SLA Resume

Outline and Explanation of SLA 4. L2 Acquisition and Morpheme

Master 1, Semester 1 Content Studies
1. Introduction to SLA  Key Researchers:
 Definition: SLA (Second Language o Dulay and Burt (1970s): Found
Acquisition) is the study of how similarities in L2 acquisition
people learn a language beyond their order among learners,
first language (L1). It encompasses regardless of L1.
both the process of learning and the o Bailey et al. (1974): Similar
characteristics of learners. orders for children and adults
 Terminology: in L2 acquisition.
o Second Language (L2): The  Key Findings:
additional language, o SLA follows a systematic order.
irrespective of the sequence o Minor L1 impact on L2
(second, third, etc.). acquisition.
o Target Language (TL): The Explanation: Think of learning L2 like
language being learned. baking cookies with a different recipe. While
 Scope: the steps might vary slightly, the
o Informal learning in fundamental process stays consistent.
naturalistic contexts. 5. Error Analysis
o Formal learning in classrooms.  Introduction:
o Mixed approaches involving o Shift from Contrastive Analysis
both settings. (comparing L1 and L2
Explanation: Think of SLA as learning to differences) to studying learner
ride a new type of bicycle after mastering errors.
your first. Whether you're practicing in your  Key Contributions:
yard (naturalistic) or attending cycling o Corder (1967): Errors reveal
classes (formal), SLA studies how you adapt learners' internal processes.
to and learn the new "ride." o Selinker (1972): Introduced
Interlanguage—a transitional
2. Historical Development of SLA linguistic system unique to
Theories learners.
 Before 1950s: Explanation: Imagine trying to solve a
o No formal theories guiding puzzle with some wrong pieces (errors).
teaching practices. These wrong pieces can still show how you
 1950s-60s: think and approach the solution.
o Emergence of Behaviorism: 6. Social and Psychological Models
Language learning as habit  1970s-80s:
formation (Watson, Skinner). o Krashen’s Monitor Model:
o Concepts of stimulus-response Focused on the role of input
and reinforcement were key. and the learner’s mental filters.
 Challenges: o Schumann’s
o Difficulty arises because L1 Pidginization/Acculturation
habits may conflict with new L2 Model: Success in SLA depends
habits. on integration into the target
Explanation: Think of this as trying to language community.
switch from driving on the right side of the  Social Variables:
road (L1) to the left (L2). Your "road habits" o Motivation, personality, and
interfere with the new "rules," causing social factors significantly
mistakes. affect SLA success.
3. Shift to Generative and Explanation: Picture learning a language
Developmental Views as attending a dance party. The more you
 1950s-70s: interact and feel part of the group, the
o Generative linguistics better you’ll learn the moves (language).
(Chomsky): Language as rule- 7. Modern SLA Research
governed and creative.  Post-1980s:
o Cognitive Developmental o SLA established as an
Theory (Piaget): Internal and independent research field.
environmental factors interact  Major Issues:
 during language learning. o The roles of L1, psychological
 Key Findings: factors, input, and instruction
o L1 acquisition follows stages in SLA.
(crying, babbling, one-word, o Patterns that facilitate
etc.) and orders (Brown's learning.
morpheme studies). Explanation: Modern SLA research is like
o Children acquire language in using advanced navigation tools for
similar patterns globally, exploring a new city—focusing on efficient
regardless of L1. ways to guide learners through the "streets"
Explanation: Imagine language as building of the new language.
a LEGO tower. The blocks (morphemes) are
added in a specific sequence, no matter
which "tower design" (language) you're
building.

Questionnaire 1. What is Selinker’s concept of

1. Define SLA and its primary focus. Interlanguage, and why is it
2. Explain the difference between important?
informal and formal SLA learning Interlanguage refers to the unique,
contexts. intermediate linguistic system
3. What is the behaviorist view of developed by L2 learners as they
language learning, and how does it progress toward proficiency. It is
relate to habits? important because it demonstrates
4. Describe the significance of Brown’s that learner errors are not just
Morpheme Studies in understanding mistakes but reflect a systematic,
L1 acquisition. evolving understanding of the target
5. How does Dulay and Burt’s research language.
challenge the role of L1 in L2 2. Compare Krashen’s Monitor
acquisition? Model and Schumann’s
6. What is Selinker’s concept of Acculturation Model in terms of
Interlanguage, and why is it SLA success.
important? o Krashen’s Monitor Model:
7. Compare Krashen’s Monitor Model Emphasizes the importance of
and Schumann’s Acculturation Model comprehensible input and
in terms of SLA success. learners' ability to self-monitor
8. List at least three major issues their language use. Success
studied in modern SLA research. depends on receiving sufficient
Questionnaire Answers input and being mentally
1. Define SLA and its primary focus. prepared to process it.
SLA (Second Language Acquisition) is o Schumann’s Acculturation
the study of how people learn an Model: Links SLA success to
additional language beyond their first how well learners integrate
language. Its primary focus is on into the target language
understanding both the process of community. The closer they feel
learning and the characteristics of to the community, the more
individuals and groups involved in likely they are to acquire the
this learning. language effectively.
