminal point is
𝑃, is called the position vector of 𝑃 with respect to 𝑂.

1.4 Addition of vectors

Triangular law: Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two given vectors. Take any point O. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑎 and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑏, so that

𝑄
+ 𝑏 =
𝑎 •
𝑂 𝑃

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is said to be the sum or resultant of the vectors a and b, and we

The vector 𝑂𝑄
denote

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 𝑂𝑃 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 =𝑎+𝑏
Also, we define 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 for any vector 𝑎.

Note: (i) Sum of the two vectors is independent of the choice of the point 𝑂.
(ii) Extensions to sums of more than two vectors are immediate.

• Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.

Parallelogram Law: The sum of co-initial vectors is the vector represented by the
diagonal of the parallelogram formed with the component vectors as adjacent sides.

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 𝐵

𝑂 𝑎 𝐴

Difference of two vectors

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two given vectors. The subtraction of 𝑏 from 𝑎 is defined as 𝑎 +

(−𝑏) and is denoted by 𝑎 − 𝑏.

•
𝑂
− 𝑏 =
𝑎

1.5 Scalar Multiplication of a vector

Let 𝑎 be any given vector and 𝜆 be any scalar. Then, the product 𝜆 𝑎 is a vector
whose
(i) modulus is |𝜆| times that of 𝑎.
(ii) sense is the same or opposite to that of 𝑎 according as 𝜆 is positive or
negative.
Also, we define 0 𝑎 = 0.
Note:- For any vector 𝑎,
(i) |𝑎| ≥ 0 and |𝑎| = 0 if and only if 𝑎 = 0.
(ii) |𝜆𝑎| = |𝜆| |𝑎| for all 𝜆 ∈ ℜ.
(iii) |𝑎 + 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|, |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≥ |𝑎| − |𝑏|.

1.6 Properties of vector operations (Self Reading)

Let 𝑉 be the set of all vectors and ℝ be the set of all real numbers. For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑉
and for any 𝜆, 𝜇 ∈ ℝ,
1. V is closed under addition: i.e. 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑉
2. Vector addition is associative: i.e. 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
3. Vector addition is commutative: i.e. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
4. There exists vector 0 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
5. To each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉, there exists −𝑎 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝑎 + (− 𝑎) = (− 𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0
6. V is closed under scalar multiplication: i.e. 𝜆 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉

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7. Distributive laws:
(i) 𝜆 ( 𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝜆 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑏; (ii) (𝜆 + 𝜇) 𝑎 = 𝜆 𝑎 + 𝜇 𝑎.
8. Associative law for multiplication: 𝜆(𝜇𝑎) = 𝜇(𝜆 𝑎) = 𝜆𝜇 (𝑎)
9. Commutative law for multiplication: 𝜆 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝜆
10. 1 𝑎 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉

Since the elements of V satisfy the properties 1 -10, V with addition and scalar
multiplication defined above is a real vector space (Linear Algebra).

Remark: Let the position vectors of two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 be 𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively.
Then,

B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝑏

O 𝑎 A

Example 1.1 Let 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 is a regular hexagon. Let 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 and 𝐵𝐶

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏. Find the
vectors determined by other four sides taken in order.
Also, Express the vectors 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐸
𝐴𝐸 , 𝐴𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Verify that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐴 = 4 𝑎.

Example 1.2 If 𝑂 is any point within triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are midpoints of the sides
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐶, 𝐶𝐴 respectively. Prove that 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

1.7 Resolution of vectors

• 1-D : Straight line
Let 𝑂 be a fixed point (called the origin) and 𝑃 be any variable point on the given line
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑥. Let 𝑖 be the unit vector in the direction of 𝑂𝑃
(Say X - axis). Let |𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Then,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖.

𝑂 𝑥 𝑃 𝑖

• 2 – D: Resolution in the plane

Let 𝑂 be a fixed point (called the origin) and 𝑃 be any variable point on the given plane.
Consider two perpendicular lines (axes) through 𝑂, say 𝑋- axis and 𝑌- axis. Let 𝑖, 𝑗 be
the unit vectors in the direction of 𝑋- axis and 𝑌- axis respectively. Through 𝑃, draw
straight lines parallel to the coordinate axes 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 meeting in 𝑀, 𝑁 respectively. Let
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑥 and 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑦. Then,

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 𝑗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗
𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃
𝑀 𝑃
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
𝑟 = |𝑂𝑃

𝑂 𝑥 𝐿 𝑖

• 3 – D : Resolution in space
Let 𝑂 be a fixed point (called the origin) and 𝑃 be any variable point on space. Consider
three mutually perpendicular lines (axes) through 𝑂, say 𝑋- axis, 𝑌- axis and 𝑍- axis.
Let 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 be the unit vectors in the direction of 𝑋- axis, 𝑌- axis and 𝑍- axis respectively.
Through 𝑃, draw planes parallel to the coordinate planes 𝑂𝑌𝑍, 𝑂𝑋𝑍, 𝑂𝑋𝑌 meeting
𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑍 in 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 respectively.

Z we obtain a rectangular parallelepiped

C D having 𝑂𝑃 as a diagonal.

Let 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥, 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑦 and 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑧.
𝑧
P Then, the position vector of 𝑃 with
respect to 𝑂 is given by
O
𝑦 B Y
𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧 𝑘.
𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃
A
F ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑟 = |𝑂𝑃
X

The scalars 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are called the scalar components (or coordinates) of 𝑟.

The vectors 𝑥 𝑖, 𝑦 𝑗, 𝑧 𝑘 are called the vector components of 𝑟 along the respective axes.

1.8 Component-wise vector operations

Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘, then

𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) 𝑖 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑗 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ) 𝑘

𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 ) 𝑖 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )𝑗 + (𝑎3 − 𝑏3 ) 𝑘

𝜆 𝑎 = 𝜆 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝜆 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝜆 𝑎3 𝑘

𝑎 = 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 = 𝑏3 .
𝑎1 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 and 𝑏 are collinear ( or parallel) if and only if 𝑎 = 𝜆𝑏 ⟺ 𝑏1
= 𝑏2 = 𝑏3 (= 𝜆).
2 3

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Example 1.3 If 𝑎 = √3𝛼 𝑖 + 2𝛼 𝑗 − 3𝛼 𝑘 is a unit vector, find 𝛼. Find a vector opposite to
𝑎 that has 11 units.
Example 1.4 Determine if the following vectors are collinear: 𝑢 = (1, 2, 3), 𝑣 = (3, 6, 9).
Example 1.5 Show that the vectors 𝑎 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2 𝑘, 𝑏 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 − 4 𝑘 and 𝑐 = −𝑖 −
2 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 forms a right angular isosceles triangle.

Example 1.6 Show that the vectors 𝑎 = 𝑖 − 3 𝑗 − 2 𝑘, 𝑏 = −3𝑖 + 2 𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 2𝑖 +

𝑗 + 3 𝑘 forms an equivalent triangle.

1.9 Direction ratios and direction cosines

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ makes with the coordinate axes are called the direction
The angles 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 which 𝑂𝑃
angles and
cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛾
are called the direction cosines of the line 𝑂𝑃.

Clearly 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝛽 , 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝛾. Thus,

1 1
𝑟̂ = 𝑟 = (𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧 𝑘 ) = cos 𝛼 𝑖 + cos 𝛽 𝑗 + cos 𝛾 𝑘.
𝑟 𝑟

That is, the coefficients of 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 in the rectangular resolution of a unit vector are the
direction cosines of that vector relative to the rectangular axes.
The ratio cos 𝛼 : cos 𝛽 : cos 𝛾 = 𝑥: 𝑦: 𝑧 is known as the directional ratios.
Example 1.7 Find the directional cosines of a line going through the points
𝑃(6, 3, 2) and 𝑄(5, 1, 4).

