Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept.

, Diyala University

OSI (Open Systems Interconnected)

Reference Model

OSI reference model was developed by the international standards organization (ISO)
at 1983. This model is called OSI because it deals with connectivity open systems (systems
that are open for communication with other systems). The OSI model has seven layers.

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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

An exchange using the OSI model:

Headers are added to the data at layers 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2. Trailers are usually added only at
layer 2.

Layers in OSI Model:

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The first layer of the OSI model is the Physical layer, which specifies the electrical and
mechanical requirements for transmitting data bits across the transmission medium (cable or
airwaves). It involves sending and receiving the data stream on the carrier, whether that
carrier uses electrical (cable),light (fiber optic), radio, infrared, or laser (wireless) signals.

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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

The Physical layer specifications include: Voltage changes, The timing of voltage changes,
Data rates, Maximum transmission distances, The physical connectors to the transmission
medium (plug), and The topology or physical layout of the network.

Many complex issues are addressed at the Physical layer, including digital vs. analog
signaling, baseband vs. broadband signaling, whether data is transmitted synchronously or
asynchronously, and how signals are divided into channels (multiplexing). Devices that
operate at the Physical layer deal with signaling (e.g., transceivers on the NIC), repeaters,
basic hubs, and simple connectors that join segments of cable). The data handled by the
Physical layer is in bits of 1s (ones) and 0s (zeros),which are represented by pulses of light
or voltage changes of electricity, and by the state of those pulses (on generally representing 1
and off generally representing 0). How these bits are arranged and managed is a function of
the Data Link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

Layer 2 is the Data Link layer, which is responsible for maintaining the data link between
two computers, typically called hosts or nodes. It also defines and manages the ordering of
bits to and from packets. Frames contain data arranged in an organized manner, which
provides an orderly and consistent method of sending data bits across the medium. Without
such control, the data would be sent in random sizes or configurations and the data on one
end could not be decoded at the other end. The Data Link layer manages the physical
addressing and synchronization of the data packets. It is also responsible for flow control and
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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

error notification on the Physical layer. Flow control is the process of managing the timing
of sending and receiving data so that it doesn’t exceed the capacity (speed, memory, and so
on) of the physical connection. Since the Physical layer is only responsible for physically
moving the data onto and off of the network medium, the Data Link layer also receives and
manages error messaging related to the physical delivery of packets.

Network devices that operate at this layer include layer 2 switches (switching hubs) and
bridges. A layer 2 switch decreases network congestion by sending data out only on the port
that the destination computer is attached to, instead of sending it out on all ports. Bridges
provide a way to segment a network into two parts and filter traffic, by building tables that
define which computers are located on which side of the bridge, based on their MAC
addresses.

The Data Link layer is divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
and the MAC sublayer.

The MAC Sublayer:

The MAC sublayer provides control for accessing the transmission medium. It is responsible
for moving data packets from one NIC to another, across a shared transmission medium such
as an Ethernet or fiber-optic cable.

Physical addressing is addressed at the MAC sublayer. Every NIC has a unique MAC
address (also called the physical address) which identifies that specific NIC on the network.
The MAC address of a NIC is usually burned into a read-only memory (ROM) chip on the
NIC. Each manufacturer of network cards is provided a unique set of MAC addresses so that
theoretically, every NIC that is manufactured has a unique MAC address. To avoid any
confusion, MAC addresses are permanently burned into the NIC’s memory, which is
sometimes referred to as the Burned-in Address (BIA).

Data Communication and Computer Networks, 4th Stage ( :8 ) Yahiea Al-Naiemy

Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

NOTE:

On Ethernet NICs, the physical or MAC address (also called the hardware address) is
expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits arranged in pairs with colons between each pair (e.g.,
12:3A:4D:66:3A:1C). The initial three sets of numbers represent the manufacturer, and the
last three bits represent a unique NIC made by that manufacturer.

MAC refers to the method used to allocate network access to computers while preventing
them from transmitting at the same time and causing data collisions.