2. Explain the difference between 3. List at least three major issues
informal and formal SLA learning studied in modern SLA research.
contexts. o The role of L1 in L2 acquisition
o Informal SLA: Happens in (what aspects are transferred
naturalistic settings, such as or not).
interacting with native o The influence of psychological
speakers in daily life. variables (e.g., motivation,
o Formal SLA: Occurs in personality, aptitude) on
structured environments like learning.
classrooms with planned o The relationship between input
lessons and instructions. (exposure to language) and
Both can also mix, combining internal learning mechanisms
 aspects of natural exposure Additional Questions and Answers
with guided teaching.  What is the role of Contrastive
3. What is the behaviorist view of Analysis (CA) in early SLA
language learning, and how does theories?
it relate to habits? Contrastive Analysis hypothesized
The behaviorist view sees language that similarities between L1 and L2
learning as the formation of habits. It would make learning easier, while
is based on stimulus-response theory, differences would cause errors. It
where the environment provides focused on predicting learner
reinforcement for correct responses. difficulties by comparing L1 and L2
Learning a second language involves structures.
replacing existing L1 habits with new  Why was Contrastive Analysis
L2 habits. criticized?
4. Describe the significance of It was criticized because many
Brown’s Morpheme Studies in predicted difficulties did not occur in
understanding L1 acquisition. practice, and learners often made
Brown’s studies (1973) showed that errors unrelated to L1-L2 differences.
children acquire grammatical It failed to account for learners'
structures in a consistent order (e.g., internal processes and systematic
present progressive, prepositions, errors.
plurals). This finding highlighted a  What did Corder mean by “The
natural order of language Significance of Learners’ Errors”?
development that is universal among Corder argued that errors are
L1 learners, regardless of the valuable because they reveal the
language they speak. internal syllabus or strategies
5. How does Dulay and Burt’s learners use. They show how learners
research challenge the role of L1 are constructing their interlanguage
in L2 acquisition? system, rather than being purely
Dulay and Burt (1970s) found that negative.
learners of L2 follow a natural order  What are the stages of L1
of acquisition similar to L1, acquisition, and why are they
regardless of their native language. significant for SLA?
Their research showed that SLA is The stages include crying, cooing,
largely independent of L1, babbling, one-word utterances, two-
challenging the idea that differences word combinations, and mature
between L1 and L2 always predict speech. These stages show a universal
learning difficulties. pattern, suggesting innate
mechanisms that could also influence
SLA.
9. What is Krashen’s concept of 2. The Behaviorist Era (1950s-1960s)
“Comprehensible Input”?  Key Ideas:
Krashen’s idea of comprehensible o Rooted in Behaviorism, a
input (i+1) states that learners psychological theory that views
acquire language best when exposed learning as the formation of
to language slightly beyond their habits through stimulus-
current level of understanding. It response connections.
emphasizes understanding as a driver o Famous proponents: John
of acquisition. Watson (1924), Edward
10.How do social factors influence Thorndike (1932), Leonard
SLA according to Schumann? Bloomfield (1933), B.F. Skinner
Schumann’s Acculturation Model (1957).
highlights that learners who feel o Language learning is like any
closer to and more accepted by the other learning: habits are
target language community acquire formed by environmental
language more effectively. Alienation reinforcement.
can hinder progress, resulting in a o Errors occur when old habits
pidgin-like form of the language. (from L1) interfere with
11.What is the role of instruction in forming new ones (in L2).
SLA?  Mechanisms:
 Instruction can accelerate the o Stimulus: Input or trigger in
acquisition process by providing the environment (e.g., a
structured input, practice, and teacher says, “This is a pen”).
feedback. However, naturalistic o Response: Learner’s reaction
learning often complements (e.g., repeating “This is a
classroom learning to enhance pen”).
fluency and accuracy. o Reinforcement: Positive
12.How do psychological factors like feedback strengthens correct
motivation affect SLA? responses (e.g., “Good job!”).
Motivation (integrative or  Example:
instrumental) drives effort and Imagine learning to play a new song
persistence in learning. Learners with on the piano. You repeatedly press the
strong motivation, especially those keys as instructed (stimulus), adjust
with an integrative desire to connect based on feedback (reinforcement),
with the culture, tend to perform and eventually form the habit of
better. playing the song correctly.
13.What is the difference between  Limitations:
errors and mistakes in SLA? o Behaviorism struggled to
o Errors: Systematic and reflect explain how learners produce
gaps in the learner’s entirely new sentences or
knowledge of the target understand concepts without
language. direct reinforcement.
o Mistakes: Temporary lapses in o Could not address why L2
performance due to factors like errors often followed patterns
fatigue or distraction, despite not found in L1.
knowing the correct form. 3. Challenges to Behaviorism
14.How do L2 learners handle  1957: Chomsky's Revolution:
morpheme acquisition compared o Noam Chomsky published
to L1 learners? Syntactic Structures and
While L2 learners show a natural argued that language is rule-
order of morpheme acquisition governed and creative, not
similar to L1 learners, the order may merely a series of learned
differ slightly due to factors like age, habits.
prior language knowledge, and the o Introduced the concept of
learning environment. Universal Grammar (UG): an
Deep Dive into Section 2: Historical innate set of grammatical rules
Development of SLA Theories shared by all humans.