1.10 Ratio Theorem (Section formula)

Theorem: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two distinct points in space and let 𝑅 be the point on the
line joining 𝐴 and 𝐵 such that 𝐴𝑅 ∶ 𝑅𝐵 = 𝜆 ∶ 𝜇, where 𝜆 + 𝜇 ≠ 0. If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝑅 have
position vectors with respect to affixed origin 𝑂, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑟 respectively, then
A 𝜇𝑎+𝜆𝑏
𝜆 𝑟= .
R 𝜇+𝜆
𝜇
𝑎 𝑟 B

𝑏
O
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Corollary: If 𝑅 is the middle point of 𝐴𝐵, then
1
𝑟 = ( 𝑎 + 𝑏)
2
Remarks:
𝜆
(i) If > 0, then 𝑅 divides 𝐴𝐵 internally.
𝜇
𝜆
(ii) If < 0, then 𝑅 divides 𝐴𝐵 externally.
𝜇

Example 1.8 Let 𝐴(1, 0, 0) and 𝐵(5, 0, 0) be two pints on the 𝑥 −axis. Find the
coordinate of the point 𝐶 such that the point 𝐶 divides 𝐴𝐵 in the ratio
(i) 3: 2 internally,
(ii) 3: 2 externally,
(iii) 3: 4 externally.

The result of the theorem may also written as

𝜇 𝜆
𝑟= 𝑎+ 𝑏.
𝜇+𝜆 𝜇+𝜆
𝜇 𝜆
Let = 𝛼. Then, clearly , 𝜇+𝜆 = 1 − 𝛼. Thus, the above equation becomes
𝜇+𝜆

𝑟 = 𝛼 𝑎 + (1 − 𝛼) 𝑏.
Remarks:
(i) If 0 < 𝛼 < 1, then R divides AB internally.
(ii) If 𝛼 < 0 or 𝛼 > 1, then R divides AB externally.
If 𝛼 < 0, then 𝑅 will be in the side of 𝐵.
If 𝛼 > 1, then 𝑅 will be in the side of 𝐴.

Example 1.9 Let the point B divides the line segment AC in the ratio 1: 𝛼 internally.
Find
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐵𝐶
(i) 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 in terms of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 .

Example 1.10 The points D, E, F divide the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle in the ratio 1 ∶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐵𝐸
4, 3 ∶ 2, and 3 ∶ 7 respectively. Show that the sum of the vectors 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐶𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector
parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐾 , where K divides AB in the ratio 1 ∶ 3.

Example 1.11 From an origin O the points A, B and C have position vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and
2 𝑏 respectively. The points O, A and B are not collinear. The midpoint of AB is M, and the
point of trisection of AC near to A is T. Draw a diagram to show O, A, B, C, M, P and T.
Find, in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏, the position vectors of M and T. Use your results to prove that
O, M and T are collinear, and find the ratio in which M divides OT.
CM is produced to meet OA at P. Show that 𝑂𝐶 = 3 𝑃𝑇.

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Example 1.12 In a triangle 𝑂𝐴𝐵, 𝐿 is a point on the side 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑀 is a point on the
side 𝑂𝐵, and the lines 𝑂𝐿 and 𝐴𝑀 meet at 𝑆. It is given that 𝐴𝑆 = 𝑆𝑀 and 4 𝑂𝑆 = 3 𝑂𝐿,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 and 𝑂𝐵
and that 𝑂𝑀: 𝑂𝐵 = ℎ: 1 and 𝐴𝐿: 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘: 1. Let 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏.

(i) Express the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝑀 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑆 in terms of 𝑎, 𝑏 and ℎ and the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐿 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑆
in terms of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑘. Find ℎ and 𝑘.
(ii) 𝐵𝑆 meets 𝑂𝐴 at 𝑁. Find the ratios in which 𝐿, 𝑀 and 𝑁 divide 𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝑂 and 𝑂𝐴
respectively.

ASSIGNMENT 1
1. If 𝑎 = 5 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 4𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 + 7𝑘, find the magnitude and direction cosines
of the vector 𝑎 + 2 𝑏.

2. Let 𝑃(1, −2, 4) and 𝑄(2, 1, −3) be two points in space. Find the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑄 and its
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |. Also, determine the directional cosines of the line through the points
modulus |𝑃𝑄
𝑃 and 𝑄.

3. Let 𝑃 ≡ (2, −1, 1), 𝑄 ≡ (1, −3, −5), 𝑅 ≡ (3, −4, −4). Find the lengths of the sides of
the triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅 and hence show that it is a right angled triangle.

4. Let 𝐴 ≡ (2, −1, 3) and 𝐵 ≡ (1, 2, 5) be the rectangular coordinates of two points.
(i) Find the coordinates of the point 𝐶 such that 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a parallelogram.
(ii) Find the lengths of the sides and diagonals of this parallelogram.

5. Show that the line joining one vertex of a parallelogram to the midpoint of an
opposite side trisects the diagonal and is itself trisected there at.

6. Let 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be a triangle and 𝐷 be the midpoint of the side 𝐴𝐵. Show that the line through
𝐷 and parallel to 𝐵𝐶 bisects the side 𝐴𝐶 at 𝐸. Show also that 𝐵𝐶: 𝐷𝐸 = 1: 2.

7. 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a parallelogram and 𝐸 is the midpoint of the side 𝐵𝐶. If the diagonal 𝐴𝐶
meets 𝐷𝐸 at 𝐹, show that 𝐴𝐹 ∶ 𝐹𝐶 = 2 ∶ 1.

8. Let the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC with respect to any
origin be 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 respectively. Show that the position vector of the centroid G of the
1
triangle is given by (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐). Show also that 𝐺𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐺𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐺𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0.
3

9. Let 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 be a parallelogram.

(i) A point 𝐾 is chosen on the side 𝑂𝐶 and a point 𝐿 on the side 𝑂𝐵 such
that 𝑂𝐾: 𝑂𝐶 = 1: 5 and 𝑂𝐿: 𝑂𝐵 = 1: 6. Prove that the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐾𝐿 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆 𝐴𝐿
are collinear and find the proportionality factor 𝜆 such that 𝐾𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
(ii) Let 𝑀, 𝑁 be the midpoints of the sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 respectively. If 𝑁𝑀
meets 𝑂𝐵 at 𝑃, show that 𝑂𝐿: 𝐿𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 2: 7: 3.

10. Let 𝐷 be the midpoint of the side 𝐴𝐵 of a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶. The point 𝑀 bisects the
median 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐿 is the centroid of the triangle 𝐴𝐶𝐷. The line 𝐴𝐿 is produced to
meet the side 𝐵𝐶 at 𝑁. Use vector methods to prove

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 (𝑖) 𝐵𝑁: 𝑁𝐶 = 2: 1 and (𝑖𝑖) 𝐴𝐿: 𝐿𝑀: 𝑀𝑁 = 2: 1: 1.

11. Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be three non-collinear points in a plane. Let 𝐷 be the point on
1 1
𝐴𝐶 such that 𝐴𝐷 = 3 𝐴𝐶 and let 𝐸 be the point on 𝐵𝐶 such that 𝐵𝐸 = 3 𝐵𝐶. Let
the lines 𝐴𝐸 and 𝐵𝐷 intersect at the point 𝐹. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑣.
(𝑖) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐸 in terms of 𝑢 and 𝑣.
(𝑖𝑖) Find the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 such that 𝐴𝐹: 𝐹𝐸 = 1: 𝜆 and 𝐵𝐹: 𝐹𝐷 = 1: 𝜇.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐹 in terms of 𝑢 and 𝑣 and hence show that the line 𝐶𝐹 bisects 𝐴𝐵.

12. The diagram shows a trapezium 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆. The side 𝑃𝑆 is parallel to 𝑄𝑅 and 𝑃𝑆 =
4 𝑄𝑅.

𝑄 𝑅

𝑃 𝑆

The lines 𝑃𝑅 and 𝑄𝑆 intersect at 𝑇. Let 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑢 and 𝑄𝑅

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑃𝑅
(𝑖) Find the vectors 𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 in terms of 𝑢 and / or 𝑣.
(𝑖𝑖) Show that 𝑃𝑇: 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑆𝑇: 𝑇𝑄 = 4: 1.

13. Let 𝑂, 𝐴 and 𝐵 be three non-collinear points on a plane such that the position
vectors of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with respect to the origin 𝑂 are 𝑎 and 𝑏
respectively. The points 𝐶 and 𝐷 have position vectors 3𝑎 and 2𝑏 respectively.
Let 𝐸 be the mid-point of 𝐴𝐵. The extended line 𝑂𝐸 meets 𝐶𝐷 at 𝐹. Sketch a
diagram to show all of these points on the plane.

