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 Contents

Preface

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 The Main Components of a Computer
1.3 An Example System: Wading Through the Jargon
1.4 Standards Organizations
1.5 Historical Development
1.5.1 Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating
Machines (1642–1945)
1.5.2 The First Generation: Vacuum Tube
Computers (1945–1953)
1.5.3 The Second Generation: Transistorized
Computers (1954–1965)
1.5.4 The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit
Computers (1965–1980)
1.5.5 The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers
(1980–????)
1.5.6 Moore’s Law
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy
1.7 Cloud Computing: Computing as a Service
1.8 The Von Neumann Model
1.9 Non–Von Neumann Models
1.10 Parallel Processors and Parallel Computing
1.11 Parallelism: Enabler of Machine Intelligence—
Deep Blue and Watson
Chapter Summary
 Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 2 Data Representation in Computer Systems

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Positional Numbering Systems
2.3 Converting Between Bases
2.3.1 Converting Unsigned Whole Numbers
2.3.2 Converting Fractions
2.3.3 Converting Between Power-of-Two Radices
2.4 Signed Integer Representation
2.4.1 Signed Magnitude
2.4.2 Complement Systems
2.4.3 Excess-M Representation for Signed Numbers
2.4.4 Unsigned Versus Signed Numbers
2.4.5 Computers, Arithmetic, and Booth’s Algorithm
2.4.6 Carry Versus Overflow
2.4.7 Binary Multiplication and Division Using
Shifting
2.5 Floating-Point Representation
2.5.1 A Simple Model
2.5.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic
2.5.3 Floating-Point Errors
2.5.4 The IEEE-754 Floating-Point Standard
2.5.5 Range, Precision, and Accuracy
2.5.6 Additional Problems with Floating-Point
Numbers
2.6 Character Codes
2.6.1 Binary-Coded Decimal
 2.6.2 EBCDIC
2.6.3 ASCII
2.6.4 Unicode
2.7 Error Detection and Correction
2.7.1 Cyclic Redundancy Check
2.7.2 Hamming Codes
2.7.3 Reed-Solomon
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
Focus on Codes for Data Recording and Transmission
2A.1 Non-Return-to-Zero Code
2A.2 Non-Return-to-Zero-Invert Code
2A.3 Phase Modulation (Manchester Code)
2A.4 Frequency Modulation
2A.5 Run-Length-Limited Code
2A.6 Partial Response Maximum Likelihood Coding
2A.7 Summary
Exercises

CHAPTER 3 Boolean Algebra and Digital Logic

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Boolean Algebra
3.2.1 Boolean Expressions
3.2.2 Boolean Identities
3.2.3 Simplification of Boolean Expressions
3.2.4 Complements
3.2.5 Representing Boolean Functions
3.3 Logic Gates
 3.3.1 Symbols for Logic Gates
3.3.2 Universal Gates
3.3.3 Multiple Input Gates
3.4 Digital Components
3.4.1 Digital Circuits and Their Relationship to
Boolean Algebra
3.4.2 Integrated Circuits
3.4.3 Putting It All Together: From Problem
Description to Circuit
3.5 Combinational Circuits
3.5.1 Basic Concepts
3.5.2 Examples of Typical Combinational Circuits
3.6 Sequential Circuits
3.6.1 Basic Concepts
3.6.2 Clocks
3.6.3 Flip-Flops
3.6.4 Finite State Machines
3.6.5 Examples of Sequential Circuits
3.6.6 An Application of Sequential Logic:
Convolutional Coding and Viterbi Detection
3.7 Designing Circuits
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
Focus on Karnaugh Maps
3A.1 Introduction
3A.2 Description of Kmaps and Terminology
3A.3 Kmap Simplification for Two Variables
3A.4 Kmap Simplification for Three Variables
 3A.5 Kmap Simplification for Four Variables
3A.6 Don’t Care Conditions
3A.7 Summary
Exercises

CHAPTER 4 MARIE: An Introduction to a Simple Computer

4.1 Introduction
4.2 CPU Basics and Organization
4.2.1 The Registers
4.2.2 The ALU
4.2.3 The Control Unit
4.3 The Bus
4.4 Clocks
4.5 The Input/Output Subsystem
4.6 Memory Organization and Addressing
4.7 Interrupts
4.8 MARIE
4.8.1 The Architecture
4.8.2 Registers and Buses
4.8.3 Instruction Set Architecture
4.8.4 Register Transfer Notation
4.9 Instruction Processing
4.9.1 The Fetch–Decode–Execute Cycle
4.9.2 Interrupts and the Instruction Cycle
4.9.3 MARIE’s I/O
4.10 A Simple Program
4.11 A Discussion on Assemblers
4.11.1 What Do Assemblers Do?
4.11.2 Why Use Assembly Language?
4.12 Extending Our Instruction Set
4.13 A Discussion on Decoding: Hardwired Versus
 Microprogrammed Control
4.13.1 Machine Control
4.13.2 Hardwired Control
4.13.3 Microprogrammed Control
4.14 Real-World Examples of Computer Architectures
4.14.1 Intel Architectures
4.14.2 MIPS Architectures
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 5 A Closer Look at Instruction Set Architectures