1. Before the 1950s: Language Teaching o Argued against Skinner’s
without Theory behaviorist explanation in
 Overview: Verbal Behavior (1957).
Before the 1950s, language teaching  Cognitive Perspective:
practices lacked a strong theoretical o Jean Piaget (1966, 1970):
foundation. Methods were largely Language acquisition involves
intuitive or based on tradition, with interaction between internal
no systematic understanding of how (cognitive) processes and the
people learned languages. environment.
 Example: o Example: Children don't just
Think of this era as early map- imitate words; they actively
making. Explorers navigated the seas construct grammar rules as
using crude maps or none at all, they grow.
relying on experience or guesswork.  Example of Contrast:
Similarly, teachers used ad-hoc If behaviorism is like a parrot
methods to teach languages. mimicking sounds based on rewards,
Chomsky's view is like a child
inventing their own sentences by
applying mental rules.
3. Developmental Stages: Acquiring
4. Emergence of Developmental Views language is like building a house—you
(1970s-1980s) lay the foundation first (simple
  Focus: How learners acquire utterances) before constructing walls
grammatical structures over time. and roofs (complex sentences).
 Key Findings in L1 Research: Summary
Studies showed children globally  Before the 1950s, language teaching
follow a consistent sequence and was unguided by theory.
stages in language acquisition. These  Behaviorism introduced the idea of
findings influenced SLA research. habit formation through
a) Stages: reinforcement but was challenged for
i) Crying (birth): Expressing oversimplifying language learning.
discomfort or needs.  Chomsky’s rule-based approach and
ii) Cooing (6 weeks): Making vowel- Piaget’s cognitive theories provided
like sounds. richer explanations of language
iii) Babbling (6 months): acquisition.
Experimenting with consonants  Developmental studies in L1
and vowels. influenced SLA, showing systematic
iv) One-word utterances (1 year): stages and sequences.
Simple words like “milk.” Deep Dive into Section 3: Shift to
v) Two-word combinations (18 Generative and Developmental Views
months): “Want cookie.” 1. Transition from Structural to
vi) Word inflections (2 years): Generative Linguistics
Adding grammatical markers like  Structural Linguistics (Before the
plurals. 1950s):
vii)Questions and negatives (2 Focused on language as a set of
years, 3 months): “Where daddy?” observable patterns. It emphasized
viii) Rare or complex constructs describing and categorizing language
(5 years): Full sentences. structures (e.g., syntax, phonology).
ix) Mature speech (10 years): Adult- o Limitation: Structural
like fluency. linguistics treated language as
 Morpheme Studies: a static system and failed to
o Brown’s Study (1973): Found explain creativity in language
a consistent order in which use (e.g., forming new
English-speaking children learn sentences).
morphemes (e.g., -ing, plural -s,  Generative Linguistics (1950s
possessive 's). Onward):
o Significance: Demonstrated Introduced by Noam Chomsky in
that language acquisition is Syntactic Structures (1957), this
systematic, not random. approach shifted the focus to the
 Example: rule-governed and creative nature
Learning language is like climbing a of language.
ladder: each rung (stage) builds on o Key Ideas:
the last, and everyone ascends in  Language is an infinite
roughly the same order. system of rules enabling
5. SLA in Light of These Theories the creation of countless
 Researchers applied L1 findings to sentences.
SLA:  Human brains are
o Dulay and Burt (1970s) studied prewired with Universal
L2 morpheme acquisition in Grammar (UG), a built-
Spanish-speaking children in capacity for language.
learning English. o Example:
o Found systematic patterns in Imagine language as a chess
L2 learning that were similar game: instead of memorizing
but not identical to L1. every possible move, you learn
 Implications: the rules that allow you to
o Learning L2 involves internal create valid moves.
rules and processes, not just 2. Chomsky vs. Behaviorism
imitation or habit replacement.  Chomsky’s Critique of
o Behaviorist ideas began to lose Behaviorism:
prominence in SLA theory. o Chomsky argued against
Key Analogies for Section 2 Skinner’s behaviorist view of
 1. Behaviorism: Learning a language is language as habit formation.
like training a dog to fetch— o Language acquisition cannot be
repetition, reinforcement, and explained by stimulus-response
rewards lead to habits. reinforcement because:
2. Chomsky's Universal Grammar:  Children produce
Humans are like computers preloaded sentences they’ve never
with a universal operating system heard before (novelty).
(grammar), ready to process any  They make systematic
language. errors (e.g., “goed” for
“went”), reflecting
internal rule
construction rather than
 Universal Grammar (UG): mimicry.
o UG posits that all humans  Mature speech: Fluent,
share a common linguistic rule-based
blueprint. This explains why communication (10
children worldwide acquire years).
language similarly despite  Universal Patterns:
vastly different L1s. o Similarities in L1 acquisition
o UG includes parameters that suggest innate mechanisms,
adjust based on the language supporting UG.
environment (e.g., subject- o Example: All children start
verb-object order in English vs. negations with “no” (e.g., “No
subject-object-verb in eat”) before learning
Japanese). embedded forms (“I don’t eat”).
 Example: 5. Application to SLA
If Behaviorism is like memorizing  L2 Morpheme Studies:
specific recipes for cooking, UG is like o Inspired by Brown, researchers
learning basic cooking techniques like Dulay and Burt (1970s)
that can be adapted to create endless investigated morpheme
dishes. acquisition in L2 learners.