Find the position vectors of 𝐸 and 𝐹 in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏. Hence find the ratios
𝑂𝐸: 𝐸𝐹 and 𝐶𝐹: 𝐹𝐷.

Show that the lines 𝐴𝐷 and 𝑂𝐹 bisects each other.

14. Let 𝑂, 𝐴 and 𝐵 be three non-collinear points on a plane such that the position
vectors of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with respect to the origin 𝑂 are 𝑎 and 𝑏
respectively. The point 𝐶 is on 𝑂𝐴 such that 𝑂𝐶: 𝐶𝐴 = 4: 1 and the point 𝐷 is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
on 𝐴𝐵 such that 𝐴𝐷: 𝐷𝐵 = 2: 3. Find 𝐶𝐷

The point 𝐸 is taken on the extended 𝑂𝐵 such that 𝑂𝐵: 𝐵𝐸 = 5: 3. Show, by

vector method, that the points 𝐶, 𝐷 and 𝐸 are collinear.

The line through 𝐵 and parallel to 𝑂𝐴 meets the line 𝐶𝐸 at 𝐹. Find 𝐷𝐹: 𝐹𝐸
and deduce the ratio of the areas of the triangles 𝐵𝐷𝐹 and 𝐵𝐸𝐹.

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2 PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

Preliminaries:

The angle between two vectors is the smallest angle that one vector can be rotated until it
aligns with the other.

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝜃 𝜃
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝜃 - acute 𝜃 - right 𝜃 - obtuse

0≤𝜃≤𝜋

If 𝜃 = 0 or 𝜋, then the two vectors are parallel. If 𝜃 = 0, then they are in the same
direction. If 𝜃 = 𝜋, then they are in opposite direction.

𝜋
If 𝜃 = 2 , then the vectors are said to be perpendicular to each other.

2.1 Scalar Product

Definition 2.1 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two non-zero vectors and let 𝜃 be the angle between
them. We define the scalar (or dot, inner) product of 𝑎 and 𝑏 to be |𝑎||𝑏| cos 𝜃 and is
denoted by 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏. That is
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = |𝑎||𝑏| cos 𝜃.
In addition, 𝑎 ∙ 0 = 0.

Remark
1. The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar; not a vector.
𝑎∙𝑏
2. The angle 𝜃 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is 𝜃 = cos−1 (|𝑎||𝑏|).

If 𝜃 is acute, then cos 𝜃 > 0 and then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 > 0

If 𝜃 is right angle, then cos 𝜃 = 0 and then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 0
If 𝜃 is obtuse, then cos 𝜃 < 0 and then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 < 0

Properties of Scalar Product

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three vectors and 𝑚, 𝑛 be scalars. Then the scalar product satisfies
1. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎
2. 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐
3. 𝑚 𝑎 ∙ 𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑛 (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏)
2
4. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 = |𝑎| ≥ 0 and 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 = 0 if and only if 𝑎 = 0.

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Orthonormal Vectors
Definition 2.2 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two vectors. Then, the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 are said to be
orthogonal if 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 0.
Note:- zero vector is orthogonal to any vector.

Remark
If 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 0, then either 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0 or 𝑎 is perpendicular to 𝑏.

In this case, If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-zero vectors, then they are said to ‘perpendicular’ to each
other.

If, in addition, they are unit vectors, then they are said to be ‘orthonormal’ vectors. That
is, a set of vectors 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , ⋯ , 𝑢𝑛 is said to be orthonormal basis if
i. 𝑢𝑖 ∙ 𝑢𝑖 = 1 for all 𝑖 = 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛.
ii. 𝑢𝑖 ∙ 𝑢𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.

• Recall that 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 are

1. unit vectors; 𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑗 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 = 1.
2. Mutually perpendicular; 𝑖 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑗 ∙ 𝑘 = 𝑖 ∙ 𝑘 = 0.
Thus, the set of vectors { 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 } is orthonormal.

Scalar Products in terms of Components:

Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘. Then
𝑎1 𝑏1
( 𝑎 ) (𝑏
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 2 ∙ 2 ) = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑎3 𝑏3

Example 2.1 Find the values of 𝛼 for which the vectors 𝛼 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 2𝛼 𝑖 + 𝛼 𝑗 −
4 𝑘 are perpendicular?
𝜋
Example 2.2 Find a unit vector in 𝑦𝑧-plane that makes an angle of 3 with the vector 𝑖 −
𝜋
𝑗 and an angle of with 𝑖 + 𝑘.
3
Example 2.3 Suppose 𝑎 = 𝜆 𝑖 − 7 𝑗 + 3 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝜆 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝜆 𝑘. If the angle between 𝑎
and 𝑏 is greater than 90°, show that 𝜆 satisfies the inequality −7 < 𝜆 < 1.

Geometrical Interpretation

Let 𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 and let 𝐿, 𝑀 be the feet of the perpendiculars for 𝑃 and 𝑄 on the support 𝐴𝐵
of the vector 𝑎. Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝑄
𝑏

𝑃 𝜃

𝐴 𝐿 𝑀 𝐵 and Geometry
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The scalar projection of 𝑏 upon 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝑀 = |𝑏| cos 𝜃.

Since 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = |𝑎||𝑏| cos 𝜃, the projection of 𝑏 upon 𝐴𝐵 is

𝑎∙𝑏
= 𝑎̂ ∙ 𝑏
|𝑎|
.The vector projection of 𝑏 on 𝐴𝐵 = (𝑎̂ ∙ 𝑏) 𝑎̂
Example 2.4 Find the scalar projection and the vector projection of 𝑏 = 2 𝑖 − 3 𝑗 − 𝑘 on
𝑎 = 3 𝑖 − 6 𝑗 + 2 𝑘.

2.2 Vector Product

Definition 2.4 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two non-zero vectors and let 𝜃 be the angle between
them. We define the vector (cross, outer) product of 𝑎 and 𝑏 to be |𝑎||𝑏| sin 𝜃 𝑛, where 𝑛
is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑛 (in
that order) form a right handed system and is denoted by 𝑎 × 𝑏. That is

𝑎 × 𝑏 = |𝑎||𝑏| sin 𝜃 𝑛.
In addition, if 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0 , we define 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 0. 𝑎×𝑏

Remark
If 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 0, then it may be 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0 or 𝑎 is parallel to 𝑏.

Properties of vector product

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three vectors and 𝑚, 𝑛 be scalars. Then,
1. 𝑎 × 𝑏 = − 𝑏 × 𝑎
2. 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑎 × 𝑐, (𝑎 + 𝑏) × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × 𝑐 + 𝑏 × 𝑐
3. 𝑚 𝑎 × 𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑛 (𝑎 × 𝑏)
4. 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 0 for any vector 𝑎.

Example 2.5 If 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑐 × 𝑑 and 𝑎 × 𝑐 = 𝑏 × 𝑑, show that 𝑎 − 𝑑 is collinear to 𝑏 − 𝑐.

Note:-
1. 𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑗 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0.
2. Since 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 form a mutually perpendicular right handed system,
𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑗 × 𝑘 = 𝑖, 𝑘 × 𝑖 = 𝑗,
𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘, 𝑘 × 𝑗 = − 𝑖, 𝑖 × 𝑘 = −𝑗.

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3. Vector product is not associative.

Example 2.6 Give an example to show that vector product is not associative.

Vector product as a determinant

Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘. Then,
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎 × 𝑏 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
Example 2.7 Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝑎 and 𝑏, where 𝑎 =
3 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 2 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘.

Geometrical Interpretation
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 and 𝑂𝐵
Let 𝑂, 𝐴, 𝐵 be three distinct, non-collinear points in space and let 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏.

𝑎 × 𝑏 = |𝑎||𝑏| sin 𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑂𝐴 ∙ ℎ ∙ 𝑛 = 2 ∙ Δ𝑂𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝑛

That is, B
1
1. The vector area of the triangle is (𝑎 × 𝑏).
2 b h
1
2. The area of the triangle OAB is |𝑎 × 𝑏|.
2
𝜃
3. The vector area of the parallelogram = 𝑎 × 𝑏.
O a A
4. The area of the parallelogram = |𝑎 × 𝑏|.

