The Fundamental Unit of

Life CBSE Class 9

Science Chapter 5 notes:
Science Revision Notes for Class 9 Chapter 5 The Fundamental
Unit of Life help you understand the concepts of cells, their structure
and functions. These notes are created by experts at askIITians
based on the latest CBSE syllabus and exam pattern. The revision
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Class 9 Science Chapter 5 The Fundamental Unit of Life online

revision notes include topics like animal cells and their structure,
plasma membrane, lipids, cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, Golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, plastids, chromoplasts, and
leucoplasts. These notes will also help you understand the structure
of plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and cell division. At askIITians, you
can also find Class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 notes for Science and
Maths along with different study materials for your exam
preparation.

CBSE Class 9 Revision Notes for The

Fundamental Unit of Life
Quick Review
 All living organisms in this universe are made up of cells.
 They either exist as a single cell or as a combination of multiple cells.

Discoveries about Cells – The Fundamental Unit

of Life
Discovered By Period of What did they discover?
time
Robert Hooke 1665 noticed the presence of cells in a cork
slice
Leeuwenhoek 1674 found the presence of living cells in the
pond water
Robert Brown 1831 recognized the existence of a nucleus
in the cell
Purkinje 1839 invented the term ‘Protoplasm’ which is
the liquid present in a cell
Schleiden and 1838, presented the cell theory that all
Schwann 1839 organisms are actually made up of cells
Virchow 1855 suggested that all cells come from cells
that already exist in nature

The Cell Theory

1. A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
2. All living organisms are made up of cells.
3. Cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
 Unicellular Organisms – The organisms that consist of a single cell
such as Amoeba.
 Multicellular Organisms – The organisms which contain various
cells that perform different functions in the organism such as plants
fungi and animals

How can multicellular organisms originate from a

single cell?
A cell can divide itself into cells of its own type. Therefore, more
cells can generate from an already existing cell.

The Shape of the Cell

 The shape of the cell may vary depending upon the type of
function they perform in an organism.
 Cells are capable of changing their shape. For example, the white
blood cells and amoeba can change shapes on their own.
 Figure 1 - Cells can have different Shapes and Sizes
How can cells perform distinct functions in
organisms?
Cells are capable of performing multiple functions in an organism. A
cell contains specific components which are called Organelles. Each
organelle in the cell can perform different functions such as making
new cells or clearing the waste of the cell. Thus, organelles allow a
cell to perform several kinds of activities in an organism.

The Organisation of a Cell

 Figure 2 – The Structure of Cells in Plants and Animals
A cell contains three features –
 The Plasma Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm

Plasma Membrane
 It is just like an envelope that covers the whole cell. Therefore, a cell
gets separated from the external environment because it has a
plasma membrane.
 The plasma membrane can decide which materials should enter or
leave the cell and which should not. That is why it is also called a
‘Selectively Permeable Membrane’.

The Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane

 The Fluid Mosaic model explains the structure of the plasma
membrane. According to it, the plasma membrane comprises 3
components - Lipids, Proteins and Carbohydrates. These components
can flow freely and fluidly inside the plasma membrane.
 There are two types of lipids (fats) in the plasma membrane –
 Phospholipid – It is a lipid made up of glycerol, two fatty acids, and
phosphate. It creates a semi-permeable membrane that allows the
flow of only certain materials inside/ outside the cell
 Cholesterol - It is a lipid that provides fluidity to the surface of the
plasma membrane.
 The proteins act as receptors of the cell and help in transportation
across the cell membrane. The carbohydrates attach themselves with
the lipids and proteins and are found on the extracellular side of the
membrane.
 Figure 3 -Structure of the Plasma Membrane
How can substances move in and out of a cell?
Gaseous Exchange between the Cell and its External Environment –
 Movement of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide to and from the cell is
carried out through diffusion.
 Gaseous substances tend to move to areas where their concentration
is less from the areas where there is higher. This movement is defined
as the process of diffusion. Diffusion can take the place of solids,
liquids, and gases.
Movement of Water between the Cell and its External Environment –
It is carried out by the means of osmosis. Osmosis is a process in
which water moves from the region of high concentration to one
where its concentration is low through a semipermeable membrane.
Therefore we can say that Osmosis is just a special case of the
process of diffusion.

Hypotonic Solutions
 If the concentration of water outside the cell is higher than the
concentration of water inside the cell gains water by the process of
osmosis.
 Water can move into the cell from the cell membrane. In the case of
hypotonic solutions, more water enters the cells which result in
swelling of the cells.
 Figure 4 - Hypotonic Solution

Isotonic Solutions
 If the cells are put in an environment that has a similar
concentration of water as present inside. This state allows for the
free movement of water across the membrane without changing
the concentration of solutes on either side.
 Therefore, the size of the cell does not vary in an isotonic solution
because there is no net movement of water.
 Figure 5 - Isotonic Solution

Hypertonic Solutions
 If the cells are kept in an environment that has a lower concentration
of water than what is present inside the cells then due to the process
of osmosis water moves out of the cells.
 This results in a decrease in the size of the cells (they shrink) as more
water comes out of the cell.
 Figure 6 - Hypertonic Solution

What is Endocytosis? (Olympiad)

It is a process by which the plasma membrane engulfs food and
other materials inside the cell.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is an outer, hard covering of the cell which maintains the
shape of the cell.
 The cell wall is generally made up of cellulose.
 What is plasmolysis?