3. Developmental Views of Language o Findings: L2 learners show
Acquisition systematic patterns, but the
 Cognitive Developmental Theory order differs slightly from L1
(Jean Piaget): learners.
o Piaget emphasized the  Role of L1 in SLA:
interaction of internal cognitive o Early contrastive analysis
processes and environmental overstated L1’s influence.
factors. Developmental studies showed
o Stages of Cognitive L2 acquisition is governed by
Development: internal processes and a
Language acquisition aligns natural order, not solely by L1
with broader cognitive interference.
milestones (e.g., object  Example:
permanence, symbolic If learning L1 is like following a
thinking). blueprint to build a house, learning
 Example: A child starts L2 is like adapting the blueprint to
naming objects once new materials and conditions.
they understand the Key Analogies for Section 3
concept of permanence 1. Universal Grammar:
(e.g., the ball still exists UG is like having a universal app
even when hidden). installed in every human brain. The
 Contrast with Chomsky: app’s settings adjust based on the
o Piaget: Language is shaped by language environment (e.g., English
general cognitive growth and or Japanese).
interaction. 2. Stages of Acquisition:
o Chomsky: Language is driven Language learning is like assembling
by a specialized innate a LEGO model step by step, where
mechanism (UG). each step builds on the last to form a
4. Key Findings from Developmental complete structure.
Studies 3. Chomsky vs. Piaget:
 L1 Research and Its Impact on Chomsky views language as a
SLA: specialized computer program (innate
o Early research (Klima & and specific), while Piaget sees it as a
Bellugi, 1966; Brown, 1973) general learning process (evolving
showed that children globally with overall cognitive development).
follow consistent stages and Summary
orders in language acquisition.  Generative linguistics (Chomsky)
o Morpheme Studies: shifted the focus from structural
 Brown identified a patterns to the creative, rule-based
sequence in which nature of language.
children acquire  Universal Grammar provides a
grammatical morphemes framework for understanding
(e.g., -ing, plurals, language acquisition across cultures
possessive 's). and languages.
 This sequence is  Developmental studies reveal
consistent across L1 systematic stages and sequences in
learners, irrespective of both L1 and L2 acquisition,
the language. supporting the idea of innate
 Stages of Language Acquisition: language mechanisms.
o These stages demonstrate how  Cognitive developmental theories
language evolves from basic highlight the interplay of mental
forms to more complex growth and environmental input.
structures.
o Example:
 Crying: Communicating
needs (birth).
 Cooing/Babbling:
Exploring sounds (6
months). Morpheme Studies in SLA:
 One-word utterances:  Dulay and Burt (1970s): Examined
Assigning meaning to how Spanish-speaking children
sounds (1 year). acquire English morphemes.
1. Universal Grammar (UG) in Detail  Found a natural order that differed
Definition and Key Principles: slightly from L1 acquisition.
 Universal Grammar (UG) is the theory  Example: Articles (“the,” “a”) were
that humans are born with an innate acquired earlier in L2 than in L1.
ability to learn language. It provides a Implications for SLA:
universal set of grammatical  Morpheme studies suggest SLA is
principles and parameters that guide systematic and guided by internal
language learning. processes, not just L1 interference.
 Key Principles:  Errors like “He goed” are
o Principles: Shared developmental—learners apply
grammatical rules across all general rules to exceptions, showing
languages (e.g., all languages active learning.
have nouns and verbs). 3. Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
o Parameters: Language- Piaget’s Theory:
specific settings that adjust  Language development is part of
based on exposure (e.g., word overall cognitive growth.
order: Subject-Verb-Object in  Children build language through
English vs. Subject-Object-Verb interaction with their environment,
in Japanese). progressing through stages of
Why UG Matters for SLA: cognitive development.
 UG explains why L2 learners can Stages of Cognitive Development and
acquire a language despite Language:
differences in structure from their L1. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):
 Example: A Spanish speaker learning o Children develop object
English may struggle with word order permanence and begin
 but will eventually adapt because UG associating words with objects.
allows for such flexibility. o Example: Saying “ball” when
Evidence Supporting UG: seeing a ball.
 L1 Acquisition: 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):
o Universality of stages and o Language becomes more
order in L1 learning (e.g., symbolic and imaginative.
children everywhere go o Example: Using sentences like
through stages like babbling “The sun is sleeping.”
and negation). 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11
 L2 Acquisition: years):
o Systematic patterns in o Logical thought emerges, and
morpheme studies (e.g., Dulay language reflects more
and Burt’s findings of natural complex relationships.
L2 acquisition order). o Example: “If I study, I’ll pass
o Errors in L2 are often the test.”
developmental, not just 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+
influenced by L1 (e.g., years):
overgeneralizing “-ed” for past o Abstract reasoning develops,
tense: “goed” instead of allowing sophisticated
“went”). language use.
Critiques of UG in SLA: o Example: “Freedom is essential
 UG is most evident in L1 acquisition, for personal growth.”
where exposure is rich and Applications to SLA:
immersive.  Adult SLA learners rely on cognitive
 Its role in SLA is debated because skills developed in the formal
adult learners often rely on explicit operational stage.
learning (memorization and rules)  Unlike children, adults may
rather than implicit mechanisms. consciously analyze language rules,
2. Morpheme Studies in Depth but environmental interaction still
What are Morphemes? plays a key role.