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Instruction Formats
5.2.1 Design Decisions for Instruction Sets
5.2.2 Little Versus Big Endian
5.2.3 Internal Storage in the CPU: Stacks Versus
Registers
5.2.4 Number of Operands and Instruction Length
5.2.5 Expanding Opcodes
5.3 Instruction Types
5.3.1 Data Movement
5.3.2 Arithmetic Operations
5.3.3 Boolean Logic Instructions
5.3.4 Bit Manipulation Instructions
5.3.5 Input/Output Instructions
5.3.6 Instructions for Transfer of Control
5.3.7 Special-Purpose Instructions
5.3.8 Instruction Set Orthogonality
 5.4 Addressing
5.4.1 Data Types
5.4.2 Address Modes
5.5 Instruction Pipelining
5.6 Real-World Examples of ISAs
5.6.1 Intel
5.6.2 MIPS
5.6.3 Java Virtual Machine
5.6.4 ARM
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 6 Memory
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Memory
6.3 The Memory Hierarchy
6.3.1 Locality of Reference
6.4 Cache Memory
6.4.1 Cache Mapping Schemes
6.4.2 Replacement Policies
6.4.3 Effective Access Time and Hit Ratio
6.4.4 When Does Caching Break Down?
6.4.5 Cache Write Policies
6.4.6 Instruction and Data Caches
6.4.7 Levels of Cache
6.5 Virtual Memory
6.5.1 Paging
6.5.2 Effective Access Time Using Paging
 6.5.3 Putting It All Together: Using Cache, TLBs,
and Paging
6.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging and
Virtual Memory
6.5.5 Segmentation
6.5.6 Paging Combined with Segmentation
6.6 A Real-World Example of Memory Management
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 7 Input/Output and Storage Systems

7.1 Introduction
7.2 I/O and Performance
7.3 Amdahl’ s Law
7.4 I/O Architectures
7.4.1 I/O Control Methods
7.4.2 Character I/O Versus Block I/O
7.4.3 I/O Bus Operation
7.5 Data Transmission Modes
7.5.1 Parallel Data Transmission
7.5.2 Serial Data Transmission
7.6 Magnetic Disk Technology
7.6.1 Rigid Disk Drives
7.6.2 Solid State Drives
7.7 Optical Disks
7.7.1 CD-ROM
7.7.2 DVD
7.7.3 Blue-Violet Laser Discs
 7.7.4 Optical Disk Recording Methods
7.8 Magnetic Tape
7.9 RAID
7.9.1 RAID Level 0
7.9.2 RAID Level 1
7.9.3 RAID Level 2
7.9.4 RAID Level 3
7.9.5 RAID Level 4
7.9.6 RAID Level 5
7.9.7 RAID Level 6
7.9.8 RAID DP
7.9.9 Hybrid RAID Systems
7.10 The Future of Data Storage
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
Focus on Data Compression
7A.1 Introduction
7A.2 Statistical Coding
7A.2.1 Huffman Coding
7A.2.2 Arithmetic Coding
7A.3 Ziv-Lempel (LZ) Dictionary Systems
7A.4 GIF and PNG Compression
7A.5 JPEG Compression
7A.6 MP3 Compression
7A.7 Summary
Further Reading
References
Exercises
CHAPTER 8 System Software
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Operating Systems
8.2.1 Operating Systems History
8.2.2 Operating System Design
8.2.3 Operating System Services
8.3 Protected Environments
8.3.1 Virtual Machines
8.3.2 Subsystems and Partitions
8.3.3 Protected Environments and the Evolution of
Systems Architectures
8.4 Programming Tools
8.4.1 Assemblers and Assembly
8.4.2 Link Editors
8.4.3 Dynamic Link Libraries
8.4.4 Compilers
8.4.5 Interpreters
8.5 Java: All of the Above
8.6 Database Software
8.7 Transaction Managers
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 9 Alternative Architectures

9.1 Introduction
9.2 RISC Machines
9.3 Flynn’s Taxonomy
9.4 Parallel and Multiprocessor Architectures
 9.4.1 Superscalar and VLIW
9.4.2 Vector Processors
9.4.3 Interconnection Networks
9.4.4 Shared Memory Multiprocessors
9.4.5 Distributed Computing
9.5 Alternative Parallel Processing Approaches
9.5.1 Dataflow Computing
9.5.2 Neural Networks
9.5.3 Systolic Arrays
9.6 Quantum Computing
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 10 Topics in Embedded Systems

10.1 Introduction
10.2 An Overview of Embedded Hardware
10.2.1 Off-the-Shelf Embedded System Hardware
10.2.2 Configurable Hardware
10.2.3 Custom-Designed Embedded Hardware
10.3 An Overview of Embedded Software
10.3.1 Embedded Systems Memory Organization
10.3.2 Embedded Operating Systems
10.3.3 Embedded Systems Software Development
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
CHAPTER 11 Performance Measurement and Analysis
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Computer Performance Equations
11.3 Mathematical Preliminaries
11.3.1 What the Means Mean
11.3.2 The Statistics and Semantics
11.4 Benchmarking
11.4.1 Clock Rate, MIPS, and FLOPS
11.4.2 Synthetic Benchmarks: Whetstone,
Linpack, and Dhrystone
11.4.3 Standard Performance Evaluation
Corporation Benchmarks
11.4.4 Transaction Processing Performance
Council Benchmarks
11.4.5 System Simulation
11.5 CPU Performance Optimization
11.5.1 Branch Optimization
11.5.2 Use of Good Algorithms and Simple Code
11.6 Disk Performance
11.6.1 Understanding the Problem
11.6.2 Physical Considerations
11.6.3 Logical Considerations
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 12 Network Organization and Architecture

