CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Classification of AC Machines

Two major classes of machines;
1. Synchronous Machines:
i. Synchronous Generator: A primary source of electrical energy.
ii. Synchronous Motors; Use as motors as well as power factor
compensators (synchronous condensers).
2. Asynchronous (Induction) Machine:
i. Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in both
domestic and industrial applications.
ii. Induction Generators: Due to lack of a separate field excitation,
these machines are rarely used as generators.

2.2. Introduction to Synchronous Generator

The synchronous generator is started before connecting it to the mains by
turbine rotation. By gradually accelerating the turbine, the generator must be
synchronized with the mains, regulating the voltage, frequency, phase angle and
rotating sense. When all these values are controlled correctly, the generator can be
switched to the grid. In the case of an isolated or off grid operation, the voltage
controller maintains a predefined constant voltage, independent of the load.

Figure 2.1 Synchronous Generator

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In case of the mains supply, the controller maintains the predefined power
factor. According the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous
machines may be classified as rotating armature type or rotating field type. According
to the shape of the field, synchronous machines be classified as non-silent pole
machines and salient-pole machines.

2.2.1. Principle of Synchronous Generator

The operation of a generator is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. If a coil or winding is linked to a varying magnetic field, then
electromotive force or voltage is induced across the coil. Thus, a generator has two
essential parts: one that creates a magnetic field, and the other where the energy is
induced. The magnetic field is typically generated by electromagnets.
These windings are called field winding or field circuits. The coils where the
electro motive force energies are induced are called armature windings or armature
circuits. With rare exceptions, the armature winding of a synchronous machine is on
the stator, and the field winding is on the rotor. The field winding is excited by direct
current conducted to it by means of carbon brushes bearing on slip rings or collector
rings.
The rotor of the synchronous generator may be cylindrical or salient
construction. The cylindrical type of rotor has one distributed winding and a uniform
air gap. These generators are driven 3000 or 1500 r.p.m (two and four pole machines
respectively) operation. The rotor of these generators has a relatively large axial
length and small diameter to limit the centrifugal forces,
The silent type of rotor has concentrated windings on the poles and non-
uniform air gaps. It has a relatively large numbers of poles, short axial length, and
large diameters. The generators in hydroelectric power stations are driven by
hydraulic turbines and they have salient pole rotor construction. The cylindrical and
salient type rotors are shown in figure 2.2. The rotor is also equipped with one or
more short-circuited windings known as damper windings. The damper windings
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provide an additional stabilizing force for the machine during certain periods of
operation. When a synchronous generator supplies electric power to a load, the
armature current creates a magnetic flux wave in the air gap which rotates at
synchronous speed. This flux reacts with the flux created by the field current, and
electromagnetic torque results from the tendency of these two magnetic fields to
align. In a generator this torque opposes rotation and mechanical torque must be
applied from the prime mover to substain rotation. As long as the stator field rotates at
the same speed as the rotor and no current is induced in the damper windings.
However, when the speed of the stator field and the rotor become different, currents
are induced in the damper windings. Currents generated in the damper windings
provide a counter torque. In this way the damper windings con keep the two speeds.

Figure 2.2 Two Type of Rotor Construction:

(a)Cylindrical Type and
(b)Salient Type
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2.2.2. Basic Generator Control Loop

In an interconnected power system, the load frequency control (LFC) and the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) equipment is installed for each generator.The
schematic diagram of the load frequency control (LFC) loop is shown in figure 2.3
and automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop. The controllers are set for a particular
operating condition and take care of small changes in load demand to maintain the
frequency and voltage magnitude within the specified limits. Small changes in real
power are mainly dependent on changes in rotor angle “δ” and thus the frequency.
The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude ( i,e on the
generation excitation). The excitation system time constant is much smaller than the
prime mover constant and its transient decay much faster and does not affect the LFC
dynamic. Thus, the cross-coupling between the LFC loop and the AVR loop is neglig-
ible, the load frequency and excitation voltage control are analyzed independently.