 Morphemes are the smallest Example:
meaningful units of language.  A child acquiring L1 learns through
o Example: In “cats,” cat (base play and interaction, like naming
word) and -s (plural marker) objects or asking questions.
are morphemes.  An adult learning L2 might use
Brown’s L1 Morpheme Study: similar strategies in immersive
 Roger Brown (1973) found a contexts (e.g., practicing vocabulary
consistent order in which English- in conversations).
speaking children acquire 14 Key Analogies for This Section
grammatical morphemes. 1. UG:
 Examples of Morphemes (in order Think of UG as a universal translator
of acquisition): in your brain. It comes preinstalled
1. Present progressive (-ing): with basic rules that adapt to the
“She is running.” specific "language app" you’re
2. Prepositions (in, on): “The ball exposed to.
is in the box.”
3. Plural (-s): “Cats.” 3. Bailey et al. (1974): Adult Morpheme
4. Irregular past tense: “He Studies
went.”  Research Focus:
5. Possessive (’s): “Mommy’s o Investigated morpheme
bag.” acquisition in adult learners
1. Morpheme Studies: from various L1 backgrounds
Morphemes are like building blocks of learning English.
a sentence. Everyone starts stacking  Findings:
them in roughly the same order, o Adults also exhibited a natural
whether building with LEGO (L1) or order of morpheme acquisition,
Duplo (L2). similar to children’s.
2. Cognitive-Developmental o The findings emphasized that
Perspective: age and L1 background have
 Language learning is like growing a minor effects on the sequence
tree. Your cognitive abilities (roots) of L2 morpheme acquisition.
provide a foundation, while  Significance:
interaction with the environment o L2 acquisition is systematic
(sunlight and water) nurtures growth. across age groups, though
Summary of the Deep Dive adults rely more on explicit
 Universal Grammar: Highlights the learning strategies.
innate, rule-based capacity for 4. Comparison of L1 and L2 Morpheme
language shared by all humans. Studies
 Morpheme Studies: Provide  Similarities:
evidence that both L1 and L2 o Both L1 and L2 learners
acquisition follow systematic acquire morphemes in
patterns, though L2 learners may systematic orders.
show slight variations. o Certain morphemes, such as
 Cognitive-Developmental present progressive (-ing), are
Perspective: Emphasizes the role of acquired earlier in both L1 and
broader cognitive growth and L2.
environmental interaction in language  Differences:
learning. o L2 learners often acquire
Deep Dive into Section 4: L2 articles earlier than L1
Acquisition and Morpheme Studies learners.
1. Introduction to L2 Morpheme Studies o L2 learners may show
L2 morpheme studies aimed to understand variability due to differences in
whether learners of a second language exposure, motivation, and
follow a systematic order in acquiring instruction.
grammatical features, similar to the stages Example:
observed in L1 acquisition. Imagine assembling a puzzle. L1 learners
 Key Question: Is there a "natural start with edge pieces and move inward
order" in L2 acquisition, independent (universal stages). L2 learners may
of the learner’s L1? occasionally pick up center pieces first due
2. Early Research: Dulay and Burt's to explicit instruction.
Studies 5. Criticism of Morpheme Studies
 Studies Overview:  Methodological Concerns:
o Conducted in the 1970s, Dulay o Morpheme studies relied on
and Burt examined morpheme speech samples, which might
acquisition in Spanish-speaking not fully represent learners’
children learning English as knowledge.
their L2. o Researchers used predefined
o They analyzed spontaneous categories for analysis, which
speech to identify patterns in might have biased results.
acquiring English morphemes  Overgeneralization:
(e.g., plural -s, articles, past o The idea of a universal order
tense). may oversimplify the
 Key Findings: complexities of SLA, such as
o L2 learners showed a the role of input, context, and
consistent natural order of individual differences.
morpheme acquisition. 6. Implications for SLA Research and
o This order was similar across Teaching
learners with different L1s,  Research:
suggesting internal cognitive o Morpheme studies reinforced
mechanisms drive SLA. the view that SLA is governed
o Example: Articles like “the” by internal, cognitive
and “a” were learned earlier mechanisms.
than possessives like “Tom’s.” o They also laid the groundwork
 Significance: for studying interlanguage (a
o These findings challenged the learner’s evolving language
earlier Contrastive Analysis system).
Hypothesis (CAH), which  Teaching:
suggested that L1 interference o Teachers can use insights from
 predicts errors and learning natural orders to design
difficulties. curriculum. For example, focus
o Dulay and Burt showed that L2 on simpler morphemes like
acquisition depends more on plurals (-s) before tackling
universal processes than on L1- complex ones like possessives
L2 differences. (‘s).