Plasmolysis is a process in which the contents of the cell that are

away from the cell wall shrink or contract when a cell loses water
due to Osmosis when it is kept in hypertonic solution.
 Can dead cells absorb water? No, dead cells cannot absorb water
through osmosis.
 How plants, fungi, and bacteria can exist in the hypotonic medium?

Plants, fungi, and bacteria exist in such situations because of their

rigid cell membranes. Even if the cells swell up the cell membrane is
able to prevent them from bursting out.

The Nucleus
Nucleus is a prominent organelle present in the cell which is the
controlling centre of all activities of the cell.
 Figure 7 - Nucleus of a Cell

The Structure of the Nucleus

 A nucleus has a nuclear membrane that covers it all around.
 There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow the
movement of substances in and out of the nucleus.
 There are chromosomes, rod-shaped structures present in the
nucleus which contain genetic information.
The chromosomes contain two types of things -
1. DNA - This is responsible for organising and constructing new
cells
2. Proteins - These help in the packaging and condensation of DNA.

Chromatin
Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The chromatin
organises itself into chromosomes whenever the cell is about to
divide.
 Figure 8 – Chromosomes and Chromatin

Nucleolus
It is called the Brain of the Nucleus. It comprises 25% of the volume
of the nucleus. It consists of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA). It
helps in the formation of ribosomes which help in the formation of
proteins inside the cell.

Figure 9 - Nucleolus inside a Nucleus

What is a nucleoid?
Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they
lack a nuclear membrane. Such a nucleus with no definite nuclear
boundaries is called a Nucleoid.
What are the prokaryotes?
Organisms whose cells do not have a definite cell membrane are
called Prokaryotes.
What are eukaryotes?
Organisms whose cells contain a well-defined nuclear membrane
are called Eukaryotes.
Are there any further differences between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
There is no presence of nucleus The nucleus exists in the cells
A single chromosome is present There are multiple chromosomes
They undergo asexual They undergo sexual as well as a
reproduction sexual reproduction
They are generally unicellular They are generally multicellular
organisms organisms
There are no membrane-bound There are membrane-bound cell
cell organelles organelles present inside the cells
Example – Bacteria, Blue-green Example – Fungi, Plants and
algae (Cyanobacteria) Animals

Figure 10 - Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Cytoplasm
 The plasma membrane has a fluid-like substance in it which is called
the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct
functions of the cell

Functions of Cytoplasm
 It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.
 The cellular processes occur in the cytoplasm such as the formation
of proteins.
 It allows the movement of substances in the cell such as hormones.
 It dissolves cellular wastes.

The Cell Organelles

 In the case of Eukaryotic organisms, the cells contain organelles
that have their own membranes apart from the overall cell
membrane of the cell.

Figure 11 - Different Cell Organelles

What is the significance of membrane-bound organelles in a cell?
The cells perform several functions. The organelles are useful
because they allow the separation of different functions that are
being performed by the cell.
Organelles which carry out important activities in a Cell –
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Lysosomes
4. Mitochondria
5. Plastids
6. Vacuoles
7. Centrioles
8. Ribosomes
9. Peroxisomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Figure 12 - Endoplasmic Reticulum

 The structure of the ER is quite similar to that of the plasma
membrane. It is a network-like structure that consists of membrane-
bound tubes and sheets.
 Two types of ER –
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER
 Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible for the
manufacturing of proteins in the cells. They give a rough texture to the
cell.
 The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell which allow the
functioning of the cell.
 What are the functions of lipids and proteins?
 Proteins and lipids synthesised on ER are used for making cell
membranes. The process is known as Membrane Biogenesis.
 Proteins can act as an enzyme
 Both protein and lipids can act as hormones
 Functions of ER
 Transportation of material between different parts of the cytoplasm
and also between the nucleus and cytoplasm
  Folding of proteins which are synthesised by ribosomes on RER.
 Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER.

Golgi Apparatus

Figure 12 – Golgi Apparatus

 Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi Apparatus.
 It contains vesicles that are arranged parallel in stacks. These
stacks are called Cisterns. These vesicles have their own
membranes. These membranes are sometimes connected to those
of the ER.
 Functions of Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesised by the ER to different
parts of the cell. The material is stored and packaged in vesicles.
 Formation of complex sugar
 Formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes
 Figure 13 – Structure of Lysosome
 They are single-membrane vesicles that are responsible for cleaning
the cell. They can digest any foreign material such as food or bacteria
and even the worn-out cell organelles.
 How can lysosomes digest any foreign material that enters the cell?
 Lysosomes are capable of doing so because they have digestive
enzymes in them. These enzymes break the materials and digest
them. These enzymes are synthesised by RER and packaged into
lysosomes by Golgi bodies.
 Why lysosomes are called ‘suicide bags’?
 If the cell’s own material gets damaged or dead, there are chances
that lysosomes burst out, thus digesting its own cell.

Mitochondria Mitochondria, often referred to as

the “powerhouses of the cell”, were first
discovered in 1857 by physiologist Albert von
Kölliker.
Later coined name as “bioblasts” (life germs)
by Richard Altman in 1886.
The organelles were then renamed “mitochondria”
by Carl Benda twelve years later.
It is a double membrane organelle that has its own DNA and that is
why often called ‘Semi-Autonomous Organelle’

Figure 15 – Structure of Mitochondria

 The cell requires energy in order to carry out several activities.
This energy is generated by mitochondria which are often called
the ‘Powerhouse’ of the Cell. Mitochondria are the site of cellular
respiration. They use oxygen from the air to oxidise the
carbohydrates and thereby release energy.
 What are the energy currencies of a cell?
 The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which
are energy giving molecules of the cell that are often called their
‘Energy Currency’.
 The two membranes of Mitochondria
 Outer Membrane – Porous in Nature
 Inner Membrane – Deeply Folded
 The Inner Membrane of Mitochondria called as Cristae Facilitates
Generation of ATP molecules as it has a larger surface area.