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Early Business Computer Networks
 12.3 Early Academic and Scientific Networks: The
Roots and Architecture of the Internet
12.4 Network Protocols I: ISO/OSI Protocol
Unification
12.4.1 A Parable
12.4.2 The OSI Reference Model
12.5 Network Protocols II: TCP/IP Network
Architecture
12.5.1 The IP Layer for Version 4
12.5.2 The Trouble with IP Version 4
12.5.3 Transmission Control Protocol
12.5.4 The TCP Protocol at Work
12.5.5 IP Version 6
12.6 Network Organization
12.6.1 Physical Transmission Media
12.6.2 Interface Cards
12.6.3 Repeaters
12.6.4 Hubs
12.6.5 Switches
12.6.6 Bridges and Gateways
12.6.7 Routers and Routing
12.7 The Fragility of the Internet
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

CHAPTER 13 Selected Storage Systems and Interfaces

13.1 Introduction
13.2 SCSI Architecture
 13.2.1 “Classic” Parallel SCSI
13.2.2 The SCSI Architecture Model-3
13.3 Internet SCSI
13.4 Storage Area Networks
13.5 Other I/O Connections
13.5.1 Parallel Buses: XT to ATA
13.5.2 Serial ATA and Serial Attached SCSI
13.5.3 Peripheral Component Interconnect
13.5.4 A Serial Interface: USB
13.6 Cloud Storage
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises

APPENDIX A Data Structures and the Computer

A.1 Introduction
A.2 Fundamental Structures
A.2.1 Arrays
A.2.2 Queues and Linked Lists
A.2.3 Stacks
A.3 Trees
A.4 Network Graphs
Summary
Further Reading
References
Exercises

Glossary
Answers and Hints for Selected Exercises

Index
 Preface

TO THE STUDENT
This is a book about computer organization and architecture. It focuses on
the function and design of the various components necessary to process
information digitally. We present computing systems as a series of layers,
starting with low-level hardware and progressing to higher-level software,
including assemblers and operating systems. These levels constitute a
hierarchy of virtual machines. The study of computer organization focuses on
this hierarchy and the issues involved with how we partition the levels and
how each level is implemented. The study of computer architecture focuses
on the interface between hardware and software, and emphasizes the structure
and behavior of the system. The majority of information contained in this
textbook is devoted to computer hardware, computer organization and
architecture, and their relationship to software performance.
Students invariably ask, “Why, if I am a computer science major, must I
learn about computer hardware? Isn’t that for computer engineers? Why do I
care what the inside of a computer looks like?” As computer users, we
probably do not have to worry about this any more than we need to know
what our cars look like under the hood in order to drive them. We can
certainly write high-level language programs without understanding how
these programs execute; we can use various application packages without
understanding how they really work. But what happens when the program we
have written needs to be faster and more efficient, or the application we are
using doesn’t do precisely what we want? As computer scientists, we need a
basic understanding of the computer system itself in order to rectify these
problems.
 There is a fundamental relationship between the computer hardware and
the many aspects of programming and software components in computer
systems. In order to write good software, it is very important to understand
the computer system as a whole. Understanding hardware can help you
explain the mysterious errors that sometimes creep into your programs, such
as the infamous segmentation fault or bus error. The level of knowledge
about computer organization and computer architecture that a high-level
programmer must have depends on the task the high-level programmer is
attempting to complete.
For example, to write compilers, you must understand the particular
hardware to which you are compiling. Some of the ideas used in hardware
(such as pipelining) can be adapted to compilation techniques, thus making
the compiler faster and more efficient. To model large, complex, real-world
systems, you must understand how floating-point arithmetic should, and
does, work (which are not necessarily the same thing). To write device
drivers for video, disks, or other I/O devices, you need a good understanding
of I/O interfacing and computer architecture in general. If you want to work
on embedded systems, which are usually very resource constrained, you must
understand all of the time, space, and price trade-offs. To do research on, and
make recommendations for, hardware systems, networks, or specific
algorithms, you must acquire an understanding of benchmarking and then
learn how to present performance results adequately. Before buying
hardware, you need to understand benchmarking and all the ways that others
can manipulate the performance results to “prove” that one system is better
than another. Regardless of our particular area of expertise, as computer
scientists, it is imperative that we understand how hardware interacts with
software.
You may also be wondering why a book with the word essentials in its
title is so large. The reason is twofold. First, the subject of computer
organization is expansive and it grows by the day. Second, there is little
agreement as to which topics from within this burgeoning sea of information
are truly essential and which are just helpful to know. In writing this book,
one goal was to provide a concise text compliant with the computer
architecture curriculum guidelines jointly published by the Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE). These guidelines encompass the subject matter that experts
agree constitutes the “essential” core body of knowledge relevant to the
subject of computer organization and architecture.
We have augmented the ACM/IEEE recommendations with subject
matter that we feel is useful—if not essential—to your continuing computer
science studies and to your professional advancement. The topics that we feel
will help you in your continuing computer science studies include operating
systems, compilers, database management, and data communications. Other
subjects are included because they will help you understand how actual
systems work in real life.
We hope that you find reading this book an enjoyable experience, and
that you take time to delve deeper into some of the material that we have
presented. It is our intention that this book will serve as a useful reference
long after your formal course is complete. Although we give you a substantial
amount of information, it is only a foundation upon which you can build
throughout the remainder of your studies and your career. Successful
computer professionals continually add to their knowledge about how
computers work. Welcome to the start of your journey.