 Types of Errors:
1. Interlingual Errors: Errors
caused by L1 influence (e.g., “I
have 12 years”).
o Recognize that some errors are 2. Intralingual Errors: Errors
developmental and reflect due to overgeneralization of L2
progress, not failure. rules (e.g., “He goed” for “He
7. Key Analogies for L2 Morpheme went”).
Studies 3. Contextual Errors: Errors
1. Natural Order: influenced by situational or
Learning morphemes is like climbing instructional factors.
stairs—some steps are easier and  Example:
come earlier for everyone (e.g., plural Think of errors as "wrong puzzle
-s), while others take more time and pieces." They reveal the learner's
effort (e.g., irregular past tense). current understanding of how the
2. Universal Patterns: puzzle (language) fits together.
Morpheme acquisition is like growing 3. Selinker’s Interlanguage
a garden. While the types of flowers  Definition:
(languages) differ, the stages of Selinker (1972) introduced the
growth (planting, sprouting, concept of interlanguage, describing
blooming) follow a similar sequence. the unique linguistic system created
3. Role of Input: by L2 learners as they progress
Input is like sunlight for plants. Rich toward full proficiency.
and frequent exposure to the target o It is not simply a "broken"
language helps learners naturally version of L2 but a legitimate
acquire morphemes in the correct system with its own rules.
order.  Characteristics:
Summary of Section 4 o Dynamic: It evolves as learners
 L2 morpheme studies, led by Dulay, gain proficiency.
Burt, and Bailey, revealed systematic o Systematic: Errors follow
patterns in how learners acquire patterns, reflecting internalized
grammar. rules.
 These patterns are largely universal, o Fossilization: Some errors
though L2 acquisition differs slightly become permanent if learners
from L1 acquisition. stop progressing.
 The findings emphasize the role of  Example:
internal mechanisms in SLA and have Imagine learning to cook a new dish.
influenced teaching methods by At first, you create your own recipe
highlighting developmental based on partial knowledge, and
sequences. although it’s not perfect, it’s
Deep Dive into Section 5: Error systematic and functional.
Analysis in SLA 4. Types of Errors in Interlanguage
1. Shift from Contrastive Analysis to  Developmental Errors:
Error Analysis o Caused by applying general L2
 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis rules universally.
(CAH): o Example: Overusing regular
o Early SLA theories assumed past tense endings (“goed”
errors in L2 were directly instead of “went”).
caused by L1 interference.  Simplification Errors:
o Example: A French speaker o Learners simplify complex
might say “I have 12 years” structures to make them
instead of “I am 12 years old” manageable.
because French uses “avoir” o Example: Saying “He good”
 (to have) for age. instead of “He is good.”
o Problem: CAH couldn’t explain  Transfer Errors:
all errors, such as o Direct influence of L1 on L2.
developmental errors unrelated o Example: Placing adjectives
to L1 (e.g., overgeneralizing after nouns in English (“the car
English past tense: “goed” red”), mirroring French syntax
instead of “went”). (“la voiture rouge”).
 Error Analysis Emerges (1960s- 5. Error Analysis vs. Contrastive
1970s): Analysis
o Researchers like Pit Corder  Contrastive Analysis:
shifted the focus to learners’ o Focused on predicting errors
internal processes. based on L1-L2 differences.
o Errors were seen as valuable o Assumed all errors stemmed
insights into the learner's from negative L1 transfer.
interlanguage—a unique,  Error Analysis:
evolving linguistic system o Investigated actual learner
between L1 and L2. errors to uncover internal
2. Corder’s Contribution to Error processes.
Analysis o Recognized that errors could
 Key Ideas: also arise from developmental
o Errors are not just “mistakes” and intralingual factors.
but reflections of a learner’s o
developmental stage. 2. Krashen’s Monitor Model
They show how learners actively construct  Overview:
their understanding of the target language Stephen Krashen proposed a set of
hypotheses to explain how learners
acquire and use a second language.
His model stresses the importance of
input and the mental processes
learners use to monitor their
Practical Implications for SLA Teaching language use.
 Understanding Errors:  Key Hypotheses:
o Teachers can diagnose 1. Acquisition-Learning
learners’ progress by analyzing Hypothesis:
errors.  Acquisition: Subconscious
o Example: If a learner process of picking up language through
overgeneralizes English plural meaningful communication.
rules (e.g., “mouses” instead of  Learning: Conscious process of
“mice”), it shows they’re studying grammar and rules.
learning the rule, even if not  Example: A child "acquires"
perfectly. language by speaking with friends, while
 Error Correction: an adult "learns" it through grammar
o Overcorrection can hinder exercises.
learning; teachers should focus 2. Natural Order Hypothesis:
on errors that obstruct  Language structures are acquired
communication. in a predictable order, regardless of L1.
o Example: Prioritize fixing “I no  Example: Learners acquire plural -
like” over less critical mistakes s before possessive ‘s.
like “He go to school 3. Monitor Hypothesis:
yesterday.”  The “monitor” acts as an editor,
7. Critiques of Error Analysis using learned knowledge to correct
 Overemphasis on Errors: language output.
o Focusing solely on errors may  Overuse can slow fluency, while
overlook correct usage and underuse can lead to errors.
overall progress. 4. Input Hypothesis:
 Neglect of External Factors:  Comprehensible input (i+1) is
o Error analysis often critical—learners acquire language best
underestimates the role of when exposed to material slightly beyond
social, psychological, and their current level.
 instructional influences.  Example: A beginner learns
Key Analogies for Error Analysis through sentences like “The cat is on the
1. Errors as Clues: table,” which builds on existing
Errors are like breadcrumbs left by knowledge of basic vocabulary.
learners on the path to mastering L2. 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis:
Each breadcrumb reveals where  Emotional factors (motivation,
they’ve been and where they might be anxiety, self-confidence) affect how much
heading. input learners process.