Figure 2.3 Basic Generator Control Loop

2.3. Load Frequency Control (LFC)

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Load frequency control (LFC) is the basic control mechanism in the power
system operation. Whenever there is a variation in load demand on a generating unit,
there is momentarily an occurrence of unbalance between real-power input and
output. The difference is being supplied by the stored energy of any units is given by
1
KE= Iω2
2

Where, I is the moment of inertia of the rotating part and ω is the angular speed of the
rotating part.
If KE reduces, ω decreases; then the speed falls, hence the frequency reduces.
The change in frequency Δf is sensed and through a speed-governor system, it is fed
back to control the position of the inlet valve of the prime mover, which is connected
to the generating unit. It changes the input to the prime mover suitable and tries to
bring back the balance between the real-power input and output. Hence, it can be
stated that the frequency variation is dependent on the real-power balance of the
system. The LFC also controls the real-power transfer through the interconnecting
transmission lines by sensing the changing in power flow through the tie-lines.
The LFC, also known as generation control or p-f control, deals with the
control of loading of the generating units for the system at normal frequency. The
load in a power system is never constant and the system frequency remains at its
normal value only when there is a match between the active power generation and the
active power demand. During the period of load change, the deviation from the

normal frequency, which may be called frequency error ( Δf ) ,is an index of mismatch
and can be used to send the appropriate command to change the generation by
adjusting the LFC system. It is basically controlling the opening of the inlet valve of
the prime movers according to the loading condition of the system. In the case of a
multi-area system, the LFC system also maintains the specified power interchanges
between the participating areas. In a smaller system, this control is done manually, but
in large systems automatic control devices are used in the loop of the LFC system.
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The LFC system, however, does not consider the reactive power flow in the
system even through the reactive power flow is also affected to some extent during
the fluctuating load condition. But since there is no counterpart of the reactive power
in the mechanical side of the system, it does not come within the loop of the LFC
system.

2.3.1. Necessity of Maintaining Frequency Constant

Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
1. All the AC motors should require constant frequency supply so as to
maintain speed constant.
2. In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
3. For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it
is necessary to maintain frequency constant.
4. Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through
interconnecting lines.
5. Electrical clocks will lose or gain time if they are driven by synchronous
motors, and the accuracy of the clocks depends on frequency and also the
integral of this frequency error is loss or gain of time by electrical clocks.

2.3.2. Load Frequency Control Problem

The power systems means, it is the interconnection of more than one control
areas through tie lines. The generators in a control area always vary their speed
together (speed up or slow down) for maintenance of frequency and the relative
power angles to the predefined values in both static and dynamic conditions. If there
is any sudden load change occurs in a control area of an interconnected power system
then there will be frequency deviation as well as tie line power deviation.
The two main objective of Load Frequency Control (LFC) are
1. To maintain the real frequency and the desired power output (megawatt) in
the interconnected power system.
2. To control the change in tie line power between control areas.
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If there is a small change in load power in a single area power system

operating at set value of frequency then it creates mismatch in power both for
generation and demand. This mismatch problem is initially solved by kinetic energy
extraction from the system, as a result declining of system frequency occurs. As the
frequency gradually decreases, power consumed by the old load also decreases. In
case of large power systems the equilibrium can be obtained by them at a single point
when the newly added load is distracted by reducing the power consumed by the old
load and power related to kinetic energy removed from the system. Definitely at a
cost of frequency reduction we are getting this equilibrium .The system creates some
control action to maintain this equilibrium and no governor action is required for this.
The reduction in frequency under such condition is very large.
However, governor is introduced into action and generator output is increased
for larger mismatch. Now here the equilibrium point is obtained when the newly
added load is distracted by reducing the power consumed by the old load and the
increased generation by the governor action. Thus, there is a reduction in amount of
kinetic energy which is extracted from the system to a large extent, but not totally. So
the frequency decline still exists for this category of equilibrium. Whereas for this
case it is much smaller than the previous one mentioned above. This type of
equilibrium is generally obtained within 10 to 12 seconds just after the load addition.
And this governor action is called primary control.
Since after the introduction of governors action the system frequency is still
different its predefined value, by another different control strategies it is needed the
frequency to bring back to its predefined value. Conventionally Integral Controllers
are used for this purpose. This control is called a secondary control (which is
operating after the primary control operation) which brings the system frequency to its
predefined value or close to it. Whereas, integral controllers are generally slow in
operation.
In a two area interconnected power system, where the two areas are connected
through tie lines, the control area are supplied by each area and the power flow is
allowed by the tie lines among the areas. Whereas, the output frequencies of all the
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areas are affected due to a small change in load in any of the areas so as the tie line
power flow are affected. So the transient situation information’s of all other areas are
needed by the control system of each area to restore the pre-defined values of tie line
powers and area frequency. Each output frequency finds the information about its
own area and the tie line power deviation finds the information about the other areas.
For example in a two area power system, the information can be written as
BiΔfi+ΔPtie. B = frequency bias, f = predefined frequency And P tie is the power in tie
line. This is the Area Control Error (ACE) which is the input to the controller.
Thus the load frequency control of a multi area power system generally
incorporates proper control system, by which the area frequencies could brought back
to its predefined value or very nearer to its predefined value so as the tie line power,
when the is sudden change in load occurs.