Example 2.8 Let 𝐴 ≡ (1, 3, 2), 𝐵 ≡ (2, −1, 3) and 𝐶 ≡ (2, 2, −3). Find
i. the area of the triangle ABC.
ii. a unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC.
iii. the perpendicular distance from (1, −1, 3) to the plane ABC.

ASSIGNMENT 2
1. Let 𝑎 = −2𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 3𝑗 − 4𝑘, 𝑐 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑛𝑘 and 𝑑 = −4𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘.
(i) Find the angle between the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(ii) Find the projection of 𝑏 on 𝑎.
(iii) For what value of 𝑛, 𝑎 and 𝑐 are perpendicular?
(iv) Find the directional cosines of the line parallel to 𝑎.
(v) Verify that 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑑) = 𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑎 × 𝑑.
(vi) Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑑.

2. Prove that
2
(i) (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ (𝑎 − 𝑏) = |𝑎| − |𝑏|2.
2 2
(ii) |𝑎 + 𝑏| = |𝑎| + 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + |𝑏|2 .
2 2
(iii) |𝑎 − 𝑏| = |𝑎| − 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + |𝑏|2 .

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 Deduce that
1 2 2
𝑎∙𝑏 = (|𝑎 + 𝑏| − |𝑎 − 𝑏| ).
4

3. If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are three vectors such that 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 and the angle between 𝑏 and 𝑐 is
𝜋
, then show that
2
a) 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 .
𝑏
b) The angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is cos −1 (𝑎).
c) Orthogonal projection of 𝑏 on 𝑎 is 𝑏.

4. If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are unit vectors inclined at an angle 𝜃, then prove that

𝜃 1
a) cos ( 2) = 2 | 𝑚 + 𝑛|
𝜃 1
b) sin (2) = 2 | 𝑚 − 𝑛|
1
c) |𝑚 × 𝑛| = 2 | 𝑚 + 𝑛|| 𝑚 − 𝑛|.

5. The points A, B and C have coordinates (2, 1, −1), (1, −7, 3) and (−2, 5, 1)
respectively. Find the vector area of the triangle ABC.

6. Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two non-zero vectors such that 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = |𝑎 × 𝑏|. Find the angle
between 𝑎 and 𝑏.

7. Given that 𝑝 = 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (2𝑡 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑞 = (𝑡 − 1)𝑖 + 3𝑡𝑗 − (𝑡 2 + 3𝑡)𝑘, where t is a

scalar variable. Determine
(i) The values of t for which 𝑝 and 𝑞 are perpendicular.
(ii) The angle between the vectors 𝑝 and 𝑞 when 𝑡 = 1.

8. Let the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have position vectors 𝑎 = 4𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 4𝑘,

𝑐 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 5𝑘.
(i) Show that 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are not collinear.
(ii) Find the projection of 𝑏 upon 𝑎.
(iii) Verify that 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐.
(iv) Verify that 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∙ 𝑐) 𝑏 − (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) 𝑐.
(v) Find the area of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

9. Let 𝑃 ≡ (2, 4, 0), 𝑄 ≡ (2, −1, 3) and 𝑅 ≡ (4, −2, 5).

(a) Calculate 𝑂𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑂𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
(b) Show that 𝑂𝑃 is perpendicular to the plane 𝑂𝑄𝑅.
(c) Evaluate the area of the triangle 𝑂𝑄𝑅.
(d) Find the volume of the tetrahedron 𝑂𝑃𝑄𝑅.

10. Let 𝑎 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝑏 = −6𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 2𝑘, and 𝑐 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 𝑘. Find two vectors

that are parallel and two pair of vectors that are perpendicular.

11. Let 𝑙 = 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑚 = 6𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 2𝑘.

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 (𝑎) Find the acute angle between 𝑙 and 𝑚.
(𝑏) Find the orthogonal projection of 𝑙 on 𝑚.
(𝑐) Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors 𝑙 and 𝑚.

12. Vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of a triangle have the position vectors 𝑎 = 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 5𝑘, 𝑏 =

2 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 3 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘 respectively.
i. Find the lengths and angles of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.
ii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
Evaluate 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and hence find the area of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.
iii. Find the unit vector perpendicular to the plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

13. Let 𝑟 be a vector in ℝ3 such that 𝑟 × (𝑖 + 𝑘) = −𝑖 + 2 𝑗 + 𝜆𝑘.

(𝑖) Find the value of 𝜆.
(𝑖𝑖) Find 𝑟, if the magnitude of 𝑟 is √3.

4
14. Let 𝑎 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 𝜆 𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘. If the orthogonal projection of 𝑏 on 𝑎 is ,
√3
find the value of 𝜆.

15. Let 𝑎 = −2 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 2 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 − 3𝑘.

(𝑖) Evaluate 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) and make a deduction about the vector 𝑏 + 𝑐 compared

to the vector 𝑎.
(𝑖𝑖) Evaluate the scalar projection of 𝑐 on 𝑎.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Find the area of the triangle whose vertices has the position vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and𝑐.

16. For any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏, prove that

2 2 2 2
|𝑎 × 𝑏| = |𝑎| |𝑏| − |𝑎 ∙ 𝑏| .
Suppose that 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are unit vectors satisfying the vector equation 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Deduce that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are perpendicular to each other.

3. PRODUCT OF THREE OR MORE VECTORS

3.1 Scalar Triple Product
Definition 3.1 The scalar product of 𝑎 × 𝑏 and 𝑐 is called the scalar triple product (or mixed
product) of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 and is denoted by [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]. That is
[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] = (𝑎 × 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐
Note:-
1. [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] is a scalar.

2. [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] ≷ 0 according as that 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (in that order) form a right handed or left handed
system.

Example 3.1 Verify that the unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 form a right handed system.

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Scalar triple product in the determinant form:
Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑖 + 𝑐2 𝑗 + 𝑐3 𝑘. Then,
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
(𝑎 × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |.
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Example 3.2 Determine whether the vectors 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 − 3 𝑘, 2 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑗 − 𝑘 form a right
handed or left handed system.

Properties
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be any three vectors and 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 be scalars. Then,
1. (𝑎 × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 × 𝑐)
2. [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] = [ 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎] = [ 𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏]
3. [ 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑐] = −[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]
4. [ 𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑐] = 0
5. [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 + 𝑑] = [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] + [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑]
6. [𝛼 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] = 𝛼[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]
7. [𝛼 𝑎, 𝛽𝑏, 𝛾𝑐] = 𝛼𝛽𝛾[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]

Geometrical interpretation: Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏 and 𝑂𝐶

𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐 be three non-coplanar
vectors.
𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑂𝐴 ∙ 𝑂𝐵 ∙ sin 𝜃 𝑛
𝑎 × 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑂𝐴 ∙ 𝑂𝐵 ∙ sin 𝜃 (𝑛 ∙ 𝑐)
= area(𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵) ∙ (𝑛 ∙ 𝑐)
Now, 𝑛 ∙ 𝑐 = |𝑛||𝑐| cos 𝛼
C = 𝑂𝐶 ∙ cos 𝛼 = 𝐶𝐻
𝛼 Thus, 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 = area(𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵) ∙ 𝐶𝐻
𝑛
×𝑏
𝑐 D
𝑏 B
𝜃 H
O 𝑎 A

1. The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is

𝑉 = |𝑎 × 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐|.
2. The volume of the tetrahedron determined by the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is
1 1 1
𝑉 = area(𝑂𝐴𝐵)𝐶𝐻 = area(𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵) ∙ 𝐶𝐻 = |𝑎 × 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐|
3 6 6

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Example 3.3 Find the volume of the tetrahedron determined by the vectors 𝑎 = 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 3 𝑘,
𝑏 = 2 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 𝑗 + 𝑘.

Theorem 3.1 The vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are coplanar if and only if [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] = 0.

3.2 Vector Triple Products

Definition 3.2 The vector products (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐 and 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) are called the vector triple
products of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.

Note:-
1. The vector triple products are vectors.
2. Recall that (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐 ≠ 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) in general.

Properties: For any three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐,

𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∙ 𝑐) 𝑏 − (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) 𝑐

Example 3.4 Prove that 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) + 𝑏 × (𝑐 × 𝑎) + 𝑐 × (𝑎 × 𝑏) = 0.