Plastids
While plastids were discovered by Ernst Haeckel, who also coined
their name, they were put into a better perspective and defined by
A.F.W Schimper.

Just like mitochondria, Plastids are also double membraned

organelles that have their own DNA and ribosome.
Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of
function they play in the cell they can be classified as –

Figure 15 – Types of Plastids

Chromoplast Leucoplast
Coloured in nature, contain a Colourless in nature
pigment called chlorophyll
Cause photosynthesis in Act as storage spaces of the cells
plants
Contain orange and yellow Contain starch, proteins and oil
pigments
Can further be divided into Can further be divided into
Chloroplasts amyloplast, elaioplast and
proteinoplast or aleuroplast.

Classification of Plastids
1. Amyloplast
 They are found in tubers, cotyledons and endosperm in plants.
 They are used to store starch.
2. Elaioplast
 They are found in epidermal cells of the plants
 They store oil.
3. Proteinoplast
 They are found in seeds and nuts.
 They store proteins.
Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct photosynthesis in
plants.
 Chloroplast is derived from two Greek words Chloro and Plasts
which means green and plants respectively.
 Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments called ‘Chlorophyll’
along with lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, DNA, RNA, grana,
thylakoids and stroma.
 The main functions of chloroplasts are:
 Conducting photosynthesis in plants.
 Protein synthesis
 Releases oxygen
 Storage of Starch
 Figure 16 – Chloroplast containing thylakoids, stroma and
grana
Light-dependent Reactions in Photosynthesis – During
photosynthesis chlorophyll absorbs the light energy which is then
used for two molecules ATP and NADPH.
Thylakoids – They are pillow-shaped compartments in the
chloroplast. The light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis take
place in the thylakoids.
Stroma – It is a fluid-filled matrix in the chloroplasts. It is a
colourless fluid that contains all the enzymes that are needed for the
light-dependent reactions in Photosynthesis.
Grana – Stacks of thylakoids are called Grana. They are found in
the stroma. They provide a large surface area so that the reactions
of photosynthesis can take place.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are the places where cells can store liquids and solids.
They are present in both plants and animals but the plant vacuoles
are bigger in size than the animal vacuoles.
Plant Cell Vacuoles Animal Cell Vacuoles
Plant cell vacuoles store all the Animal cell vacuoles contain
material that is required for the plant to food items in unicellular
stay alive such as water organisms
Plant vacuoles maintain the turgidity of Animal vacuoles can also
the plant cell expel water and waste out of
the cell
Plant cells generally contain a single Animal cell contain several
large vacuole small vacuoles
Plant vacuoles are present in the Animal vacuoles are
centre of the cell scattered throughout the cell

Types of Vacuoles
 Sap Vacuoles
 Contractile Vacuoles
 Food Vacuoles

Sap Vacuoles

Figure 17 - Sap Vacuoles

These vacuoles are filled with a fluid called Vascular Sap. The fluid
contains Amino Acids, Salt, Sugar, Proteins, Water, and Waste
Materials. Sap vacuoles are separated from the cytoplasm by a
semipermeable membrane called Tonoplast. Their main function is
to allow rapid exchange between the cytoplasm and the surrounding
environment.
Several sap vacuoles are found in young plant cells and animal
cells. In mature plants, the small sap vacuoles combine to form a
single large central vacuole.
Contractile Vacuoles

Figure 18 – Osmoregulation in Amoeba through Contractile

Vacuoles
They are found in protistan and algal cells in freshwater. The
membrane of the contractile vacuoles is highly extensible and
collapses easily. These vacuoles are responsible for osmoregulation
(maintaining the water content of the cells) and excretion in the
cells.
Food Vacuoles

Figure 19 – Food Vacuoles and Digestion

They are found in the cells of protozoans and several lower animals.
Food vacuoles are responsible for the digestion of food in the cells
as they contain food enzymes. The digested food then passes into
the cytoplasm. Found in single-celled organisms like Amoeba.
Centrioles
 A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way.
 Their main purpose is to help a cell in cell division.
 They are found near the nucleus but can be seen only during the cell
division.
 They are found in pairs and form a special substance
called Centrosome which appears near the nucleus.
 When the cell divides, the centrosome divides into two parts and each
part moves to opposite sides of the cell.

Figure 20 - Centrioles

Ribosomes
 They are cell organelles responsible for protein synthesis.
 Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because
the synthesis of proteins is important in both of them.
 In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
 In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are
often attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesise proteins that are to be
exported out of the cell while the ribosomes floating inside the cell
synthesise proteins that are used inside the cell.

Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are small vesicles found in the cells.
 These enzymes are used to break the toxic materials inside the cell.
 They digest the fatty acids of the cell as well as amino acids by
carrying out oxidation reactions in the cell.
 They are also responsible for the digestion of alcohol in the human
body. Hence, the liver contains a large number of Peroxisomes.

Figure 21 - Peroxisomes in a cell

Multiple Choice Questions

Q.1. ________ is called the energy currency of the cell

(a) Endoplasmic reticulum (b) Oxygen (c) ATP (d) Mitochondria

Q.2. ________ coined the term “cell.”