2.4. Interconnected Power Systems

From a practical viewpoint, the problems of frequency control of
interconnected areas are more important than those of isolated (single) areas.
However, for understanding the theory and concept of an interconnected system, the
knowledge of single area is equally important.
Practically all power systems today are tied together with neighboring areas
and the problem of automatic generation control becomes a joint undertaking.
Following are the basic operating principles of an interconnection of power systems.
1. Under normal operating conditions, each control area should strive to carry
its own load, except such scheduled portions of the other members´ load as
have been mutually agreed upon.
2. Each control area must agree upon adopting regulating and control
strategies and equipment that are mutually beneficial under both normal
and abnormal situations.
2.4.1. Advantages of Interconnection
There are two advantages of interconnection. They are;
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1. Effect of size: This is one of the major advantages for the total
interconnected system. As soon as a block of load is added, during the first
moments, the required energy is borrowed temporarily from the kinetic
energy of the system. Obviously, the larger the system is, the more is the
energy available. Hence the static frequency drop is comparatively less.
However, the same amount of change in load may cause a higher
frequency drop in an isolated or small power system, which may even
make the entire system unstable.
2. Reduced need of reserve capacity: Since the peak demands can occur at
various hours of the day in various areas, the ratio between peak and
average load for a large system is smaller than that of smaller systems. It is
therefore obvious that, all the interconnected areas can benefit from a
reduced need of reserve capacity by a scheduled arrangement of energy
interchange.

2.4.2. A Two Area Interconnected Power System

As two area interconnected power system connected through a tie line is
shown in Figure 2.4. Each area feeds its control area and tie line allows electric power
to flow between the areas.

Figure 2.4 A Two Area Interconnected Power System

2.5. Major Parts of the Governor

The system consists of the following components:
1. Fly ball speed governor
2. Hydraulic amplifier
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3. Linkage mechanism
4. Speed changer

Figure 2.5 Speed Governing System

1. Fly ball speed governor: This is the heart of the system which senses the
changes in speed (frequency). As the speed increases the fly balls move
outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves downwards. The
reverse happens when the speed decreases.
2. Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston
arrangement. Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into
high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary in order to
open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
3. Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another
rigid link pivoted at D. This link mechanism provides a movement to the
control valve in proportion to change in speed. It also provides a feedback
from the steam valve movement.
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With the help of linkage mechanism, the position of the pilot valve can be
changed in the following three different ways:
i. Directly by the speed changer: A small upward moment of linkage
point A corresponds to a decrease in the steady-state power output
or reference power ∆ Pref.
ii. Indirectly through the feedback due to the position changes in the
main system.
iii. Indirectly through feedback due to the position changes in linkage
point E resulting from a change in speed.
4. Speed changer. It provides a steady state power output setting for the
turbine. It downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine under steady condition (hence more steady
power output). The reverse happens for upward movement of speed
changer.

2.5.1. Adjustment of Governor Characteristic of Parallel Operating Units

When two generators are running in parallel, the governor characteristic of the
first unit (Line 1) is shown towards the right, while that of the second unit (Line 2) is
shown towards the left of the frequency axis as shown in figure.