2. Interlanguage as a Draft:  Example: A stressed learner may
Think of interlanguage as a rough struggle to absorb language even in a rich
draft of an essay. It’s imperfect but input environment.
structured, with clear signs of  Significance:
evolving understanding. Krashen’s model shifted emphasis to
3. Learning to Drive: the importance of comprehensible
Errors in language learning are like input and a stress-free learning
stalling a car while learning to drive— environment.
each mistake is a necessary step in 3. Schumann’s Acculturation Model
mastering the skill.  Overview:
Summary of Section 5 John Schumann proposed that
 Error Analysis replaced Contrastive successful language acquisition
Analysis by viewing errors as insights depends on the learner’s integration
into learners' interlanguage. into the target language community.
 Corder highlighted errors as signs of  Key Concepts:
active learning, while Selinker 1. Acculturation:
emphasized the systematic nature of  The process by which learners
interlanguage. adapt to a new culture and its
 Practical applications of error language.
analysis include targeted teaching  Example: A learner living in an
strategies and recognizing English-speaking country who
developmental stages. forms friendships with native
Deep Dive into Section 6: Social and speakers will likely acquire English
Psychological Models in SLA faster.
1. Introduction to Social and 2. Pidginization:
Psychological Models  When learners feel alienated from
By the late 1970s, SLA research expanded the target culture, their language
to include social and psychological factors resembles pidgin—simplified and
that influence language learning. Two major incomplete.
models emerged: 
 Krashen’s Monitor Model: Focused 7. Critiques of the Models
on the internal processes of language  Krashen:
learning. o Oversimplifies the role of
 Schumann’s Acculturation Model: explicit learning and grammar
Emphasized the social and instruction.
environmental context of language o Limited explanation for how
acquisition. advanced learners refine
complex language skills.
 Schumann:
o Social integration isn’t always
 Example: A learner who avoids possible (e.g., learners in non-
social contact with native speakers immersion environments).
may develop limited proficiency. o Lacks detail on how individual
 Factors Influencing Acculturation: cognitive processes interact
o Social Distance: The degree with social factors.
of connection or separation Key Analogies for Social and
between the learner’s culture Psychological Models
and the target culture. 1. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis:
o Psychological Distance: A Learning a language is like filling a
learner’s motivation, attitude, bucket with water. If the input (water)
and emotional comfort with the is too much or too fast, the bucket
 new language. overflows, and the learner retains
 Significance: little. Comprehensible input fills the
Schumann’s model highlighted the bucket gradually.
role of social integration and 2. Schumann’s Acculturation Model:
environmental factors in SLA. Language learning is like planting a
4. Psychological Variables in SLA tree. The closer the soil (social
 Motivation: environment) matches the tree’s
o Integrative Motivation: needs, the healthier it grows.
Desire to connect with the Alienated soil leads to weak growth.
target language culture. 3. Affective Filter:
o Instrumental Motivation: Anxiety acts as a foggy windshield on
Desire to achieve practical a car. The more anxiety, the harder it
goals (e.g., job opportunities). is to see and absorb language input.
o Example: A learner motivated Summary of Section 6
to make friends in a new  Krashen emphasized the importance
country (integrative) may of input and internal processes,
acquire the language more introducing concepts like the natural
naturally than one studying order hypothesis and affective filter.
solely for exams (instrumental).  Schumann highlighted the social and
 Personality: cultural factors shaping SLA, focusing
o Extroverted learners may on acculturation and social
acquire language faster due to integration.
more interaction, while  Both models offer valuable insights
introverts may excel in learning into teaching, stressing the
rules and grammar. importance of supportive
 Anxiety: environments and meaningful
o High anxiety (affective filter) communication.
can block language acquisition, Deep Dive into Section 7: Modern
while low anxiety fosters better SLA Research and Issues
processing of input. 1. The Emergence of Modern SLA
5. Key Differences Between Krashen Research
and Schumann By the mid-1980s, SLA became an
Aspect Krashen Schumann independent and multidisciplinary field of
(Monitor (Acculturati study. Research was no longer tied solely to
Model) on Model) practical teaching needs but aimed to
Focus Internal Social and explore fundamental questions about
mental cultural language learning. Key areas included:
processes integration  The role of internal mechanisms:
Primary Comprehensi Social and How learners’ cognitive systems
Factor ble input psychological process and acquire language.
distance  The impact of external factors:
Role of Indirect Direct Social, cultural, and environmental
Environm (provides (shapes influences on SLA.
ent input) language  The interaction between input and
acquisition) learning: How exposure to language
shapes acquisition.