Geometrical interpretation 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐)
Assume that 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) ≠ 0.
Then 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) is a vector perpendicular to both 𝑎 and 𝑏 × 𝑐. 𝑐
𝑏×𝑐
But, 𝑏 × 𝑐 is perpendicular to the plane of 𝑏 and 𝑐.
Thus, 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) lies in the plane of 𝑏 and 𝑐.
𝑏

Note:- 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = 𝛼 𝑏 + 𝛽 𝑐 for some scalars 𝛼, 𝛽. 𝑎

3.3 Reciprocal set of vectors

Definition 3.3 Given a set of non-coplanar vectors { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. Then, the set of vectors
{ 𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′} defined by
𝑏×𝑐 𝑐×𝑎 𝑎×𝑏
𝑎′ = , 𝑏′ = , 𝑐′ =
[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]
is called the reciprocal set of vectors of the set { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}.

Example 3.5 Show that the reciprocal set of vectors of the set {𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘} is the set itself.

Properties
Let { 𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′} be the reciprocal set of the non-coplanar set of vectors { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. Then,
1. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎′ = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏′ = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑐′ = 1.

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 2. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏′ = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐′ = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎′ = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐′ = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎′ = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑏′ = 0.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
3. 𝑏′ × 𝑐′ = , 𝑐′ × 𝑎′ = , 𝑎′ × 𝑏′ = .
[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]

4. [𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′][𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] = 1.

5. Reciprocal of { 𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′} is { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}.

6. Any vector 𝑟 can be written as

𝑟 = (𝑟 ∙ 𝑎′) 𝑎 + (𝑟 ∙ 𝑏′) 𝑏 + (𝑟 ∙ 𝑐′) 𝑐.

ASSIGNMENT 3

1. Let 𝑎 be a unit vector, 𝑏 = 2 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 𝑖 + 3 𝑘. Find the maximum value of [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐].

2. If the volume of the parallelepiped with coterminous edges 4 𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 𝑘, −𝑗 + 𝑘, and 3 𝑖 +

9𝑗 + 𝛼 𝑘 is 34 cubic units, find the possible values for 𝛼.

1
3. If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are unit vectors such that 𝑙 × (𝑚 × 𝑛) = 2 𝑚, find the angles which 𝑙 makes with
𝑚 and 𝑛

4. Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two orthogonal unit (orthonormal) vectors. Prove each of the following:
(i) The vectors (𝑎 + 𝑏) and (𝑎 − 𝑏) are orthogonal.
(ii) 𝑎 × (𝑎 × 𝑏) = −𝑏 and 𝑏 × (𝑎 × 𝑏) = 𝑎.
(iii) Does the ordered vector triad a, b, a  b form a right handed or left handed system? Justify
your answer.
(iv) The vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎 × 𝑏 are orthonormal.
5. Write the expansion for 𝑙 × (𝑚 × 𝑛) and deduce a similar result for (𝑙 × 𝑚) × 𝑛, where 𝑙,
𝑚, and 𝑛 are any three vectors.
For four arbitrary vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑, evaluate (𝑎 × 𝑏) × (𝑐 × 𝑑) in both ways and hence
prove that
[𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑]𝑎 − [𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑎]𝑏 + [𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑏]𝑐 − [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]𝑑 = 0.

6. Let the set of vectors {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} be non-coplanar. Define a new set of vectors {𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛} such
that 𝑙 = 𝑎 × 𝑏, 𝑚 = 𝑏 × 𝑐, 𝑛 = 𝑐 × 𝑎.
(i) Show that 𝑎 ∙ 𝑙 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑙 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑚 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑚 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑛 = 0.
2
(ii) Show further that [ 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 ] = [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ] . Determine whether the set {𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛} is
coplanar or not.
(iii) Write an expression for 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐). Show that, if 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐) = 𝛼𝑙 + 𝛽𝑚 + 𝛾𝑛, then
1 𝑎∙𝑐 𝑎∙𝑏 1 𝑎∙𝑐 𝑎∙𝑏
𝛼= | |, 𝛽 = 0, 𝛾= | |.
[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ] 𝑐 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐 [ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ] 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑏

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7. Write the Expansion of the vector triple product 𝑢 × (𝑣 × 𝑤).
Using this expansion find the value of 𝜆 such that (𝑛 × 𝑙) × (𝑙 × 𝑚) = 𝜆 𝑙.
2
Hence show that (𝑚 × 𝑛) ∙ (𝑛 × 𝑙) × (𝑙 × 𝑚) = [𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛] .

8. If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are non-coplanar vectors and 𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′ constitute the reciprocal system, then show
that
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ∙ (𝑎′ + 𝑏 ′ + 𝑐 ′ ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ 𝑎′ + (𝑏 + 𝑐) ∙ 𝑏 ′ + (𝑐 + 𝑎) ∙ 𝑐 ′ = 3.

9. Let 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 − 2𝑘, 𝑏 = 2 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑐 = −2 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 3𝑘. Find the reciprocal system

{𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′} and verify that [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] [𝑎′ , 𝑏 ′ , 𝑐 ′ ] = 1.

10. Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be non – coplanar vectors and 𝑎′, 𝑏′ and 𝑐′ be the respective reciprocal vectors.
Show that any vector 𝑟 can be written as 𝑟 = (𝑟 ∙ 𝑎′ ) 𝑎 + (𝑟 ∙ 𝑏 ′ ) 𝑏 + (𝑟 ∙ 𝑐 ′ ) 𝑐.
Define a set of base vectors 𝑎 = 𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 𝑖 + 𝑗. Establish their reciprocal
vectors and hence express the vectors 𝑝 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑞 = 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 and 𝑟 = −2 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 in
terms of the base vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.

11. Let 𝑝 = 2 𝑖 + 4 𝑗, 𝑞 = 2 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 3 𝑘 and 𝑟 = 4 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 5 𝑘.

(i) Show that the set {𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 } is non-coplanar.
(ii) Construct the reciprocal set {𝑝′, 𝑞′, 𝑟′ } of the set {𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 }.
(iii) Verify that [𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟] [𝑝′ , 𝑞 ′ , 𝑟 ′ ] = 1.

12. Let {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} be the set of linearly independent vectors.

(i) Use the vector triple product formula to show that (𝑎 × 𝑏) × (𝑏 × 𝑐) is collinear to the
vector 𝑏.

(ii) Use part (i) to compute (𝑎 × 𝑏) × (𝑏 × 𝑐) ∙ (𝑐 × 𝑎).

(iii) Let {𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′} be the set of reciprocal vectors to {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. Using (ii), deduce that
[ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ][𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′ ] = 1.

13. Find the vector 𝑥 and the scalar 𝜆 which satisfies the equations 𝑎 × 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝜆 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∙
𝑥 = 2, where 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝑏 = 2 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘.

14. Let 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 and 𝑐 = 𝑗 − 𝑘.

(i) Show that the set {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} is non-coplanar.
(ii) Construct the reciprocal set {𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′}.
(iii) Write the vector 𝑑 = 𝑖 as a linear combination of the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.

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4. VECTORIAL EQUATIONS OF LINES

4.1 Line through a given point and parallel to a given line.

Let 𝑎 be the position vector of the given point 𝐴 with respect to a fixed origin 𝑂 and 𝑙
be a vector parallel to the given line. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point 𝑅 on the
required line.
A
Parametric form: 𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to 𝑙, we have
Since 𝐴𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆 𝑙.
𝐴𝑅
That is, 𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝜆 𝑙
O R
or 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑙.

This is the parametric form of vector equation of the line. Each point on the line satisfies
the equation for some values of 𝜆.

Non-Parametric form:
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 is parallel to 𝑙, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 × 𝑙 = 0.
⟹ (𝑟 − 𝑎) × 𝑙 = 0.
⟹ 𝑟 × 𝑙 = 𝑎 × 𝑙.

Cartesian form:
𝑥 𝑙
Let 𝐴 ≡ 0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 𝑟 = ( ) and 𝑙 = 𝑚).
(𝑥 ), 𝑦 (
𝑧 𝑛
𝑥 𝑥0 𝑙
𝑦
Then the equation of the line becomes ( ) = ( 0 ) + 𝜆 (𝑚).
𝑦
𝑧 𝑧0 𝑛
Thus, the Cartesian equation of the line is
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝜆 𝑙
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝜆 𝑚
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝜆 𝑛

Symmetric form: Eliminating 𝜆 from the above system of equations, we get the
symmetric form
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= = .
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛

Example 4.1 Find the vector equation of the line through the point (1, 1, 2) and parallel
to the vector 3 𝑖 + 7𝑗 − 2 𝑘.
Does the point 𝐵(4, 8, 0) lie on this line? If yes, what is the parametric value at B?