The characteristics are obviously different and hence corresponding to the

rated frequency fr, the two units carry loads P 1 and P2 so that the system load P D=P1+P2.
If the system load is now increased to P ´D, the system frequency will drop down to f´,
since the units can only increase their output by decreasing the speed.
To restore the system frequency, the characteristic of one of the units say of
Unit 1 needs to be shifted upwards as indicated by the dotted characteristic, so that it
can carry the increased load. The share of Unit 1 will be P´ 1 and that of Unit 2 will be
P2 so that the increased total load, P´D=P´1+P2.
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Figure 2.6 Sharing of Load by Two Units (Parallel) with a Speed-Governor

Characteristics Setting
2.5.2. Servo Motor in Governor
The definition of a motor is any device that converts energy of any kind into
mechanical energy. There are servo motors (which convert electrical energy into
rotational force). These are also connected to control systems, because many of them
are used to precisely position tables or shafts, etc. A servo converts electrical energy
(amps applied to a coil; amp-turns) into torque which is applied to some mechanical
element. The mechanical element could be a rotor or a shaft or a spool or a hydraulic
jet tube.
1. Servomechanism
i. A feed-back control system in which one of the systems signals
represents mechanical motion.
ii. Any feed-back control system.
iii. An automatic feed-back system in which the controlled variable is
mechanical motor, or its time derivatives.
2. Servomotor
An actuating device to position turbine control elements via (I am now
paraphrasing) electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, linear actuator, or other, means.
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When the turbine load changes during generating operation, the servo
motor shall operates the guide vane smoothly coordinating with the speed
governor. The operation shall be performed by oil pressure from the pressure
oil supply system. The servo motor shall be capable to close the guide vane
from the fully opened position to the fully closed ones against maximum
hydraulic pressure of 600m in water column due to water hammer after load
rejection.

2.6. Turbine Types

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow
and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for
generating electrical power when combined with a generator. There are three main
types of impulse turbine in use: the Pelton, the Turgo, and the Crossflow turbine. The
two main types of reaction turbine are the propeller turbine (with Kaplan variant) and
the Francis turbine. Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today.
The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving up its energy. The turbine is located
between the high-pressure water source and the low-pressure water exit, usually at the
base of a dam.

2.6.1. Hydraulic Turbine System

The representation of a hydro-turbine is highly dependent on the type of prime
mover because each type has different speed control mechanisms.
According to the type of head conditions, there are three types of hydro-turbines.
1. Low head: Up to 100″ height, specific speed (90-180rpm), speed (100-
400rpm).
i. These are propeller type of reaction turbines.
2. Medium head: 50″ -1,000″ height, specific speed (90-200rpm) speed (100-
400rpm).
i. These are Francis type of reaction turbines.
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3. High speed: From 800″ and above height, specific speed (3-7rpm), speed
(120-720rpm). These are Impulse type of turbines (Peloton wheel).

2.6.2. Application of Francis Turbines

Large Francis turbines are individual designed for each site to operate at the
highest possible efficiency, typically over 90% . Francis type units cover a wide head
range, from 20 meters to 700 meters, and their output power varies from just a few
kilowatts up to 1 GW. Francis turbines may be designed for a wide range of heads and
flows.

2.6.3. Some Terminology Related with turbine Speed

Some terminologies related with turbine speed are;
1. Specific Speed
The specific speed of a turbine characterizes the turbine ʼ s shape in a
way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled
from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the
main criteria for matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type.
The specific speed is the speed of the turbine for a unit head when it produces
unit power.
2. Runaway Speed
The runaway speed of a water turbine is its speed at full flow, and no
shaft load. The turbine will be designed to survive the mechanical forces of
this speed. The manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating.

2.6.4. Theory of Operation of Francis Turbine

The Francis Turbine is the most used Turbine type. The Francis turbine is a
reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves
through the turbine, giving up its energy. A casement is needed to contain the water
flow. The turbine is located between the high pressure water source and the low
pressure water usually at the base of a dam.
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The inlet is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the
turbine wheel, known as a runner. This radial flow acts on the runner’s vanes, causing
the runner to spin. The guide vanes may be adjustable to allow efficient operation for
a range of water flow. As the water moves through the runner its spinning radius
decreases, further acting on the runner. This property, in addition to the water’s
pressure, helps Francis and other inward-flow turbines harness water energy
efficiently.
At the exit, water acts on cup shaped runner features, leaving with no swirl
and very little kinetic or potential energy. The turbine’s exit tube is shaped to help
decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure.

2.6.5. Advantages of Francis Turbine

Advantages of Francis turbine include:
1. Higher setting for given size diameter;
2. Lower over speed/synchronous speed ratio; and
3. Less expensive turbine
4. Higher specific speed and higher rational speed and, therefore, smaller
generator;
5. Higher peak efficiency; and
6. Higher effective head.