(a) Gorbachev (b) Himmler (c) Robert Hooke (d) Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

Q.3. Which of the following statements are incorrect?

(a) Cytoplasm is also known as protoplasm (b) Lysosomes are known as the suicide bags of the cell
(c) Mitochondria has its own DNA (d) None of the above

Q.4. A vacuole is a space or cavity within the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosed by a membrane and
typically containing fluid. They are a kind of storage sacs that are very large sized in plant cell as
compared to that in the animal cell.

Which among the following is not a function of the vacuole?

(a) They help to store the toxic metabolic by-products of the plant cell.

(b) They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.

(c) They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in the cell.

(d) They help the plant in its growth by the process of cell division.
Q.5. Which of the following is not a function of the vacuole in plants?

(a) They store toxic metabolic wastes

(b) They help with the process of cell division

(c) They help to maintain turgidity

(d) They provide structurally support

Q.6. Where are the essential proteins and lipids required for cell membrane, manufactured?

(a) Lysosome (b) Chromosomes (c) Endoplasmic reticulum (d) Mitochondria

Q.7. The process by which water moves through a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower concentration, thereby equalizing water concentration is called:
(a) Evaporation (b) Diffusion (c) Osmosis (d) All of the above

Q.8. The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell and acts as a site of DNA material and protein
synthesis. It is composed of some components which all together give the nucleus its functionality.
Here is shown a figure of nucleus with some of its components labeled as A, B, C and D. can you
name these components correctly? (a) A – Nucleons; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D –
Nucleoplasm (b) A – Nucleus; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nucleoplasm (c) A –
Nucleolus; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nucleoplasm (d) A – Nucleolus; B –
Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nuclear wall Q.9. A cell will swell up if (a) The concentration
of water molecules in the cell is higher than the concentration of water molecules in the surrounding
medium. (b) The concentration of water molecules in the surrounding medium is higher than the
concentration of water molecules in the cell. (c) The concentration of water molecules is same in the
cell and in the surrounding medium (d) The concentration of water molecules does not matter. Q.10.
Which of the following statement marks as a difference between plant cell and animal cell? (a) Plant
cells have cell wall which animal cells do not. (b) Plant cells do not have vacuole while animal cells do
have. (c) Plant cells have only cell membrane while animal cells have both cell wall as well as cell
membrane. (d) Plant cells have more plastids while animal cells have few plastids. 11 Q.11.
Endoplasmic reticulum one of the cell organelles, exists as a membranous network that extends
from outer membrane of nucleus to the plasma membrane making a connection between them.
Which of the following statements is not related to the endoplasmic reticulum? (a) It behaves as
transport channel for proteins between nucleus and cytoplasm. (b) It transports materials between
various regions in cytoplasm. (c) It can be the site of energy generation. (d) It can be the site of some
biochemical activities of the cell. Q.12. The proteins and lipids, essential for building the cell
membrane, are manufactured by: (a) Endoplasmic reticulum (b) Golgi apparatus (c) Mitochondria (d)
Peroxisomes Q.13. Osmosis is a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a
semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one. Can you
pick out the option among the following which does not belong to this process? (a) The movement
of water across a semipermeable membrane is affected by the amount of substances dissolved in it.
(b) Membranes are made of organic molecules such as proteins and lipids. (c) Molecules soluble in
organic solvents can easily pass through the membrane. (d) Plasma membranes contain chitin sugar
in plants. Q.14. You must have observed that a fruit when unripe is green but it becomes beautifully
coloured when ripe. According to you what is the reason behind this colour change. (a) Chloroplasts
change to chromosplasts (b) Chromosplasts change to chromosomes (c) Chloroplasts change to
chromosomes (d) Chromosplasts change to chloroplasts 12 Q.15. Rahul’s mother was going to make
pickle. For this she cut the vegetables into small pieces and put them in the sun for few hours. Rahul
was observing all her activities very curiously and asked his mother if why she had put the salted
vegetables in the sun. among the following what might be the most appropriate answer for his
question? (a) So that the pickle may get extra flavour. (b) So that the cut vegetables may absorb the
vitamin d as a nutrient from the sun rays. (c) So that the vegetables may lose all the water by
diffusion and evaporation and become dry. (d) So that the salt may get evenly and properly
absorbed by the vegetables. Q.16. The process of plasmolysis in plant cell is defined as: (a)
Breakdown of plasma membrane in hypotonic solution. (b) Shrinkage of cytoplasm in hypertonic
medium. (c) Shrinkage of Nucleoplasm. (d) None of these. Q.17. Among the following statements
which one is incorrect? (a) Golgi apparatus is involved with formation of lysosomes. (b) Nucleus,
mitochondria and plastid have DNA, hence they are able to make their own structural proteins. (c)
Lysosomes are called the suicide bags as they eat up their own cells. (d) Cytoplasm is called known as
protoplasm. Q.18. Mitochondria are the sites of respiration in the cell. They oxidize carbohydrates
and fats present in the cell to produce carbon dioxide, water and a lot of energy. The energy so
released is stored in the form of ATP molecules. Since mitochondria in the cell are used to synthesize
energy so, they are also called: (a) Energy currency of the cell (b) Energy generator of the cell (c)
Kitchen of the cell (d) Power house of the cell Q.19. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
The word cell is derived from the Latin word ‘cellula’ which means “a little room”. Can you name the
scientist who coined the term cell? (a) Robert Hooke (b) Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (c) Robert Brown
(d) Ernst Haeckel Q.20. In a test, a teacher collected the answers written by four students as the
definition of osmosis as given below. Read carefully and select the correct one. (a) Movement of
water molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
semipermeable membrane. (b) Movement of solvent molecules from its higher concentration to
lower concentration. (c) Movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower of
solution through a permeable membrane. (d) Movement of solute molecules from lower
concentration to higher concentration of solution through a semipermeable membrane. 13 Q.21.
Anjali wanted to eat rice and kidney bean (rajmah). She requested her mother to cook the same on
