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Understanding
Psychology
ROBERT S. FELDMAN

12e
About the Author

ROBERT S. FELDMAN is Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Deputy

Chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. A recipient of the College Distin-
guished Teacher Award, he teaches psychology classes ranging in size from 15 to nearly
500 students. During the course of more than two decades as a college instructor, he has
taught undergraduate and graduate courses at Mount Holyoke College, Wesleyan University,
and Virginia Commonwealth University in addition to the University of Massachusetts.
Professor Feldman, who initiated the Minority Mentoring Program at the University
of Massachusetts, also has served as a Hewlett Teaching Fellow and Senior Online
Teaching Fellow. He initiated distance-learning courses in psychology at the University
of Massachusetts.
A Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Association for
Psychological Science, Professor Feldman received a BA with High Honors from
Wesleyan University and an MS and PhD from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
He is a winner of a Fulbright Senior Research Scholar and Lecturer Award and the
Distinguished Alumnus Award from Wesleyan. He is President of the Federation of
Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (FABBS) Foundation, which advocates for
the field of psychology.
He has written and edited more than 200 books, book chapters, and scientific
articles. He has edited Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Children, Applications of
Nonverbal Behavioral Theory and Research, Improving the First Year of College: Research
and Practice, and co-edited Fundamentals of Nonverbal Behavior. He is also author of
P.O.W.E.R. Learning: Strategies for Success in College and Life. His textbooks, which have
been used by more than 2 million students around the world, have been translated
into Spanish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, German, Italian, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese.
His research interests include deception and honesty in everyday life, work that he
described in The Liar in Your Life, a trade book published in 2009. His research has
been supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and the National
Institute on Disabilities and Rehabilitation Research.
Professor Feldman loves music, is an enthusiastic pianist, and enjoys cooking and
traveling. He serves on the Board of New England Public Radio. He has three children
and two grandsons. He and his wife, a psychologist, live in western Massachusetts in
a home overlooking the Holyoke mountain range.

v
Brief Contents

Preface xxv

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychology 2

MODULE 1 Psychologists at Work 5
MODULE 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and
the Future 14
MODULE 3 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 22

CHAPTER 2 Psychological Research 30

MODULE 4 The Scientific Method 33
MODULE 5 Conducting Psychological Research 37
MODULE 6 Critical Research Issues 48

CHAPTER 3 Neuroscience and Behavior 56

MODULE 7 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 59
MODULE 8 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:
Communicating Within the Body 68
MODULE 9 The Brain 76

CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception 94

MODULE 10 Sensing the World Around Us 97
MODULE 11 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 102
MODULE 12 Hearing and the Other Senses 111
MODULE 13 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our
View of the World 124

CHAPTER 5 States of Consciousness 138

MODULE 14 Sleep and Dreams 141
MODULE 15 Hypnosis and Meditation 154
MODULE 16 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of
Consciousness 161

vii
viii Brief Contents

CHAPTER 6 Learning 176

MODULE 17 Classical Conditioning 179
MODULE 18 Operant Conditioning 187
MODULE 19 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 200

CHAPTER 7 Memory 210

MODULE 20 The Foundations of Memory 213
MODULE 21 Recalling Long-Term Memories 225
MODULE 22 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 235

CHAPTER 8 Cognition and Language 244

MODULE 23 Thinking and Reasoning 247
MODULE 24 Problem Solving 254
MODULE 25 Language 267

CHAPTER 9 Intelligence 278

MODULE 26 What Is Intelligence? 281
MODULE 27 Variations in Intellectual Ability 296
MODULE 28 Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and
Environmental Determinants 300

CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion 308

MODULE 29 Explaining Motivation 311
MODULE 30 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink,
and Be Daring 319
MODULE 31 Understanding Emotional Experiences 330

CHAPTER 11 Sexuality and Gender 342

MODULE 32 Gender and Sex 345
MODULE 33 Understanding Human Sexual Response:
The Facts of Life 357
MODULE 34 The Diversity of Sexual Behavior 363
 Brief Contents ix

CHAPTER 12 Development 380

MODULE 35 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring
Developmental Issue 383
MODULE 36 Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth 387
MODULE 37 Infancy and Childhood 394
MODULE 38 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 412
MODULE 39 Adulthood 422

CHAPTER 13 Personality 436

MODULE 40 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 439
MODULE 41 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and
Humanistic Approaches to Personality 449
MODULE 42 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes
Us Distinctive 462