𝑥−5 𝑧+5
Example 4.2 Describe the line whose symmetric equation is given by =𝑦−2= .
0 5

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Example 4.3 Find the symmetric equation of a straight line which is parallel to the straight
line whose parametric equation is 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 5 − 7𝑡, t being parameter, and
passing through the point (0, 2, −1).

Example 4.4 Find the point of intersection of the lines

𝑟 = (2 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 + 6 𝑘) + 𝜆 ( 𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 5 𝑘) and
𝑟 = (4 𝑖 + 4 𝑘) + 𝜇 ( 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2 𝑘)
where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters. What is the acute angle between them?

4.2 Line through two given points

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 be the position vectors of the given points 𝐴, 𝐵 with respect to a fixed origin 𝑂
and let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point 𝑅 on the required line.
Parametric form:

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , we have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 = 𝜆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵. A
That is, 𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝜆 (𝑏 − 𝑎) R
or 𝑟 = (1 − 𝜆)𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑏,
B
where 𝜆 is a parameter. O
This is the required vector equation of the line.

Non-Parametric form:

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , we have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 0.
⟹ (𝑟 − 𝑎) × (𝑏 − 𝑎) = 0.
⟹ 𝑟 × (𝑏 − 𝑎) = 𝑎 × (𝑏 − 𝑎).
⟹ 𝑟 × (𝑏 − 𝑎) = 𝑎 × 𝑏.

Example 4.5 The median AD of a triangle ABC is bisected at E and BE is produced to

1 1
meet the side AC in F. Prove that 𝐴𝐹 = 3 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐸𝐹 = 4 𝐵𝐹.

4.3 Shortest Distance of a Point from a Line

Example 4.6 Let 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 be the position vectors of the points 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 with respect
to a fixed origin 𝑂. Find the perpendicular distance of a point 𝐶 from the line
i) passing through the point 𝐴 and parallel to the vector 𝑏.
ii) joining the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
4.4 Skew lines
Any pair of non-coplanar lines are called skew lines.
They neither intersect nor parallel. The two lines 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑙, and 𝑟 = 𝑏 + 𝜆 𝑚 are skew if
and only if [ 𝑏 − 𝑎, 𝑙, 𝑚 ] ≠ 0.
Note:- Any lines intersect each other are coplanar. If they do not intersect, they are either
parallel or non-coplanar(skew).
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Example 4.7 Show that the lines

𝑟 = (8 𝑖 − 9 𝑗 + 10 𝑘) + 𝑠 (3 𝑖 − 16 𝑗 + 7 𝑘) and
𝑟 = (15 𝑖 + 29 𝑗 + 5 𝑘) + 𝑡 ( 3 𝑖 + 8 𝑗 − 5 𝑘)

are skew, where 𝑠, 𝑡 are parameters.

Now, we find the shortest distance between two given skew lines:
Let P, Q be the common perpendicular.
l
Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 is parallel to 𝑙 × 𝑚.
Hence, the unit vector in the direction of PQ is P
A(a)
𝑙×𝑚
𝑁= .
|𝑙 × 𝑚| 𝜃
Let QC is perpendicular to the
N
line through A parallel to PQ.
Then ACPQ is a rectangle. Then,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑁|
𝑃𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 = |𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃| = |𝐴𝐵 B(b
|( 𝑏 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑙 × 𝑚| C Q )
= .
|𝑙 × 𝑚| m

Example 4.8 Show that the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 given by

𝑦+2 𝑥 𝑧+3
𝑙1 : 𝑥 − 1 = = 4 − 𝑧, 𝑙2 : = 𝑦 − 3 =
3 2 4
are skew and find the shortest distance between them.

EXERCISES 4

1. Let 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 be the lines given by 𝑙1 : 𝑟 = ( 𝑖 + 3 𝑘) + 𝜆 (4 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 + 5 𝑘) and

𝑙1 : 𝑟 = ( 𝑖 + 6 𝑗) + 𝜇 (2 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 4 𝑘), where 𝜆 , 𝜇 are parameters.
(i) Show that 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 intersect each other and find the coordinates of the
intersecting point 𝑃.
(ii) Find the acute angle between the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 .
(iii) Find the distance of the origin 𝑂 from the line 𝑙1.

2. The lines L1 and L2 are given respectively by ( x, y, z ) = ( 5, 6, 9 ) +  ( 2, 2, 3 ) and

( x, y, z ) = (1, 2, − 3 ) +  ( 2, 3, 5 ).
(i) Find the directional cosines of L1 .
(ii) Find the points where L1 cuts each co-ordinate plane.
(iii) Show that the line L2 intersects with the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 14 at two points
and find the points of intersection.
(iv) Show that L1 and L2 are skew and find the shortest distance between them.

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 3. The points P and Q have position vectors 𝑝 = 3 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 and 𝑞 = 4 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 − 𝑘
respectively, relative to a fixed origin O.
(a) Determine a vector equation of the line 𝑙1 that passing through the points P and
Q in the form 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑏, where 𝜆 is a parameter.
(b) The line 𝑙2 has vector equation 𝑟 = 2 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 − 3 𝑘 + 𝜇 (2 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 2 𝑘), where 𝜇
is a parameter. Show that 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 intersect and find the position vector of the
point of intersection V.
(c) Show that PV has length 3√11.
3
(d) If the acute angle between 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 is 𝜃, then show that cos 𝜃 = .
√11
(e) Calculate the perpendicular distance from P to 𝑙2 .

4. With respect to a fixed origin O, the points A and B have position vectors 2 𝑖 +
3𝑗 + 6 𝑘 and 2 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 + 4 𝑘 respectively.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and | 𝑂𝐵
(a) | 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and, by using the scalar product 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , calculate the value
of the cosine of the angle 𝐴𝑂̂𝐵.
(b) The point C has position vector 5 𝑖 + 12𝑗 + 6 𝑘. Show that 𝑂𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 are
perpendicular. Show also that the line through O and C intersects the line
through A and B, and find the position vector of the point E where they
intersect.
(c) Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , find the value of 𝜆 and explain briefly why 𝜆 is negative.
𝐴𝐸 = 𝜆 𝐸𝐵
(d) Calculate the ratio Area 𝑂𝐴𝐸 ∶ Area 𝑂𝐵𝐸.

5. The points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have position vectors 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2 𝑘, 𝑏 = 3 𝑖 + 6 𝑗 −

5 𝑘, 𝑐 = 7 𝑖 + 20 𝑗 − 7 𝑘 respectively, relative to a fixed origin. The point 𝐷 has
position vector 𝑑 and is such that 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a parallelogram.
(a) Find 𝑑 in terms of 𝑖, 𝑗 and 𝑘.
(b) Determine the value of cosine of the angle 𝐵𝐴𝐶.
(c) Show that a general point 𝑃 on the diagonal 𝐴𝐶 can be given as
(1 + 2𝜆, 2 + 6𝜆, 2 − 3𝜆), where 𝜆 is a parameter. Find the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃. Hence or
otherwise, determine the position vector of the point 𝐸 on the line 𝐴𝐶 that is
closest to the point 𝐵.
(d) Find the parametric vector equation of the diagonal 𝐵𝐷 and check whether the
point 𝐸 is on the diagonal 𝐵𝐷.