next day. At night her mother took a cup of kidney beans and put them in a container having some
water and the kept the container covered overnight. Next day it was observed that the kidney beans
got swollen and were ready to be cooked. What is this phenomenon due to which kidney beans got
swollen is known as? (i) Osmosis (ii) Diffusion (iii) Endosmosis (iv) Exosmosis Choose the correct
option among the following: (a) Only (iii) (b) Both (i) and (iii) (c) Both (i) and (iv) (d) Only (i) Assertion
Reasoning Type Questions Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is
followed by a statement of reason. Mark the correct choice as: (a) If both Assertion and Reason are
true and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. (c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false. (d) If
both Assertion and Reason are false. 1. Assertion: Mitochondria and chloroplasts are
semiautonomous organelles. Reason : They are formed by division of pre-existing organelles and
contain DNA but lack protein synthesizing machinery. 2. Assertion : Plasma membrane is selectively
permeable. Reason : Plasma membrane allows some molecules to pass through it more easily than
others. 3. Assertion : Leucoplasts perform photosynthesis. Reason : Chloroplasts store fats, starch
and proteins. 4. Assertion : Cell wall is a non-living part of the cell. Reason : It offers protection,
definite shape and support. 5. Assertion : A cell membrane shows fluid behaviour. Reason : A
membrane is a mosaic of lipids and proteins. 6. Assertion : A plant cell bursts if placed in water. 14
Reason : High turgor pressure causes bursting of plant cells. 7. Assertion : Mitochondria are called
‘powerhouses’ of the cell. Reason : Mitochondria produce cellular energy in the form of ATP. 8.
Assertion : Plant cells have very large vacuoles. Reason : In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap. 9.
Assertion: Organisms are made up of cells. Reason: Cells are structural unit of living organisms. A cell
keeps its chemical composition steady within its boundary. 10. Assertion: Specialization of cells is
useful for organism. Reason: It increases the operational efficiency of an organism. 11. Assertion:
The number of cells in a multicellular organism is inversely proportional to size of body. Reason: All
cells of biological world are alive. 12. Assertion : Living organisms possess specific individuality with
the definite shape and size. Reason : Both living and non-living entities resemble each other at the
lower level of organisation. 13. Assertion: Smaller cells are usually metabolically active cells. Reason:
Smaller cell nucleocytoplasmic ratio and surface volume ratio is higher. 14. Assertion : It is important
that the organisms should have cell. Reason : A cell keeps its chemical composition steady within its
boundary. 15. Assertion: The number of cells in a multicellular organism is inversely proportional to
the size of body. Reason: All the cells in the biological world are of same size. 16. Assertion:
Schleiden and Schwann were the first to observe the cells and to put forward cell theory. Reason:
The cells are always living unit. 17. Assertion: As per Schwann, cell wall is a unique character of the
plant cell. Reason: Body of plants and animals are composed of cells and products of cells. 18.
Assertion: Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles. Reason: Prokaryotic cells lack
membrane bound organelles. 19. Assertion: Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found
in the prokaryotic cells only. Reason: These are present only in the cytoplasm. 15 20. Assertion:
Eukaryotic cells have more DNA than prokaryotic cells. Reason: Eukaryotes are genetically more
complex than prokaryotes. Case study Based Questions Paragraph-1 Mitochondrial disease The DNA
within mitochondria is more susceptible to damage than the rest of the genome. This is because free
radicals, which can cause damage to DNA, are produced during ATP synthesis. Also, mitochondria
lack the same protective mechanisms found in the nucleus of the cell. However, the majority of
mitochondrial diseases are due to mutations in nuclear DNA that affect products that end up in the
mitochondria.. As a general rule, cells that need the largest amounts of energy, such as heart muscle
cells and nerves, are affected the most by faulty mitochondria. Diseases that generate different
symptoms but are due to the same mutation are referred to as genocopies. Conversely, diseases
that have the same symptoms but are caused by mutations in different genes are called
phenocopies. Leigh syndrome, which can be caused by several different mutations. Although
symptoms of a mitochondrial disease vary greatly, they might include: Over recent years,
researchers have investigated a link between mitochondria dysfunction and aging. There are a
number of theories surrounding aging, and the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging has
become popular over the last decade or so. The theory is that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are
produced in mitochondria, as a by-product of energy production. These highly charged particles
damage DNA, fats, and proteins. Because of the damage caused by ROS, the functional parts of
mitochondria are damaged. When the mitochondria can no longer function so well, more ROS are
produced, worsening the damage further. Although correlations between mitochondrial activity and
aging have been found, not all scientists have reached the same conclusions. Their exact role in the
aging process is still unknown. 16 1. Which is the most common phenomenon of mitochondrial
diseases? A) Due to Damage of Mitochondrial membrane B) Due to Mutation in Mitochondrial DNA
C) Due to Mutation in Nuclear DNA D) Lack of Oxygen 2., How do free radicals affect mitochondria?
A) Make More Radicals B) Causes damage to DNA C) Dehydrate the cell D) Does not harm at all 3.
Name the cell(s) which uses maximum amount of energy? A) Heart muscle Cells B) Nerve cell C)
Epithelial cells D) Both A and B 4.Leigh syndrome is an example of genocopy or phenocopy. A)
Phenocopy B) Genocopy C) Both A and B D)Genotype 5. What is the difference between nuclear DNA
and Mitochondrial DNA? A) Mitochondrial DNA is Linear B) Nuclear DNA is Circular C) Mitochondrial
DNA is Circular D) No Difference Paragraph-2 Neurons Neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building
block of the nervous system. Neurons are similar to other cells in the human body in a number of
ways, but there is one key difference between neurons and other cells. Neurons are specialized to
transmit information throughout the body. These highly specialized nerve cells are responsible for
communicating information in both chemical and electrical forms. 17 There are three basic parts of a
neuron: the dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. However, all neurons vary somewhat in size,
shape, and characteristics depending on the function and role of the neuron. Some neurons have
few dendritic branches, while others are highly branched in order to receive a great deal of
information. Some neurons have short axons, while others can be quite long. The longest axon in the
human body extends from the bottom of the spine to the big toe and averages a length of