CHAPTER 14 Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and

Well-Being 472
MODULE 43 Stress and Coping 475
MODULE 44 Psychological Aspects of Illness and
Well-Being 487
MODULE 45 Promoting Health and Wellness 493

CHAPTER 15 Psychological Disorders 502

MODULE 46 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the
Distinction 505
MODULE 47 The Major Psychological Disorders 515
MODULE 48 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 534

CHAPTER 16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 542

MODULE 49 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and
Cognitive Approaches to Treatment 545
MODULE 50 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal, and
Group Approaches to Treatment 556
MODULE 51 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches
to Treatment 565
x Brief Contents

CHAPTER 17 Social Psychology 576

MODULE 52 Attitudes and Social Cognition 579
MODULE 53 Social Influence and Groups 588
MODULE 54 Prejudice and Discrimination 596
MODULE 55 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 602

APPENDIX Going by the Numbers:

Statistics in Psychology A-2
MODULE 56 Descriptive Statistics A-5
MODULE 57 Measures of Variability A-10
MODULE 58 Using Statistics to Answer Questions: Inferential
Statistics and Correlation A-14

McGraw-Hill Psychology’s APA

Documentation Style Guide
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-22
Contents

Preface xxv
Making the Grade xxxii
CHA PTER 1

Introduction to Psychology 2
MODULE 1 Psychologists at Work 5
The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree 6
Working at Psychology 9

MODULE 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future 14
The Roots of Psychology 14
Today’s Perspectives 16
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Psychology Matters 20

MODULE 3 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 22

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Understanding How Culture, Ethnicity, and Race Influence
Behavior 24
Psychology’s Future 25
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Reading the Movies in Your Mind 26
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About
Psychology: Distinguishing Legitimate Psychology from Pseudo-Psychology 26

CHA PTER 2

Psychological Research 30

MODULE 4 The Scientific Method 33

Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations 34
Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions 34

xi
xii Contents

MODULE 5 Conducting Psychological Research 37

Archival Research 37
Naturalistic Observation 37
Survey Research 38
The Case Study 39
Correlational Research 39
Experimental Research 41
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: What Makes a Hero? 46

MODULE 6 Critical Research Issues 48

The Ethics of Research 48
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Choosing Participants Who Represent the Scope of Human
Behavior 49
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Importance of Using Representative Participants 50
Should Animals Be Used in Research? 50
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias 51
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About
Research 52

CHAPTER 3

Neuroscience and Behavior 56

MODULE 7 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 59

The Structure of the Neuron 59
How Neurons Fire 60
Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 63
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers 64

MODULE 8 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:

Communicating Within the Body 68
The Nervous System: Linking Neurons 68
The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System 71
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands 72

MODULE 9 The Brain 76

Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain 76
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 78
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Mind Over Cursor: Harnessing
Brainpower to Improve Lives 79
The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core 80
 Contents xiii

The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” 81

Neuroplasticity and the Brain 84
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Plastic Brain 85
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? 86
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Human Diversity and the Brain 87
The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres 88
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Learning to Control Your
Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback 89

CHA PTER 4

Sensation and Perception 94

MODULE 10 Sensing the World Around Us 97

Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out There 98
Difference Thresholds: Noticing Distinctions Between Stimuli 99
Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses 100

MODULE 11 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 102

Illuminating the Structure of the Eye 103
Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7-Million-Color Spectrum 107

MODULE 12 Hearing and the Other Senses 111

Sensing Sound 111
Smell and Taste 115
The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 117
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Managing Pain 120
How Our Senses Interact 121
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Synesthesia and the Over-Connected Brain 122

MODULE 13 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our View of the World 124

The Gestalt Laws of Organization 124
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 126
Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D 126
Perceptual Constancy 128
Motion Perception: As the World Turns 129
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Study-Break Soundtrack 130
Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions 130
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Culture and Perception 132
xiv Contents

CHAPTER 5

States of Consciousness 138

MODULE 14 Sleep and Dreams 141

The Stages of Sleep 142
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep 143
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary? 144
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Why Are You so Irritable When You Don’t Get
Enough Sleep? 145
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming 146
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems 149
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles 150
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep 151
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Sleeping Better 152

MODULE 15 Hypnosis and Meditation 154

Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience? 154
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness 156
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Will the Person on the Cell Phone
Please Pipe Down! 158
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered States of Consciousness 159