TO THE INSTRUCTOR
This book is the outgrowth of two computer science organization and
architecture classes taught at Penn State Harrisburg. As the computer science
curriculum evolved, we found it necessary not only to modify the material
taught in the courses, but also to condense the courses from a two-semester
sequence into a three-credit, one-semester course. Many other schools have
also recognized the need to compress material in order to make room for
emerging topics. This new course, as well as this textbook, is primarily for
computer science majors and is intended to address the topics in computer
organization and architecture with which computer science majors must be
familiar. This book not only integrates the underlying principles in these
areas, but it also introduces and motivates the topics, providing the breadth
necessary for majors while providing the depth necessary for continuing
studies in computer science.
Our primary objective in writing this book was to change the way
computer organization and architecture are typically taught. A computer
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at Camargo and Matamoros, 10-14, 23-24;
march to Victoria, 24-43;
at Victoria, 43-46;
march to Tampico, 46-50;
at Lobos, 51;
at Vera Cruz, 53-73;
march to Cerro Gordo, 74-79;
battle of Cerro Gordo, 80-90;
march to Jalapa, 90-93;
at Mexico City, 92-93.

McMaster, J. B., quoted, 52 (note), 74 (note).

Malibran, 55, 56.

Marquesoto, 40.

Mason, Lieut. J. L., 63, 64, 65-66, 67, 70.

Matamoros, 10, 11, 12, 23.

Meade, George G., 5, quoted, 18 (note), 22 (note), 48 (note).

Moquete, 23, 27.

Murphy, 34, 39.

Padilla, 42.

Patterson, Gen. Robert, 14, 15, 16, 20-21, 22 (note), 23-24, 26, 27,
30, 31-32, 33, 35, 37, 40, 41, 43, 56.

Pillow, Gen. Gideon J., 15, 23, 25, 26, 35, 37, 52 (note), 79, 81-87.
Plan del Rio, 78-79.

Puerto Nacional, 77.

Quitman, Gen. John A., 44, 52 (note).

Rancho Padillo, 23.

Reilly, 89.

San Fernando, 33-34.

Santa Fé, 75-76.

Santander, 37.

Santa Rosa, 46.

Santa Teresa, 27-28, 29.

Saunders, Capt. John, 68, 69, 72.

Scott, Gen. Winfield, 52 (note), 70, 71 (note), 86, 87.

Semmes, R., quoted, 79 (note), 82 (note).

Shields, Gen. James, 52 (note), 88, 89, 90.

Smith, Lieut. Gustavus W., 2, 4, 7, 11, 20-21, 23, 25, 26, 31, 36, 38,
55, 57, 58, 59, 60-62, 63, 68, 74, 75, 78, 80, 93.

Smith, Major John L., 58.

“Songo,” 27-28, 30, 37, 42.

Stevens, Lieut. I. I., 63, 70, 72.

Stuart, “Jimmie,” 14, 73-74, 75-76, 78.

Swift, Capt. A. J., 2, 7, 11, 16, 55.

Tamaulipas, 51.

Tampico, 50-51.

Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 22 (note), 44.

Totten, Col. Joseph G., 2, 57-58, 61-62, 64, 66, 70.

Tower, Lieut. Z. B., 67, 78-81.

Twiggs, Gen. David E., 47, 48, 52, 56, 74, 79, 80, 82, 87-90.

Vera Cruz, siege of, 53-73.

Vergera, 74, 75.

Victoria, 43-46.

Vinton, Capt. John R., 58, 68.

Volunteers, 16, 18, 28-29, 36, 38-39, 43, 80.

Walker, Sears Cook, 1.

Waterhouse, Major, 36.

Williams, Seth, 15-16, 32.

Worth, Gen. William J., 52 (note), 53, 56, 58, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 86,
89, 90, 92.

Wynkoop, Col. Francis M., 82, 84, 86-87.