The LLC Sublayer:

The LLC sublayer provides the logic for the data link;thus it controls the synchro-nization,
flow control, and error-checking functions of the Data Link layer. This layer manages
connection-oriented transmissions; however, connectionless service can also be provided by
this layer. Connectionless operations are known as Class I LLC, whereas Class II can handle
either connectionless or connection-oriented operations. With connection-oriented
communication, each LLC frame sent is acknowledged. The LLC sublayer at the receiving
end keeps up with the LLC frames it receives (also called Protocol Data Units [PDUs]);
therefore, if it detects that a frame has been lost during transmission, it can send a request to
the sending computer to start the transmission over again, beginning with the PDU that never
arrived.

The LLC sublayer sits above the MAC sublayer, and acts as a liaison between the upper
layers and the protocols that operate at the MAC sublayer (e.g., Ethernet, Token Ring, and so
on).The LLC sublayer is defined by Institute of Electrical &Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
802.2. Link addressing, sequencing, and definition of Service Access Points (SAPs) also take
place at this layer.

Data Communication and Computer Networks, 4th Stage ( :8 ) Yahiea Al-Naiemy

Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

Node-to-node delivery:

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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

Layer 3: Network Layer

The next layer is the Network layer (layer 3),which is where packets are sequenced and
logical addressing is assigned. Logical addresses are nonpermanent, software assigned
addresses that can only be changed by administrators. The IP addresses used by the TCP/IP
protocols on the Internet, and the Internet Package Exchange (IPX) addresses used by the
IPX/Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) protocols on NetWare networks are examples of
logical addresses. These protocol stacks are referred to as routable because they include
addressing schemes that identify the network or subnet and the particular client on that
network or subnet.

NOTE:

To understand the difference between physical and logical addresses, consider this
analogy: A house has a physical address that identifies exactly where it is located. This is
similar to the MAC address on a NIC.

A house also has a logical address assigned to it by the post office that consists of a
street name and number. The post office occasionally changes the names of streets or
renumbers the houses located on them This is similar to the IP address assigned to a network
interface.

The Network layer is also responsible for creating a virtual circuit (i.e., a logical
connection, not a physical connection) between points or nodes. A node is a device that has a
MAC address, which typically includes computers, printers, and routers. This layer is also
responsible for routing, layer 3 switching, and forwarding packets.

Routing refers to forwarding packets from one network or subnet to another. Without
routing, computers can only communicate with computers on the same network. Routing is
the key to the global Internet, and is one of the most important duties of the Network layer.

Finally, the Network layer provides additional levels of flow control and error control.
As mentioned earlier, from this point on, the primary methods of implementing the OSI
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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

model architecture involve software rather than hardware. Devices that operate at this layer
include routers and layer 3 switches

End-to-end delivery:

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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer is the heart of the whole protocol hierarchy. Its task is to provide
reliable, cost-effective data transport from the source machine to destination machine,
independent of the physical network.

The primary function of transport layer is enhancing the Quality of Service (QoS)
provided by the network layer. The QoS parameters are:

1- Connection establishment delay.

2- Connection establishment failure probability.
3- Throughput (number of bits/sec).
4- Residual error ratio (number of lost messages per total sent).
5- Protection.
6- Priority.
7- Resilience (Probability of transport layer terminating a connection due to internal
problems).
The QoS are specified by transport layer when a connection is requested.

Other tasks of transport layer are:

1- Accept data from the session layer, split it up to the smaller units if needed, pass
these to the network layer and ensure that all pieces arrive correctly at the other end.
2- Determines what type of service to provide the session layer (connection oriented or
connectionless).
3- Multiplexing several message streams onto one channel.
4- Take care of establishing and deleting connections across the network.
5- The option negotiation such as about the speed or the throughput.

Data Communication and Computer Networks, 4th Stage ( :9 ) Yahiea Al-Naiemy

Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

Note:

Transport protocol data (TPDU) sent from transport entity in source machine to
transport entity in destination machine. The TPDUs exchanged by the transport layer are
contained in packets (exchanged by the network layer). The packets are contained in frames
(exchanged by the data link layer) as shown in figure below:

Frame
Packet
TPDU
Header
Header Header
TPDU payload

Packet payload

Frame payload

NOTE:

What’s the difference between a connection-oriented protocol and a connectionless protocol?