MODULE 16 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness 161

Stimulants: Drug Highs 163
Depressants: Drug Lows 166
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety 169
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs 170
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Identifying Drug and Alcohol
Problems 171

CHAPTER 6

Learning 176

MODULE 17 Classical Conditioning 179

The Basics of Classical Conditioning 180
Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior 182
Extinction 183
Generalization and Discrimination 184
Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions 185
 Contents xv

MODULE 18 Operant Conditioning 187

Thorndike’s Law of Effect 187
The Basics of Operant Conditioning 188
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Using Behavior Analysis and
Behavior Modification 197

MODULE 19 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 200

Latent Learning 200
Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation 202
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Learning Through Imitation 203
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: What Do We Learn About Gender
from the Media? 205
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Does Culture Influence How We Learn? 205

CHA PTER 7

Memory 210

MODULE 20 The Foundations of Memory 213

Sensory Memory 214
Short-Term Memory 215
Working Memory 217
Long-Term Memory 219
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Building Blocks of Memory: Do You Have a
Jennifer Aniston Neuron? 223

MODULE 21 Recalling Long-Term Memories 225

Retrieval Cues 225
Levels of Processing 226
Explicit and Implicit Memory 227
Flashbulb Memories 228
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past 229
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Mind Pops 230
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory? 233

MODULE 22 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 235

Why We Forget 236
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting 237
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting 238
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Improving Your Memory 240
xvi Contents

CHAPTER 8

Cognition and Language 244

MODULE 23 Thinking and Reasoning 247

Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye 247
Concepts: Categorizing the World 248
How Culture Influences How We Categorize
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:
the World 250
Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind 251
Computers and Problem Solving: Searching for Artificial Intelligence 252

MODULE 24 Problem Solving 254

Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems 254
Production: Generating Solutions 257
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Sleep on It 260
Judgment: Evaluating Solutions 261
Impediments to Solutions: Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem? 261
Creativity and Problem Solving 263
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically and
Creatively 264

MODULE 25 Language 267

Grammar: Language’s Language 267
Language Development: Developing a Way with Words 268
The Influence of Language on Thinking: Do Eskimos Have More Words for Snow
Than Texans Do? 271
Do Animals Use Language? 272
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Teaching with Linguistic Variety: Bilingual Education 273

CHAPTER 9

Intelligence 278

MODULE 26 What Is Intelligence? 281

Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? 282
The Biological Basis of Intelligence 283
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: What Makes a Child Intelligent? 285
Practical and Emotional Intelligence: Toward a More Intelligent View
of Intelligence 285
Assessing Intelligence 287
 Contents xvii

Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence 289

BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Scoring Better on Standardized
Tests 294

MODULE 27 Variations in Intellectual Ability 296

Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation) 296
The Intellectually Gifted 298

MODULE 28 Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental

Determinants 300
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature,
Nurture, and IQ 301
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Are We Getting Smarter? The Flynn
Effect 303

CHA PTER 10

Motivation and Emotion 308

MODULE 29 Explaining Motivation 311
Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated 311
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs 312
Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction 313
Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull 313
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation 315
Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs 315
Applying the Different Approaches to Motivation 317

MODULE 30 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring 319
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating 319
Eating Disorders 323
Applying Psychology in the 21st Century: Finding the Motivation to Get Unstuck 324
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: When Regulation of Eating Behavior Goes Wrong 325
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Dieting and Losing Weight
Successfully 326
The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success 327
The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship 328
The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others 328

MODULE 31 Understanding Emotional Experiences 330

The Functions of Emotions 331
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings 331
xviii Contents

The Roots of Emotions 332

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly? 337

CHAPTER 1 1

Sexuality and Gender 342

MODULE 32 Gender and Sex 345

Gender Roles: Society’s Expectations for Women and Men 345
Sexism on the Job 347
Gender Differences: More Similar Than Dissimilar 350
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Do Men and Women Process Information
Differently? 352
Sources of Gender Differences: Where Biology and Society Meet 353

MODULE 33 Understanding Human Sexual Response: The Facts of Life 357

The Basic Biology of Sexual Behavior 357
Physiological Aspects of Sexual Excitement: What Turns People On? 359
The Phases of Sexual Response: The Ups and Downs of Sex 359
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Female Circumcision: A Celebration of Culture—or Genital
Mutilation? 361