2.7. Power System Dynamics

The operation condition of a power system is continuously varying because of
the disturbances from the time varying loads or circuit changes in the network.
Temporarily imbalance is met by the changes in the kinetic energy of the rotating
inertias of generators and motors. Any change in frequency, in turn, will affect
frequency sensitive load. If equilibrium is reached, the change in frequency will be
halted in a new system frequency usually in several seconds. Following the primary is
the secondary control of the automatic generation control areas which will
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collectively attempt to adjust its generation to restore system frequency to nominal

values, while maintaining scheduled power transfer between the areas.

2.8. Frequency Response in Primary Control

When the system frequency drifts from nominal value 50Hz, some frequency
sensitive components react to this change. First, the effective load for the power
system change. This process is called load damping and modeled with damping factor
D. Second, if the system frequency goes beyond the governor dead band (about ±
35mHz); the governor will act to increase or decrease the output power of generating
units. This can be done with the help of governed speed droop R, which is actually the
feedback loop gain in the governor. The speed droop is defined as

Δw
R= ΔP pu (2.2)
Where,
Δw = speed deviation
ΔP = output power

2.9. AGC in Secondary Control

For normal disturbances, the primary control action will arrest the frequency
deviation to a new frequency above or below the rated value. The secondary control is
following up to return the frequency to the nominal value. This follow up control
action can be manual or automatic. An automatic secondary control is conventionally
referred to as Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
AGC is major control function of secondary control within a utility energy
control center, whose purpose is the tracking of load variations to maintain system
frequency at its nominal value, net tie line interchanges to its scheduled values, and
optimal generation levels, close it most economical points.
These objectives can be summarized as:
1. To system frequency at or very close to a specified/nominal value.
2. To maintain correct value of interchange power between control areas.
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3. To maintain each units generation at the most economic value.

To accomplish these objectives, each control area has to continually determine
and monitor system deviation in measured frequency, ∆ f and tie line flow, ∆ T, to
determine the Area Control Error (ACE) as a measure for the secondary control. The
raw values of ACE is first processed through filters, and then pass through a PI
regulator, distributed by regulation participation factors before being dispatched as the
load reference signal to the governor of units. A demand signal may also be sent to
coordinate boiler turbine controllers to initiate boiler action in advance for improved
overall unit response. The response time of AGC is approximately, a minute or two,
mainly limited by the delays associated with the response rate of the units.

2.10. Area Control Error

Conventional LFC is based upon tie-line bias control, where each control area
tends to reduce the ACE to zero. The control error for each area consists of a linear
combination of frequency and tie-line error.
Area Control Error is defined by

ACEi =
ΔP ij + B ¿ Δf (2.3)
i

Where,
i = control area for which ACE is being measured
Δ Pij = power interchange in areas i and j

Bi = control area frequency bias coefficient

Δf = deviation in frequency
ACE is an error signal consisting of two terms. First term represents the error in
the scheduled tie flows. The second term is inter area assistance in generation from
control area to prevent large deviation of interconnection frequency. ACE, as defined
represents the generation versus load mismatch for the control area. The ACE signal
is used in conventional AGC which has a PI control logic.
ACE serves to indicate when total generation must be raised or lowered in a
control area. A general criterion can be given about which AGC is considered ‘good’:
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1. The ACE signal should ideally be kept from becoming too large. Since
ACE is directly influence by random load variations, this creation can
treated statically by saying that the standard deviation of ACE should be
small.
2. ACE should not be allowed to ‘drift’. This means that the integral of ACE
over appropriate time should be small. A ‘drift’ in ACE has the cumulative
effect of creating system time errors or inadvertent interchange errors.
3. The amount of control action called for by the AGC should be kept to a
minimum.

2.11. Tie Line Bias Control

Tie-line bias control is a control philosophy developed for load frequency in a
power system. It is widely used in AGC. It has been proved efficient in maintaining
interconnection reliability and its simplicity in control implementation. The concept
allows each control area to operate its generation and to fulfill areas control
obligation, independently by monitoring and control the area’s ACE.
The frequency bias term in the ACE equation is important in that it assures
that the objective of the AGC regulation is fulfilled while an area’s responsibility to
provide frequency response is not forfeited. Part of the inter area tie flow from the
area’s frequency response is compensated by the bias term. It helps the area to avoid
responding to external disturbance.