approximately three feet! Action Potentials How do neurons transmit and receive information? In
order for neurons to communicate, they need to transmit information both within the neuron and
from one neuron to the next. This process utilizes both electrical signals as well as chemical
messengers. The dendrites of neurons receive information from sensory receptors or other neurons.
This information is then passed down to the cell body and on to the axon. Once the information has
arrived at the axon, it travels down the length of the axon in the form of an electrical signal known
as an action potential. 1. In what ways other body cells are similar to neurons? A) Both have
dendrites B) Both have nucleus C) Both transmit Impulse D) Both are Dead 2. Neuron transmit
information in form of A) Electrical Signals B) Chemical signals C) Both A and B D) None of the Above
3. In which part of neuron information transmits in the form of electrical signals? A) Dendrite B)
Cyton C) Axon D) Axon Terminal 4.Which part of a neuron receives messages from the cell?
(a)dendrites (b)soma (c) axon (d) neuron cell 5. Longest Cell of Body is A) Heart cell B) Nerve Cell C)
White Blood Cell D) Bone Cell 18 19 Answers 1. MCQ 1 C 11 C 2 C 12 A 3 D 13 D 4 D 14 A 5 B 15 C 6 C
16 B 7 C 17 D 8 C 18 D 9 B 19 A 10 A 20 A 21 B 2. Assertion and reason type 1 (c) Assertion (A) is true
but reason (R) is false. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are double membrane bound, semi-
autonomous cell organelles. Their structure and functions are partially controlled by nucleus of the
cell and partially by themselves. Both possess their own DNA and arise from the pre-existing cells.
70S type of ribosome is present in both organelles which can help to translate the coded information
contained in mRNA and protein synthesis. 2 (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason
(R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A). Each cell is bound by an extremely delicate, thin,
elastic, selectively permeable, living membrane called plasma membrane. It is selectively permeable
as it allows some molecules to pass through more easily than others. 3 (d) Assertion (A) is false but
reason (R) is true. Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis while leucoplasts are storage plastids. 4 (a)
Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Cell wall is a non-living part of the cell. It is an outer, rigid, protective, supportive and semi-
transparent covering of plant cells only. The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The cell wall
is mainly composed of cellulose. It provides a definite shape to the cell. It protects plasma
membrane and internal structures from the attack of pathogens and mechanical injury. 5 (a) Both
assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A). A cell
membrane shows fluid behavior. It was proved by fluid- mosaic model of a bio membrane by Singer
and Nicolson in 1972. According to this model, the membrane does not have a uniform disposition of
lipids and proteins but is a mosaic of the two. Further, the membrane is not solid but is quasi fluid. 6
(d) Assertion (A) is false but reason (R) is true. Plant cells have cell wall to counteract turgor pressure
(T.P.) by exerting exactly equal and opposite wall pressure. Wall pressure stops entry of water into
plant cells beyond a certain limit thus prevents their bursting. 7 (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R)
are true and reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A). Mitochondria are cell organelles of
aerobic eukaryotes. These are site of 20 aerobic respiration, where Krebs cycle occurs in matrix,
while ETS and oxidative phosphorylation enzymes are located in inner membrane. They are called
powerhouses of cell because they produce energy in the form of ATP. They are the major centers of
release of energy in the aerobic respiration. 8 (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and
reason (R) is the correct explanation of assertion (A). Plant cells possess large vacuoles to perform
functions like: 1. Storage of water, mineral etc. 2. Provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell, as it is
filled with cell sap. 9 (a) Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of organism. 10 (a)
Specialization of the cell increases the efficiency of the cell for a particular function. 11 (d) The size
and shape of the cell in multicellular organism depends upon the location and function performed by
them. 12 (b) All living organisms have definite shape and size and all show specific individuality with
an orderly mannered organization whereas at the lower level of organization, both the living and
non-living are made up of atoms. 13 (a) Metabolically active cells are usually smaller due to higher
nucleocytoplasmic ratio and higher surface volume ratio. The former will allow the nucleus to have
better control of metabolic activities, while the latter will allow quicker exchange of materials
between the cells and its outside environment. 14 (a) Metabolic reactions of a living organism can
occur only in a delicately balanced environment in the non-living organisms. The cells are the life
supporting chambers which have such a special environment. A living cell keeps its chemical
composition steady within its boundary. 15 (d) Number of cells in a multicellular organism are
directly proportional to the size of the body. On the other hand, it is a fact that cell vary greatly in
their size. Mycoplasma cells are the smallest, ranging from 0.1 to 0.3μm, whereas human cells,
generally range from 20 to 30μm. Nerve cells are the longest. 16 (d) They are credited with cell
theory but the cells are not always the living unit. Cells die and still remain functional such as horny
cells in animal and xylem vessels in plants. 17 (b) Based on his studies, Schwann proposed the
hypothesis that the bodies of animal and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. Cell theory as understood is (i) All living
organism are composed of cells and products of cells and (ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells. 18
(b) Eukaryotic cells which have membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, micro bodies and vacuoles.
These are found in all protists, plants, animals and fungi. Prokaryotic cells lack such membrane
bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells occur in bacteria, archaea, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and
PPLO. Genetic material in these cells lies naked in the cytoplasm. 19 (d) Ribosomes are non-
membrane bound organelles found in eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic cells. Within the cell,
ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles – chloroplasts (in
plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER. 20 (a) Eukaryotic cells have more DNA than prokaryotic
cells because in eukaryotic cells complex chromosomes are composed of DNA and histone proteins.
But in prokaryotic cells, histone protein is absent. 3. Paragraph Based Questions 3.1 Paragraph-1 1 C
2 B 3 D 4 B 5 C 3.2 Paragraph-2 1 B 2 C 3 C 4 A 5 B MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS CHAPTER 6
गोपाळकाला मराठी माहिती
गोपाळकाला