 FOOTNOTES:
[1] In a letter to his brother “Tom” dated West Point, September
22, 1846, McClellan wrote: “We start with about 75 men—the best
Company (so Gen’l. Scott and Col. Totten both say) in the service.
All Americans—all young—all intelligent—all anxious, very eager
for the campaign—and above all, well drilled. If the Lord and
Santa Anna will only condescend to give us a chance—I’ll be
most confoundedly mistaken if we don’t thrash them ‘some’.”
(McClellan Papers, Vol. I.)
[2] Gustavus W. Smith was one of McClellan’s most intimate
friends and was known by him by the nickname of “Legs.” He was
born in Scott Co., Kentucky, on January 1, 1822. He died in New
York on June 23, 1896. Smith graduated from West Point in 1842.
He entered the Confederate Army in 1861 and distinguished
himself in the Peninsular Campaign fighting against his old friend
at the battles of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks.
[3] A town of some three thousand inhabitants, situated on the
river San Juan about three miles above its junction with the Rio
Grande. It is about one hundred miles by land from Matamoros.
(See Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade, Vol. I,
pages 109 and 119.)
[4] A letter from McClellan to his mother, dated “Camp off
Camargo, Mex.,” November 14, 1846, tells her that when he
arrived at Matamoros he was taken sick almost immediately. He
remained sick for two weeks while there and “whilst on the
steamboat thence to Camargo” ... “When we got here I went into
hospital quarters whence I emerged yesterday, so that I have had
almost a month’s sickness, but now am perfectly well.” He adds, “I
would not have missed coming here for the world, now that I am
well and recovering my strength, I commence to enjoy the novelty
of the affair, and shall have enough to tell you when I return, to fill
a dozen books.” (McClellan Papers, Vol. I.)
[5] Later on McClellan wrote in the diary on a page otherwise
blank:
“On the 18th June, 1851, at five in the afternoon died Jimmie
Stuart, my best and oldest friend. He was mortally wounded the
day before by an arrow, whilst gallantly leading a charge against a
party of hostile Indians. He is buried at Camp Stuart—about
twenty-five miles south of Rogue’s River [Oregon?], near the main
road, and not far from the base of the Cishion (?) Mountains. His
grave is between two oaks, on the left side of the road, going
south, with J. S. cut in the bark of the largest of the oaks.”
[6] Robert Patterson, born at Cappagh, County Tyrone, Ireland, on
January 12, 1792, died at Philadelphia, Pa., on August 7, 1881.
Came to America early in life and became a prominent merchant
and Democratic politician in Philadelphia. Served both in the War
of 1812 and in the Mexican War and in 1861 was mustered into
the service as a major-general. He commanded the troops in the
Shenandoah Valley and was outwitted by General Joseph E.
Johnston who slipped away in time to join Beauregard and rout
the Union forces under McDowell at the first battle of Bull Run on
July 21, 1861. Patterson was retired from the army the same
month.
[7] Tampico was captured November 14, 1846.
[8] Gideon J. Pillow was born in Williamson Co., Tennessee, on
June 8, 1806. He died in Lee Co., Arkansas, on October 6, 1878.
Pillow was a prominent Tennessee politician and was active in
securing the presidential nomination for his intimate friend James
K. Polk. In 1846 he was commissioned a brigadier general by
Polk and went to the front in command of the Tennessee
volunteers. In 1861 he became a brigadier general in the
Confederate Army and is famous for having deserted his forces at
Fort Donelson on February 15, 1862, leaving them to be
surrendered to Grant the next day by his subordinate, General
Simon B. Buckner. Also see Autobiography of Lieut.-Gen. Scott,
Vol. II, pages 416-417.
[9] Later a brigadier general in the Union Army. He was adjutant
general on McClellan’s staff and closely connected with him while
in command of the Army of the Potomac.
[10] The city was captured on September 24, 1846, after three
days fighting.
[11] “The people are very polite to the regulars ... but they hate the
volunteers as they do old scratch himself.... You never hear of a
Mexican being murdered by a regular or a regular by a Mexican.
The volunteers carry on in a most shameful and disgraceful
manner; they think nothing of robbing and killing the Mexicans.”
Letter to mother, dated “Camp off Camargo, Mex.,” November 14,
1846. (McClellan Papers, Vol. I.)
“I believe with fifteen thousand regulars, we could go to the City of
Mexico, but with thirty thousand volunteers the whole nature and
policy of the war will be changed. Already are the injurious
influences of their presence perceptible, and you will hear any
Mexican in the street descanting on the good conduct of the
‘tropas de ligna,’ as they call us, and the dread of the ‘volontarios.’
And with reason, they (the volunteers) have killed five or six
innocent people walking in the streets, for no other object than
their own amusement; to-be-sure, they are always drunk, and are
in a measure irresponsible for their conduct. They rob and steal
the cattle and corn of the poor farmers, and in fact act more like a
body of hostile Indians than of civilized whites. Their own officers
have no command or control over them, and the General has
given up in despair any hope of keeping them in order. The
consequence is they are exciting a feeling among the people
which will induce them to rise en masse to obstruct our progress,
and if, when we reach the mountains, we have to fight the people
as well as the soldiers, the game will be up with us. I have some
hope, however, that when we leave this place, which has become
a mass of grog-shops and gambling-houses, and march to meet
the enemy, the absence of liquor, and the fear of the enemy, may
induce a little order among them and bring them to a better state