6. The lines 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 are given by the equations 𝑙1 : 𝑟 = 3 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 + 𝜆 ( 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 4 𝑘),

𝑙2 : 𝑟 = 4 𝑗 − 2 𝑘 + 𝜇 ( 𝑖 − 𝑗), respectively, where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters.
(a) If the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 intersect at the point 𝐵, find the coordinates of 𝐵.
(b) Find the acute angle between the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 .
(c) Find the values of 𝜆, 𝜇 such that the point 𝐴 with position vector 3 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2 𝑘
and the point 𝐶 with position vector 5 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 2 𝑘 lie on 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 respectively.
(d) Show that the points 𝐴 and 𝐶 are equi-distance from the point 𝐵.
(e) Evaluate the area of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

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7. With respect to a fixed origin 𝑂, the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are given by 𝐿1 : 𝑟 = 11 𝑖 +
2 𝑗 + 17 𝑘 + 𝜆 (−2 𝑖 + 𝛼 𝑗 − 4 𝑘) , 𝐿2 : 𝑟 = −5 𝑖 + 11 𝑗 + 𝛽𝑘 + 𝜇 (−3 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 + 2𝑘)
respectively, where 𝜆 and 𝜇 are parameters and 𝛼 and 𝛽 are constants.
(𝑎) Given that 𝐿1 is perpendicular to 𝐿2 ; show that 𝛼 = 1.
(𝑏) Given further that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect; find the value of 𝛽.
(𝑐) Find the coordinates of the point 𝑃 at which 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect.
(𝑑) Find the coordinates of the point 𝐴 which lies on the line 𝐿1 and corresponding
to the parametric value 𝜆 = 1.
(𝑒) Find the position vector of the point 𝐵 on 𝐿1 which is equidistance from the
point 𝑃 to 𝐴.

8. (𝑎) Let 𝐴 ≡ (1, 2, 0), 𝐵 ≡ (4, −1, 2) and 𝐶 ≡ (−2, 2 4) be three points in a plane. Let
𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹 be the midpoints of the sides 𝐵𝐶, 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐴𝐵 respectively.
(𝑖) Find the parametric equations of the medians 𝐴𝐷, 𝐵𝐸 and 𝐶𝐹.
(𝑖𝑖) Find the coordinates of a point 𝐺 where the medians 𝐴𝐷 and 𝐵𝐸 intersect.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Show that the point 𝐺 lies on the median 𝐶𝐹.
(𝑏) Show that the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 given parametrically by 𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 3𝜆, 𝑦 = 2 + 𝜆,
𝑧 = 1 + 𝜆 and 𝐿2 : 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜇, 𝑦 = −3 − 𝜇, 𝑧 = 𝜇, where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters,
are skew and find the shortest distance between them.

9. The line 𝐿1 is passing through the point (7, −3, 3) and is parallel to the vector
3 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 + 𝑘. The line 𝐿2 is passing through the two points (7, −2, 4) and (5, −1, 3).
(𝑎) Write the parametric vector equations of the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .
(𝑏) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect each other and find the point of intersection 𝑃.
(𝑐) Find the acute angle between the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .
(𝑑) Calculate the perpendicular distance of the origin 𝑂 from the line 𝐿1 .

10. The line 𝐿1 contains the point (1, −5, 1) and parallel to the vector 2 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 + 3𝑘. The
line 𝐿2 is passing through two pints (2, 4, 1) and (1, 9, −2). Symmetric equation of
the line 𝐿3 is given by
𝑦+1 𝑧
𝑥−2= = .
3 2
(𝑎) Find the parametric equations of the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .
(𝑏) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect each other and find the coordinates of the point
of intersection 𝑃.
(c) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿3 are skew and find the shortest distance between them.
(d) Find the shortest distance from the point 𝑃 to the line 𝐿3 .

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5. VECTORIAL EQUATIONS OF PLANES

5.1 Coplanar Vectors

• Parametric Form
Three or more points are said to be coplanar if they lie on a single plane. If A, B, C and D are
coplanar, then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = 𝜆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶
for some scalars 𝜆 and 𝜇.
• Non-parametric Form
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 0.

5.2 Equations of a Plane

1. Plane through a given point and parallel to two given non-collinear lines
Let 𝑎 be the position vector of the given point A with respect to a fixed origin O and 𝑙, 𝑚 be
the vectors parallel to the given planes. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point R on the required
plane.

Parametric form:
l
Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅, 𝑙, and 𝑚 are coplanar, we have
A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 = 𝜆 𝑙 + 𝜇 𝑚
m
where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters. That is, 𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝜆 𝑙 + 𝜇 𝑚 𝑎
or R
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑙 + 𝜇 𝑚. 𝑟
O

Non-parametric form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅, 𝑙, and 𝑚 are coplanar. Therefore, 𝑙 × 𝑚 is a vector perpendicular to the required plane.

Thus, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 ∙ 𝑙 × 𝑚 = ( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑙 × 𝑚 = 0.

We also can write this equation as 𝑟 ∙ (𝑙 × 𝑚) = [𝑎, 𝑙, 𝑚]

Note:- This is of the form 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑝, where 𝑛 = 𝑙 × 𝑚 is a vector perpendicular to the required

plane.
2. Plane through two given points and parallel to a given line.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 be the position vectors of the given points A, B with respect to a fixed origin O and 𝑙 be
a vector parallel to the given line. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point R on the required
plane.
Parametric form: B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐴𝐵
Since 𝐴𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , and 𝑙 are coplanar, we have A
𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 = 𝜆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇 𝑙 l
where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters. That is, 𝑎
R
𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝜆( 𝑏 − 𝑎) + 𝜇 𝑙 or 𝑟 = (1 − 𝜆)𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑏 + 𝜇 𝑙. 𝑟
O
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Non-Parametric form:

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵, and 𝑙 are coplanar, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × 𝑙 = 0.

⟹ ( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ ( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × 𝑙 = 0.

⟹ 𝑟 ∙ ( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × 𝑙 = 𝑎 ∙ ( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × 𝑙

Hence, 𝑟 ∙ ( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × 𝑙 = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑙].

Note:- Vector perpendicular to this plane is ( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × 𝑙

3. Plane through three given points.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 be the position vectors of the given points A, B, and C respectively with respect
to a fixed origin O and let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point R on the required plane.
Parametric form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐴𝐵
Since 𝐴𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , and 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are coplanar, we have
B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 = 𝜆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 , A
R
where 𝜆, 𝜇 are parameters. That is,
𝑏
𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝜆( 𝑏 − 𝑎) + 𝜇 (𝑐 − 𝑎) 𝑎
C
or
𝑐
𝑟 = (1 − 𝜆 − 𝜇)𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑏 + 𝜇 𝑐.
O
Non-Parametric form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑅 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 0.

⟹ ( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ [( 𝑏 − 𝑎) × ( 𝑐 − 𝑎)] = 0

⟹ ( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ [𝑏 × 𝑐 − 𝑏 × 𝑎 − 𝑎 × 𝑐 + 𝑎 × 𝑎] = 0

⟹ ( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ [𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎] = 0

⟹ 𝑟 ∙ [𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎] = 𝑎 ∙ [𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎]

Hence, 𝑟 ∙ [𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎] = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐].

Note:- A vector perpendicular to this plane is 𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎.

Example 5.1 Find the equation of the plane passing through the points 𝑎 = 2 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 3 𝑘, 𝑏 =
𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑐 = 3 𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 3 𝑘. Does the point 𝑑 = 4 𝑖 + 13𝑗 + 3 𝑘 lie on the plane? Expalin.

Example 5.2 Obtain the point of intersection of the line 𝑟 = 2 𝑖 + 𝑡 (𝑗 − 𝑘) and the plane 𝑟 = 𝑖 +
𝑝 (𝑗 + 𝑘) + 𝑞( 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 − 𝑘), where 𝑡, 𝑝, 𝑞 are parameters.

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4. Plane through a given point and perpendicular to a given vector.
Let 𝑎 be the position vector of the given point A with respect to a fixed origin O and 𝑛 be the
given perpendicular vector of the plane.. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of any point R on the
required plane.
Required equation is
n
( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑛 = 0
Cartesian form:
𝑥 𝑙
Let 𝐴 ≡ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ), 𝑟 = (𝑦) and 𝑛 = (𝑚). Then, A(a)
R(r)
𝑧 𝑛
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑙
(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) ∙ (𝑚) = 0
𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛
or 𝑙 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑚 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0.
or 𝑙 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑙𝑥0 + 𝑚𝑦0 + 𝑛𝑧0 .

Another form:
( 𝑟 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑛 = 0 ⟹ 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑝, say. Thus, the equation can be written as
𝑟∙𝑛 =𝑝
Cartesian form
𝑥 𝑙
𝑦
( ) ∙ (𝑚) = 𝑝
𝑧 𝑛
or 𝑙 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝.
Note:- The ratios 𝑙 ∶ 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛 are the directional ratios to the normal of the plane.