A connection-oriented protocol (e.g., TCP) creates a connection between two computers
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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

before sending the data, and then verifies that the data has reached its destination by using
acknowledgements (ACKs) (i.e., messages sent back to the sending computer from the
receiving computer that acknowledge receipt). Connectionless protocols send the data and
trust that it will reach the proper destination or that the application will handle retransmission
and data verification.

Consider this analogy: You need to send an important letter to a business associate that
contains valuable papers. You call him before e-mailing the letter, to let him know that he or
she should expect it (establishing the connection). A few days later your friend calls to let
you know that he received the letter, or you receive the return receipt (ACK).

This is how connection-oriented communication works. When mailing a postcard to a friend,

you drop it in the mailbox and hope it gets to the addressee. You don’t expect or require any
acknowledgement. This is how connectionless communication works.

Layer 5: Session Layer

After the Transport layer establishes a virtual connection, a communication session is

made between two processes on two different computers. The Session layer (layer 5) is
responsible for establishing, monitoring, and terminating sessions, using the virtual circuits
established by the Transport layer. The Session layer is also responsible for putting header
information into data packets that indicates where a message begins and ends. Once header
information is attached to the data packets, the Session layer performs synchronization
between the sender’s Session layer and the receiver’s Session layer. The use of ACKs helps
coordinate the transfer of data at the Session-layer level.

Another important function of the Session layer is controlling whether the

communications within a session are sent as full-duplex or half-duplex messages. Half-
duplex communication goes in both directions between the communicating computers, but
information can only travel in one direction at a time (e.g., radio communications where you
hold down the microphone button to transmit, but cannot hear the person on the other
end).With full-duplex communication, information can be sent in both directions at the same

Data Communication and Computer Networks, 4th Stage ( :; ) Yahiea Al-Naiemy

Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

time (e.g., a telephone conversation, where both parties can talk and hear one another at the
same time).

Whereas the Transport layer establishes a connection between two machines, the
Session layer establishes a connection between two processes. An application can run many
processes simultaneously to accomplish the work of the application.

After the Transport layer establishes the connection between the two machines, the
Session layer sets up the connection between the application process on one computer and
the application process on another computer.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

Data translation is the primary activity of the Presentation layer (layer 6).When data is
sent from a sender to a receiver, it is translated at the Presentation layer (i.e., the sender’s
application passes data down to the Presentation layer, where it is changed into a common
format).When the data is received on the other end, the Presentation layer changes it from
the common format back into a format that is useable by the application. Protocol translation
(i.e., the conversion of data from one protocol to another so that it can be exchanged between
computers using different platforms) takes place here.
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Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

The Presentation layer is also where gateway services operate. Gateways are connection
points between networks that use different platforms or applications (e.g., e-mail gateways,
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) gateways, and gateways that cross platforms or file
systems). Gateways are usually implemented via software such as the Gateway Services for
NetWare (GSNW). Software redirectors also operate at this layer.

This layer is also where data compression takes place, which minimizes the number of
bits that must be transmitted on the network media to the receiver. Data encryption and
decryption also take place in the Presentation layer.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application layer is the point at which the user application program interacts with the
network. Don’t confuse the networking model with the application itself. Application
processes (e.g., file transfers or e-mail) are initiated within a user application (e.g., an e-mail
program).Then the data created by that process is handed to the Application layer of the
networking software. Everything that occurs at this level is application-specific (e.g., file
sharing, remote printer access, network monitoring and management, remote procedure calls,
and all forms of electronic messaging).

Data Communication and Computer Networks, 4th Stage ( ;8 ) Yahiea Al-Naiemy

Lec# 8 Computer Science Dept., Diyala University

You have to distinguish between the protocols mentioned and the applications that might
bear the same names, because there are many different FTP programs made by different
software vendors that use the FTP to transfer files.

The OSI model is generic and can be used to explain all network protocols. Various protocol
suites are often mapped against the OSI model for this purpose. A solid understanding of the
OSI model aids in network analysis, comparison, and troubleshooting. However, it is
important to remember that not all protocols map well to the OSI model (e.g.,TCP/IP was
designed to map to the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) model).

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