of discipline.” Letter of George G. Meade, dated Matamoros, July
9, 1846. (Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade, Vol.
I, pages 109-110.) Meade wrote further, from Camargo, August
13, 1846: “Already have they in almost every volunteer regiment
reported one-third their number sick, and in many cases one-half
the whole regiment, and I fear the mortality will be terrible among
them, for their utter ignorance of the proper mode of taking care of
themselves. The large number of sick is a dead weight upon us,
taking away so many men as hospital attendants, requiring
quarters, etc., and if taken sick on the march, requiring
transportation in wagons or on litters.” (Same, page 121.) Also
from Monterey, December 2, 1846: “The volunteers have been
creating disturbances, which have at last aroused the old General
[Taylor] so much that he has ordered one regiment, the First
Kentucky foot, to march to the rear, as they have disgraced
themselves and their State.... The volunteers cannot take any
care of themselves; the hospitals are crowded with them, they die
like sheep; they waste their provisions, requiring twice as much to
supply them as regulars do. They plunder the poor inhabitants of
everything they can lay their hands on, and shoot them when they
remonstrate, and if one of their number happens to get into a
drunken brawl and is killed, they run over the country, killing all
the poor innocent people they find in their way, to avenge, as they
say, the murder of their brother. This is a true picture, and the
cause is the utter incapacity of their officers to control them or
command respect.” (Same, pages 161-162.)
For further testimony of the same character see Luther Giddings,
Sketches of the Campaign in Northern Mexico, pages 81-85;
William Jay, Review of the Mexican War, pages 214-222; J. J.
Oswandel, Notes on the Mexican War, page 114. Also see
postea, page 37.
[12] George A. McCall was born in Philadelphia, Pa., on March
16, 1802, and died there on February 25, 1868. He graduated
from West Point in 1822. McCall was made a brigadier general in
1861 and placed in command of the Pennsylvania Reserves. He
distinguished himself in the Peninsular Campaign under the
command of McClellan at the battles of Mechanicsville, Gaines’s
Mill and Frazier’s Farm.
[13] Meade, in a letter dated “Monterey, November 10, 1846,”
wrote in explanation of this move as follows: “The cabinet at
Washington, profiting by the history of the Aulic Council, is
manoeuvering his (Taylor’s) troops for him, and at Washington,
entirely independent of his wishes and views, organizing
expeditions for Tampico, even going so far as to designate the
troops and their commanders. To-be-sure, it is well understood
how this is done, by the mighty engine of political influence, that
curse of our country, which forces party politics into everything.
“General Patterson and others are good Democrats; they are
indignant that General Taylor should have left them in the rear
when he carried more troops than he could feed. They complain
at Washington, and forthwith General Patterson and Co. are
directed to proceed against Tampico, and General Patterson
informed before his commanding general knows anything about it.
Well may we be grateful that we are at war with Mexico! Were it
any other power, our gross follies would have been punished
severely before now.
“General Taylor, of course, has to succumb, and the Tampico
expedition is to be immediately prosecuted. General Patterson
goes from Camargo.... He marches direct to Tampico. General
Taylor, however, does not design that he shall have it in his power,
from ignorance or other causes, to fail; therefore he will leave
here with a column of some two thousand men and artillery, light
and heavy, and will join General Patterson before he reaches
Tampico, when both columns united, and under General Taylor’s
command, will operate against the town, in conjunction with the
navy, if the latter have it in its power to do anything.” (Life and
Letters of G. G. Meade, Vol. I, page 152.)
[14] i. e., General Patterson.
[15] Aide to General Patterson.
[16] Surgeon on General Patterson’s staff.
[17] A Mexican servant.
[18] George C. Furber, in his Twelve Months Volunteer; or Journal
of a Private in the Campaign in Mexico, gives in chapters VIII and
IX (pages 275-393) a lively account of this same march, in which
he took part, from Matamoros to Victoria and Tampico. He
describes many of the events noted by McClellan, but from the
standpoint of an enthusiastic and self-confident member of the
volunteer forces.
The contemptuous sting in McClellan’s frequent references to
“mustangs” can be appreciated from the following. Says Furber
(page 376): “The ‘mustang cavalry’—a description of force
unknown to the army regulations ... accompanied us from Victoria.
—It was composed of numbers from the three regiments of
infantry. Any one that could raise the means to buy a long-eared
burro (jackass), or a mule, or old Mexican horse, or any such
conveyance, immediately entered the mustang cavalry. Such
animals could be bought for from three to five dollars. Some of the
riders had procured Mexican saddles, with their horsehair
housings and bridles also; while some had bridles, but no
saddles; others had saddles without bridles; while others, again,
had neither. Here was a soldier large as life, with his musket in his
hand, on a little jackass, without saddle or bridle, and so small
that the rider had to lift his feet from the ground;—the little burro
jogged along with him, occasionally stopping to gather a bite of
grass.”
[19] McClellan’s small brother and sister.
[20] Agustin de Iturbide was born in Spain on September 27,
1783, the son of a Spanish noble. He entered the army and
attained a high and responsible position in the Spanish
administration of Mexico. In 1821 he advocated the celebrated
“Plan of Iguala,” in which it was proposed that Mexico should