Example 5.3 Find the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through the points 𝑃(1, 0, 2),
𝑄(3, −1, 6) and 𝑅(5,2,4).

• Angle between a line and a plane

Example 5.4 Two lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 and the plane 𝛼 are given by
𝑙1 : 𝑟 = (3 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2 𝑘) + 𝜆 (2 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 − 𝑘),
𝑙2 : 𝑟 = (6 𝑖 − 10 𝑘) + 𝜇 (4 𝑖 − 2 𝑗 − 𝑘) and
𝛼: 𝑟 ∙ ( 𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 2 𝑘) = 4.
(i) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line 𝑙1 and the plane 𝛼.
(ii) Calculate the acute angle between the line 𝑙1 and the plane 𝛼.
(iii) Show that the line 𝑙2 is parallel to the plane 𝛼.

• Angle between two planes

Example 5.5 Find the angle between the planes 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 6 and 𝑥 − 5𝑧 + 7 = 0.

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 • Line of intersection of two planes

Example 5.6 Find the equation of line of intersection of the planes 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 6 and 𝑥 −
5𝑧 + 7 = 0.

ASSIGNMENT 5

1. Find the equation of the plane to which the vector 𝑖 + 𝑗 is normal and which contains
the line 𝑙 with equation 𝑟 = (𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘) + 𝑡 (𝑖 − 𝑗 − 𝑘). Find also the equation of the
plane containing 𝑙 and the point 𝑗. Show that an angle between these planes is 𝜋/6.

2. The points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have position vectors 𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 3𝑘, 𝑖 + 5𝑗 and 5 𝑖 + 6𝑗 − 𝑘

respectively, relative to an origin 𝑂.
(a) Show that 𝐴𝐵 is perpendicular to 𝐵𝐶 and find the area of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(b) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Hence find an equation of the plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in the form 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑝.
(c) The point 𝐷 has position vector 4 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 3𝑘. Find the distance of the point 𝐷 from
the plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶. Hence evaluate volume of the tetrahedron 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.

3. The points A, B and C have position vectors 𝑎 = −3 𝑖 + 2 𝑗, 𝑏 = 7 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 and 𝑐=

2 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘 respectively.
(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane 𝑃1 containing the points A, B and C.
(b) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane 𝑃2 that passes through the point A and
orthogonal to the line BC.
(c) Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .

4. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the points whose position vectors with respect to a fixed origin 𝑂 are
𝑎 = 4 𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑏 = 5𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 2𝑘, respectively. Find the parametric equation of
a plane passing through 𝑂, 𝐴 and 𝐵. Find the value of 𝛼 such that the point 𝐶
with the position vector 𝑐 = − 𝑖 + 𝛼𝑗 + 3 𝑘 lies on this plane.

5. Let the equations of the faces 𝑂𝐴𝐵, 𝑂𝐵𝐶, 𝑂𝐴𝐶, 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be 𝑟 ∙ (𝑚𝑗 + 𝑛𝑘) = 0, 𝑟 ∙ (𝑙𝑖 + 𝑛𝑘) =
0, 𝑟 ∙ (𝑙𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗) = 0 and 𝑟 ∙ (𝑙𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗 + 𝑛𝑘) = 0 respectively.
(i) Find the parametric equations of the edges 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝐶.
(ii) Find the co-ordinates of the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶.
2𝑝3
(iii) Show that the volume of the tetrahedron is cubic units.
3𝑙𝑚𝑛

6. The line 𝑙 has parametric vector equation 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆 𝑑, where 𝑎 = 3 𝑖 + 4 𝑗 − 3 𝑘 and

𝑑 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 2 𝑘. The points P and Q have position vectors 𝑝 = 4 𝑗 + 3 𝑘 and 𝑞 = 2 𝑖 +
6 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 respectively, with respect to a fixed origin. The plane 𝜋 contains the line 𝑙 and
the point P.
(a) Find 𝑑 × (𝑎 − 𝑝). Hence find the equation of the plane 𝜋 in the Cartesian form.

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 (b) Determine the angle between 𝜋 and the line passing through the points P and Q.
(c) Prove that the point P is equidistance from the line l and the point Q.

7. The points A, B and C have position vectors −3 𝑖 + 2 𝑗, 7 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 and 2 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘

respectively. The plane 𝑃1 contains the points A, B and C. Plane 𝑃2 passes through the
point A and orthogonal to the line BC, whilst plane 𝑃3 passes through the point B and
orthogonal to the line AC.
(a) Express the equations of each plane in the form 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑝.
(b) Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .
(c) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the three planes 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 .

8. With respect to a fixed origin, the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have position vectors
𝑎 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 4 𝑘, 𝑏 = −2 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 + 5 𝑘, 𝑐 = 3 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 respectively.
(a) Use vector method to calculate the area of the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(b) Find an equation for the plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in the form 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑝.
(c) The planes Π1 and Π2 are perpendicular to the plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶 whereas Π1 contains
the line 𝐴𝐵 and Π2 contains the line 𝐴𝐶. Find the Cartesian equations of the planes
Π1 and Π2 .
(d) Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes Π1 and Π2 .
(e) Calculate the angle between the planes Π1 and Π2 .

9. Relative to a fixed origin 𝑂, the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have position vectors

𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗, 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 2 𝑗 + 3 𝑘, 𝑐 = 2 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 respectively. The Plane Π passes
through the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
(a) Find the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
(b) Show that the Cartesian equation of Π is 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 7.
The line 𝑙, given by 𝑟 = (𝑖 − 𝑘) + 𝜆 (𝑖 + 𝑗), and the plane Π intersect at the point 𝑇.
Find each of the following:
(c) The coordinates of 𝑇.
(d) The angle between the line 𝑙 and the plane Π.
(e) The shortest distance between 𝑙 and the line passing through 𝐴 and 𝐶.

10. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1, 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 respectively.

(𝑎) Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that the point 𝑃 with coordinates (1, 𝑎, 𝑏) lies on both planes.
(𝑏) Find the symmetric equation of the line of intersection of the planes Π1 and Π2 .
(𝑐) If the acute angle between the planes Π1 and Π2 is 𝜃, find the value of cos 𝜃.
(𝑑) Let ℎ1 and ℎ2 be the perpendicular distances from the origin to the planes Π1
and Π2 respectively, show that ℎ1 ℎ2 = cos 𝜃.

11. (𝑎) The plane Π contains the points (3, 2, 1), (8, 1, −2) and (−4, 1, −1). Find the
equation of Π in Cartesian form.
(𝑏) The line 𝐿, given parametrically by 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝜆, 𝑦 = −1 + 2𝜆, 𝑧 = 𝜆, meets the
plane Π at the point 𝑃. Find the coordinates of 𝑃.
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 (𝑐) Find the acute angle between the plane Π and the line 𝐿.
(𝑑) Calculate the perpendicular distance from the origin 𝑂 to the plane Π.

12. (𝑎) Find the parametric equation of a plane Π that contains the point 𝐴 ≡ (1, −2, 4)
and parallel to the vectors 𝑙 = (1, 1, −3) and 𝑚 = (2, 3, 1).
(𝑏) Determine the value of 𝑘 such that the point 𝐵 ≡ (4, −2, 𝑘) lies on the plane Π.
(𝑐) The line 𝐿, given by 𝐿: 𝑟 = (1, 3, 4) + 𝜆 (2, −5, 2), where 𝜆 is a parameter, meets
the plane Π at the point 𝑃. Find the coordinates of 𝑃.
(𝑑) Find the acute angle between the plane Π and the line 𝐿.

13. (𝑎) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane Π1 that contains the origin and
perpendicular to the vector 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘.

(𝑏) The plane Π2 has the equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0. Show that the planes Π1 and Π2 are
perpendicular to each other.
(𝑐) Find the parametric equation of the line of intersection of the planes Π1 and Π2 .
(𝑑) The line 𝐿 is given by 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜆, 𝑦 = −1 + 𝜆, 𝑧 = 3𝜆, where 𝜆 is a parameter.
Find the acute angles that the line 𝐿 makes with each plane.

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