6. Practical Implications for Teaching 2. Major Issues in Modern SLA
 Krashen: Research
o Provide input at the right level 1. The Role of Internal Mechanisms:
(i+1).  SLA researchers explored how
o Reduce anxiety in the learners’ cognitive abilities and
classroom to lower the affective innate language faculties (like
filter. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar)
o Encourage natural influence L2 acquisition.
communication over rote  Key Questions:
memorization. o How are L1 and L2
 Schumann: similarities/differences
o Promote cultural immersion activated in the brain?
and interaction with native Example:
 speakers. Instruction is like GPS navigation—it speeds
o Encourage learners to engage up the journey but doesn’t replace the road
socially with the target itself.
language community. 7. The Relation Between Input and
Internal Mechanisms:
o Why do learners follow  How do learners process and store
systematic developmental the language they hear?
stages, regardless of L1?  Intake: The part of input that
Example: learners process and internalize.
Internal mechanisms are like software  Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt,
updates on a phone—pre-programmed but 1990): Learners must consciously
adaptable to new apps (languages). notice language features to acquire
2. The Role of L1 in SLA: them.
 Transfer: Learners often transfer Analogy:
knowledge from L1 to L2, sometimes Input is like sunlight; intake is the energy
positively (facilitating learning) and plants absorb and use for growth.
sometimes negatively (causing 8. Patterns That Facilitate Learning:
errors).  Repetition, meaningful practice, and
o Example: A Spanish speaker contextual learning help solidify
might say “I have 30 years” language structures.
instead of “I am 30 years old”  Example: Using target vocabulary in
due to direct translation. varied contexts (e.g., conversations,
 Key Findings: writing, reading) reinforces memory
o While L1 influences early and usage.
stages of SLA, learners Analogy:
gradually develop independent Patterns in learning are like rehearsing
interlanguage systems. dance steps—they become smoother and
Analogy: more automatic with practice.
Think of L1 as training wheels on a bike— 3. Implications for SLA Research and
helpful at first but eventually removed for Teaching
independent cycling.  Research:
3. The Role of Psychological Variables: o Modern SLA research
 Factors like motivation, personality, integrates cognitive science,
and anxiety significantly impact psychology, and sociolinguistics
language learning. to provide a comprehensive
o Motivation (integrative or understanding of language
instrumental) determines learning.
effort. o Tools like brain imaging have
o Anxiety can act as a barrier, been used to study how L2 is
reducing comprehension and processed differently from L1.
performance.  Teaching:
 Key Insight: Learners with low o Focus on providing
anxiety and high motivation tend to comprehensible input and
acquire language faster. fostering engagement.
Example: o Use error analysis to identify
Anxiety is like static on a radio—too much learners’ developmental stages.
disrupts clear communication. o Encourage immersive and
4. The Role of Social and Environmental interactive learning
Factors: environment
 Social integration and acculturation, 4. Key Analogies for Modern SLA
as highlighted by Schumann, affect Research
SLA outcomes. 1. Input and Learning:
 Rich input environments: Learners Input is like food for the brain. Proper
immersed in the target culture nutrition (quality input) helps the
acquire language more naturally. brain grow and function effectively.
 Interaction: Frequent 2. Instruction and Immersion:
communication with native speakers Instruction is like scaffolding in
accelerates learning. construction—it provides temporary
Analogy: support until the building (language
Immersion in a language-rich environment skills) can stand independently.
is like planting a seed in fertile soil—it 3. Social Integration:
grows faster and stronger. Social factors are like the climate in
5. The Role of Input: which a plant grows—supportive
 Comprehensible Input (i+1): environments yield healthier
Following Krashen’s hypothesis, outcomes.
exposure to slightly advanced Summary of Section 7
language aids acquisition.  Modern SLA research focuses on the
 Quality over Quantity: Input should interaction of internal mechanisms
be meaningful, context-rich, and (cognitive processes), external factors
appropriate for the learner’s level. (social and environmental influences),
Example: and input.
Comprehensible input is like learning to
swim in calm, shallow water before
attempting deep waves.
6. The Role of Instruction:
 Instruction complements natural
learning by:
o Accelerating development.
o Clarifying difficult concepts
(e.g., irregular grammar rules).
 Debate: How much instruction is
necessary compared to natural
exposure?

 Psychological factors like motivation

and anxiety play significant roles in
shaping outcomes.
 Instruction, input, and immersion
work together to facilitate effective
language acquisition.
 The field has moved toward
interdisciplinary approaches,
blending linguistics, psychology, and
sociocultural studies.

Do we learn L2 as we learn L1 ?
L1 acquisition and L2 learning differ in
several key ways:
1. Critical Period: L1 acquisition
occurs during a critical period in
early childhood, while L2 learning
becomes less efficient with age,
especially for pronunciation and
syntax.
2. Learning Process: L1 is acquired
implicitly through natural exposure
and interaction, while L2 learning is
often explicit, involving formal
instruction and conscious rule
learning.
3. Input and Interaction: L1 learners
acquire language from rich, social
interaction, while L2 learners may
rely more on structured input, such
as textbooks or classroom settings.
4. Transfer: L2 learners often
experience language transfer from
their L1, which can lead to errors,
 while L1 acquisition is not influenced
by another language.
5. Interlanguage: L2 learners pass
through an interlanguage stage,
blending elements of both languages,
while L1 acquisition proceeds more
uniformly.
6. Sociolinguistic Competence: L1
learners naturally develop
sociolinguistic competence, while L2
learners may need extra instruction in
social and pragmatic use of language.
In short, L1 is acquired naturally and
implicitly during early childhood, while L2
learning is often more conscious,
structured, and influenced by the learner's
first language.