become independent under the rule of a member of the Spanish
royal family. Ferdinand VII regarded the movement as a rebellion,
and Iturbide himself was proclaimed emperor as Agustin I in May,
1822, and crowned the following July.
A rebellion immediately broke out against his authority under the
lead of Santa Anna, who proclaimed a republic at Vera Cruz.
Iturbide was forced to abdicate in March, 1823, and went to
Europe. He returned to Mexico the following year but was
arrested and shot at Padilla on July 19, 1824.
[21] Sappers, soldiers employed in the building of fortifications,
field works, etc. (Century Dict.)
[22] “General Taylor never wore uniform, but dressed himself
entirely for comfort. He moved about the field in which he was
operating to see through his own eyes the situation. Often he
would be without staff officers, and when he was accompanied by
them there was no prescribed order in which they followed. He
was very much given to sit his horse sideways—with both feet on
one side—particularly on the battlefield.... Taylor was not a
conversationalist, but on paper he could put his meaning so
plainly that there could be no mistaking it. He knew how to
express what he wanted to say in the fewest well chosen words,
but would not sacrifice meaning to the construction of high
sounding sentences.” U. S. Grant, Memoirs, Vol. I, pages 138-
139.
[23] David E. Twiggs was born in Richmond Co., Georgia, in
1790. He served in the war of 1812, and in the Mexican War
became a brigade and division commander under General Scott.
In February, 1861, he was in command of the Department of
Texas, but surrendered his forces, with the military stores under
his charge, to the Confederates. On March 1, 1861, Joseph Holt,
Secretary of War, issued “General Order No. 5” as follows,—“By
the direction of the President of the United States, it is ordered
that Brig. Gen. David E. Twiggs, major-general by brevet, be, and
is hereby, dismissed from the Army of the United States, for his
treachery to the flag of his country, in having surrendered, on the
18th of February, 1861, on the demand of the authorities of Texas,
the military posts and other property of the United States in his
department and under his charge.” (Official Records, War of the
Rebellion, Series I, Vol. I, page 597.)
Twiggs was appointed a major-general in the Confederate Army,
and died at Augusta, Georgia, on September 15, 1862.
[24] “The correspondent of the ‘Spirit of the Times,’ G. de L., is
Captain [Guy] Henry, of the Third Infantry, a classmate of mine at
West Point, a very good fellow, and I notice his recent productions
since our march from Camargo have been quite spirited.” Meade,
Life and Letters, Vol. I, pages 167-168.
[25] “McClellan’s sobriquet in Mexico, among his intimate friends,
was ‘Polance’ (sugar). On the march, when [he] first arrived, he
insisted upon eating a lot of the sugar arranged on even cobs and
persuading his companions to eat it too. He was always fond of
sweet things. They all became ill in consequence, and he more
than any of them. After that they addressed him as ‘Polance’ for
he kept saying,—‘Why it’s Polance, the best sugar—it can’t hurt
anyone’.” (Note in writing of McClellan’s daughter, McClellan
Papers, Vol. 108.)
[26] “Tampico is a delightful place, having fine cafes, and all the
luxuries of a somewhat civilized town.... I find the place much
larger than I expected, and really quite delightful. There is a large
foreign population of merchants, and in consequence the town
has all such comforts as good restaurants, excellent shops, where
everything can be purchased, and is in fact quite as much of a
place as New Orleans. It is inaccessible, owing to a bar, having
only eight feet of water, and as this is the season of ‘Northers,’
already many wrecks have taken place.” Meade, Life and Letters,
Vol. I, pages 175 and 177.
[27] “You can form no idea of the pleasure it gave us to meet the
regulars after having been so long with the cursed volunteers.... I
am tired of Tampico for I like to be in motion.—You have no idea
of the charm and excitement of a march—I could live such a life
for years and years without becoming tired of it. There is a great
deal of hardship—but we have our own fun. If we have to get up,
and start long before daybreak—we make up for it, when we
gather around the campfires at night—you never saw such a
merry set as we are—no care, no trouble—we criticize the
Generals—laugh and swear at the mustangs and volunteers,
smoke our cigars and drink our brandy, when we have any—go
without when we have none.” (Letter to Mother dated Tampico,
February 4, 1847. (McClellan Papers, Vol. I.)
[28] The Isle of Lobos is “a lovely little spot, formed entirely of
coral, about two miles in circumference, twelve miles from the
Mexican shore, sixty from Tampico, and one hundred and thirty
from Vera Cruz.” N. C. Brooks, History of the Mexican War, page
295.
It was at the Isle of Lobos that General Scott organized his army.
The regulars were divided into two brigades, commanded by
Generals William J. Worth and David E. Twiggs respectively.
General Robert Patterson commanded the division of volunteers
which was composed of the three brigades of Generals Gideon J.
Pillow, John A. Quitman and James Shields. All told, Scott’s army
numbered over 12,000 men. J. B. McMaster, History of the People
of the United States, Vol. VII, page 506; James Schouler, History
of the United States, Vol. V, page 42.
[29] The island of Sacrificios, three miles south of Vera Cruz.
[30] William J. Worth was born in Hudson, N. Y., on March 1,
1794. He fought in the War of 1812 and in the Seminole War in
1841. During the Mexican War he participated in the campaigns of
Generals Taylor and Scott and later he commanded in Texas. He
died at San Antonio, Texas, on May 17, 1849.
[31] Escopette, a carbine or short rifle, especially a form used by
the Spanish Americans (Century Dict.).