कृष्णाष्टमीनंतर दुसरे दिवशी साजरा केला जातो दहीहंडीचा उत्सव.

महाराष्ट्रात आणि भारताच्या अन्य राज्यातही हा उत्सव साजरा होतो आणि
त्याला आता तर सार्वजनिक स्वरूप आले आहे. या दिवशी उंच जागी दही पोहे
भरलेली आणि फुलांच्या माळांनी सजविलेली हंडी टांगली जाते आणि गोविदांची
पथके एकावर एक थर रचून ही हंडी फोडतात. त्यासाठी मोठमोठी बक्षीसेही लावली
जातात. गाणी, नाच, चढणार्‍या गोविंदांच्या अंगावर पाणी फेकून त्यांना खाली
पाडण्याचा प्रयत्न असा एकच दंगा यावेळी चाललेला असतो. या मडक्याचा तुकडा
मिळाला तर घरी आणून सांभाळून ठेवला जातो. त्याने घरात समृद्धी येते अशी
भावना आहे.

उत्सव साजरा करण्याची पद्धत

गोकुळाष्टमीला दिवसभर उपवास करून रात्री बारा वाजता पाळण्यातील बाळकृष्णाचा जन्म साज
व मग प्रसाद घेऊन उपवास सोडतात किंवा दुसर्‍या दिवशी सकाळी दहीकाल्याचा
प्रसाद घेऊन उपवास सोडतात.

दहीकाला
विविध खाद्यपदार्थ, दही, दूध, लोणी हे सगळे एकत्र कालविणे म्हणजे `काला' होय.
श्रीकृष्णाने काजमंडळात गायी चारतांना स्वत: व सवंगड्यांच्या शिदोर्‍या
एकत्र करून त्या खाद्यपदार्थांचा काला केला व सर्वांसह भक्षण केला. या
अनुसरून पुढे गोकुळाष्टमीच्या दुसर्‍या दिवशी काला करण्याची व दहीहंडी
फोडण्याची प्रथा पडली.
मासिक पाळी, अशौच व स्पर्शास्पर्श यांचा स्त्रियांवर होणारा परिणाम या
दिवशी केलेल्या उपवासाने कमी होतो. तसेच हे व्रत केल्याने संतती, संपत्ती व अंती
लोक यांची प्राप्‍ती होते, असे सांगितले आहे.

गोपाळकाळयाचे आध्यात्मिक महत्त्व

म्हणजे पांढर्‍या रंगाच्या पाच रसात्मक स्वादांचा जास्तीतजास्त प्रमाणात

निर्गुण चैतन्याशी संबंध दर्शवणारा व पूर्णावतारी कृष्णकार्याचे दर्शक
असलेला समुच्चय. `काला' शब्द एकसंध व वेगात सातत्य असणार्‍या क्रियेशी
संबंधित आहे. `काला' म्हणजे त्या काळाला, त्या स्थळाला, त्या त्या स्तरावर
असे वैशिष्ट्यपूर्ण कार्य दर्शवणार्‍या घटनांचे एकत्रीकरण. पूर्णावतारी
कार्य हे स्थळ, काळ व स्तर या तीनही घटकांवर आदर्शवत असेच असते. या
विविधांगी जीवनाचे पैलू आध्यात्मिकरीत्या ईश्‍वरी नियोजनाद्वारे
मानवजातीसमोर लीलया उलगडून दाखवले जातात. `गोपाळकाला' हा श्रीकृष्णाच्या
विविधांगी पूर्णावतारी कार्याचे प्रातिनिधीत्व करतो.