[32] Light cavalry armed with lances, or long spears, varying from
8½ to 11 feet in length (Century Dict.).
[33] Pierre G. T. Beauregard, later a prominent Confederate
General, was born in New Orleans on May 28, 1818. He
graduated from West Point in 1838. Died at New Orleans on
February 20, 1893.
Beauregard was appointed a brigadier general in the Confederate
Army in 1861 and bombarded and captured Fort Sumter in April of
the same year. He commanded at the first battle of Bull Run on
July 21, 1861, and following it was promoted to the rank of
general. He took part in the battle of Shiloh in April, 1862,
commanded at Charleston, S. C., from 1862 to 1864, and in
Virginia in the latter year.
[34] Robert E. Lee, later the celebrated Confederate General-in-
Chief and McClellan’s main adversary. He was born at Stratford,
Westmoreland Co., Virginia, on January 19, 1807, and died at
Lexington, Virginia, on October 12, 1870.
[35] Epaulment, the mass of earth or other material which protects
the guns in a battery both in front and on either flank (Century
Dict.).
[36] Terre-plein, the top, platform or horizontal surface of a
rampart, on which the cannon are placed (Century Dict.).
[37] Boyau, a ditch covered with a parapet, serving as a means of
communication between two trenches, especially between the first
and third parallels. Also called a zigzag or an approach (Century
Dict.).
[38] Berm, a narrow level space at the outside foot of a parapet, to
retain material which otherwise might fall from the slope into the
ditch (Standard Dict.).
[39] Colonel Bankhead was the Chief of Artillery at the siege of
Vera Cruz.
[40] General Juan Morales was the Mexican commander at Vera
Cruz.
[41] Revet, to face, as an embankment, with masonry or other
material (Century Dict.).
[42] Traverse, an earthen mask, similar to a parapet, thrown
across the covered way of a permanent work to protect it from the
effects of an enfilading fire (Century Dict.).
[43] General Scott “always wore all the uniform prescribed or
allowed by law when he inspected his lines; word would be sent to
all division and brigade commanders in advance, notifying them of
the hour when the commanding general might be expected. This
was done so that all the army might be under arms to salute their
chief as he passed. On these occasions he wore his dress
uniform, cocked hat, aiguillettes, sabre and spurs. His staff proper,
besides all officers constructively on his staff—engineers,
inspectors, quartermasters, etc., that could be spared—followed,
also in uniform and in prescribed order. Orders were prepared
with great care and evidently with the view that they should be a
history of what followed.... General Scott was precise in language,
cultivated a style peculiarly his own; was proud of his rhetoric; not
averse to speaking of himself, often in the third person, and he
could bestow praise upon the person he was talking about without
the least embarrassment.” U. S. Grant, Memoirs, Vol. I, pages
138-139.
[44] Vera Cruz at that time was a city of about 15,000 inhabitants.
[45] On the advance of Scott’s army from Vera Cruz, Twiggs led
the way, followed a day later by Patterson, and five days later still
by Worth. J. B. McMaster, History of the People of the United
States, Vol. VII, page 507.
[46] Simon B. Buckner was born in Kentucky on April 1, 1823, and
died January 8, 1914. He graduated from West Point in 1844.
During the Civil War he was first a brigadier general, and later a
lieutenant general in the Confederate Army. He stood by his
troops and surrendered Fort Donelson to General Grant on
February 16, 1862. After the war he became Governor of
Kentucky and was the candidate for Vice-President on the Gold
Democratic ticket in 1896.
[47] About sixty miles from Vera Cruz, and about thirty from
Jalapa. J. S. Jenkins, History of the War with Mexico, page 270.
[48] General Pillow’s brigade consisted of four regiments of
infantry,—1st Tennessee (Colonel Campbell), 2nd Tennessee
(Colonel Haskell), 1st Pennsylvania (Colonel Wynkoop) and 2nd
Pennsylvania (Colonel Roberts); also a detachment of Tennessee
Horse and a company of Kentucky Volunteers under Captain
Williams. R. Semmes, Service Afloat and Ashore, page 179.
[49] “The Cerro Gordo, or Big Hill, called by the Mexicans in their
dispatches, El Telegrafo, is an immense hill, of a conical form,
rising to the height of near a thousand feet. It stands ... at the
head of the pass, to which it gives its name, and formed the
extreme left (our right) of the fortifications of the enemy.” Semmes,
op. cit., pages 176-177.
[50] He commanded the 1st Regiment of Pennsylvania
Volunteers.
[51] He commanded the 2nd Tennessee Volunteers.
[52] James Shields was born in County Tyrone, Ireland, in 1810.
After the Mexican War he was United States Senator (Democrat)
from Illinois during the years 1849-1855, and from Minnesota in
1858-1859. He was one of the “political generals” in the Union
Army who were decisively defeated by “Stonewall” Jackson during
the celebrated “Valley Campaign” of May and June, 1862. Shields
died in Ottumwa, Iowa, on June 1, 1879.
[53] The American forces present at the battle of Cerro Gordo,
both in action and in reserve, were about 8,500 men. The
Mexicans were estimated at 12,000 or more. The American losses
in the two days fighting were 33 officers and 398 men, a total of
431, of whom 63 were killed. The enemy losses were estimated at
1,000 to 1,200, in addition to five generals and 3,000 men who
were captured. General Scott’s official report dated “Jalapa, April
23, 1847” (Senate Docs. 30th Congress, 1st Session, No. 1,
pages 263-264).
[54] The City of Mexico was surrendered to General Scott’s
victorious army on September 14, 1847.
[55] McClellan left the City of Mexico on May 28, 1848, and
reached West Point, N. Y., on June 22 following.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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