काल्यातील प्रमुख घटक

पोहे, दही, दूध, वक्‍
लोणी हे काल्यातील प्रमुख घटक त्या त्या स्तरावरील भ
तीचे निदर्शक आहेत.
पोहे : गोपभक्‍तीचे प्रतीक (काहीही झाले तरी श्रीकृष्णाला धरून ठेवणारे
सवंगडी)
दही : शिक्षा करणार्‍या मातृभक्‍तीचे प्रतीक
दूध : सहज सगुण मधुराभक्‍तीचे प्रतीक
ताक : विरोधभक्‍तीचे प्रतीक
लोणी : श्रीकृष्णावरील अवीट प्रेमाच्या निर्गुणभक्‍तीचे प्रतीक या दिवशी
ब्रह्मांडात कृष्णतत्त्वाच्या आपतत्त्वात्मक प्रवाही गतिमान लहरींचे
आगमन होते. काल्यातील पदार्थ या लहरी ग्रहण करण्यात अग्रेसर असतात.
गोविंदा

रात्री १२.४०ला कृष्णजन्मोत्सव साजरा झाला की सूर ऐकू येतात ते...

गोSSS विंदा रे गोSSS पाळा... यशोदेच्या तान्ह्या बाळा,
घरात नाही पाणी घागर, उतानी रे गोपाळा...
आला रे आला, गोविंदा आला...

आपले सगळेच सण आनंद, उत्साह, प्रेमाचा संदेश देणारे... प्रत्येकाची मजा

वेगळी, साज वेगळा... मग गोपाळकाल्याचा सणही त्याला कसा अपवाद असणार.
एकजूटीचा संदेश देणारा हा खेळ बघायला खूप मजा येते...

पहाटे लवकरच सगळे गोविंदा ग्राममंदिरात (मुंबईतील) एकजूट होतात...

दुधादह्याची हंडी
ग्रामदेवते समोर बांधली जाते. तिला झेंडूची फुलं, काकडी, केळीं बांधून
सजवली जाते. पुजा, आटोपल्यावर ती हंडी फोडली जाते. फुटलेल्या हंडीचा काला
करून सगळ्यांना वाटला जातो. मग गोविंदा पथकाचे मास्तर सर्व गोविंदाना
मार्गदर्शन करतात. मास्तरांच्या नेतृत्वाखाली गोविंदा पथकाचे
मार्गक्रमण सुरू होते. जवळच्या विभागातल्या मानाच्या हंड्या फोडण्याचा
कार्यक्रम पार पडला की सगळे पथक ट्रक, टेम्पो, बस मधे बसून उपनगरातील लोणी
लुटायला पसार होतात...

पुर्वी म्हणजे १९८०-८५ पर्यंत गोविंदा पथके जवळच्या भागातील हंड्या फोडत.
त्यावेळी ट्रक, टेम्पोचे लाड पुरविण्या इतपत पथकाकडे आर्थिक पाठबळ नसे.
तेव्हा बैलगाडीतून कृष्ण, बलराम, राधा, पेंद्या यांची मिरवणूक निघे...
गल्लीबोळातून येणारे पाण्याचे फुगे मिरवणूकीचा खरपूस समाचार घेत.
बैलगाडी समोरील बँड पथक गोविंदाची नेहमीची धून वाजवताना दिसत. सगळे
गोविंदा फेर धरून रस्त्यावरून नाचत, खेळत हंड्या फोडत... पण गोविंदा आता
राजकिय झालाय, त्याला लाखोंच लोणी लागलयं. पुर्वीचा ५ ते ६ थरांचा गोविंदा
काल चक्क ९ थरांचा झाला.

ठाणे वर्तक नगर मधे काल ९ थरांचा विश्वविक्रम करण्यात आला... तळाच्या थराला
६+२, थरला ५+१, ४+१, चौथ्याला ३, पाचव्याला २ आणि त्यावर एकेरीत ४ जण असा
मानवि मनोरा माझगांवच्या 'ताडवाडी गोविंदा पथकाने' रचला. तसाच पर्यंत्न
जोगेश्वरीच्या 'जय जवान' गोविंदा पथकानेही केला. पण शेवटच्या थरावरील मुलीला
नमते घ्यावे लागले, तेव्हा उपस्थीत हजारो प्रेक्षकांच्या काळजाचा ठोका
चुकला होता. ही जिवघेणी स्पर्धा लाखो प्रेक्षक दुरदर्शन वरून मध्यरात्री
पर्यंत पहात होते.

गोविंदा पथकांना या स्पर्धेतील जोखमीची काळजी असते आणि म्हणूनच १ - २

महिना आधीपासूनच त्यांची पुर्वतयारी सुरू होते. वरच्या थरातील लहान
गोविंदासाठी खास ट्रेनिंग आयोजीत केले जाते. योग्य संतुलन राखून
(Balancing) उंचीची भिती घालवण्यासाठी तरण तलावात २० फुटावरून उड्या मारणे,
दोरी वरून चालणे इ. प्रकारांचा सराव करून घेतला जातो. मनोधैर्य स्थिर
राखण्यासाठी ध्यानधारणेची मदत घेतली जाते. बहुतांश गोविंदा हे
व्यायामशाळेतील कसलेल्या शरिरसौष्ठवाचा पुरेपूर उपयोग करतात.

कोसळून होणार्‍या दुखापतीची चिंता न करता हे गोविंदा अथक प्ररिश्रम करत

असतात. त्यांची ही अखंड मेहनत, जिद्द, शिस्त या लोकप्रिय खेळाला
व्यावसायिक (corporate) दर्जा प्रात्प करून देते.