MODULE 34 The Diversity of Sexual Behavior 363

Approaches to Sexual Normality 364
Surveying Sexual Behavior: What’s Happening Behind Closed Doors? 365
Heterosexuality 366
Homosexuality and Bisexuality 368
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Changing Views Toward LGBT
People 370
Transsexualism 371
Sexual Difficulties and Issues 371
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Lowering the Risks
of Date Rape 376

CHAPTER 1 2

Development 380

MODULE 35 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue 383

Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture 385
Developmental Research Techniques 385
 Contents xix

MODULE 36 Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth 387

The Basics of Genetics 387
The Earliest Development 389

MODULE 37 Infancy and Childhood 394

The Extraordinary Newborn 394
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:Do Infants Recognize Emotion? 397
Infancy Through Childhood 398
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Distracted Parenting 401

MODULE 38 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 412

Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent 412
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong 414
Social Development: Finding One’s Self in a Social World 416
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around the World 420

MODULE 39 Adulthood 422

Physical Development: The Peak of Health 423
Social Development: Working at Life 424
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties 425
Changing Roles of Men and Women 426
Later Years of Life: Growing Old 426
Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body 427
Cognitive Changes: Thinking About—and During—Late Adulthood 428
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Adjusting to Death 431

CHAPTER 13

Personality 436
MODULE 40 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 439
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind 439
The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud 445

MODULE 41 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and Humanistic

Approaches to Personality 449
Trait Approaches: Placing Labels on Personality 449
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Fixing What’s Inside by Fixing
What’s Outside? 452
Learning Approaches: We Are What We’ve Learned 452
Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality? 455
xx Contents

NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Wired to Be an Extrovert? The Biological

Underpinnings of Personality 458
Humanistic Approaches: The Uniqueness of You 459
Comparing Approaches to Personality 460

MODULE 42 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us Distinctive 462

EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Should Race and Ethnicity Be Used to Establish Norms? 463
Self-Report Measures of Personality 464
Projective Methods 466
Behavioral Assessment 467
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Assessing Personality
Assessments 468

CHAPTER 14

Health Psychology: Stress, Coping,

and Well-Being 472
MODULE 43 Stress and Coping 475
Stress: Reacting to Threat and Challenge 475
The High Cost of Stress 477
Coping with Stress 481
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Altering Memories of Fear for Those with PTSD 484
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Effective Coping Strategies 485

MODULE 44 Psychological Aspects of Illness and Well-Being 487

The As, Bs, and Ds of Coronary Heart Disease 487
Psychological Aspects of Cancer 488
Smoking 489
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Hucksters of Death: Promoting Smoking Throughout
the World 491

MODULE 45 Promoting Health and Wellness 493

Following Medical Advice 493
Well-Being and Happiness 496
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Does Money Buy Happiness? 498

CHAPTER 15

Psychological Disorders 502

MODULE 46 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the Distinction 505
Defining Abnormality 505
 Contents xxi

Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science 507

Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The ABCs of DSM 510

MODULE 47 The Major Psychological Disorders 515

Anxiety Disorders 515
Obsessive-Complusive Disorder 517
Somatic Symptom Disorders 519
Dissociative Disorders 520
Mood Disorders 521
Schizophrenia 525
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Brain Changes with Schizophrenia 528
Personality Disorders 529
Disorders That Impact Childhood 531
Other Disorders 531
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Internet Addiction 532

MODULE 48 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 534

The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders 535
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DSM and Culture—and the Culture of DSM 537
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Deciding When You
Need Help 538

CHAPTER 16

Treatment of Psychological Disorders 542

MODULE 49 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive

Approaches to Treatment 545
Psychodynamic Approaches to Therapy 546
Behavioral Approaches to Therapy 548
Cognitive Approaches to Therapy 552
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: How Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Changes
Your Brain 554

MODULE 50 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal, and Group

Approaches to Treatment 556
Humanistic Therapy 556
Interpersonal Therapy 557
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: High-Tech Therapy 558
Group Therapies 559
xxii Contents

Evaluating Psychotherapy: Does Therapy Work? 560

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Racial and Ethnic Factors in Treatment: Should Therapists
Be Color Blind? 562

MODULE 51 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches to Treatment 565

Drug Therapy 565
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 568
Psychosurgery 569
Biomedical Therapies in Perspective 570
Community Psychology: Focus on Prevention 570
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Choosing the Right Therapist 572

CHAPTER 17

Social Psychology 576

MODULE 52 Attitudes and Social Cognition 579
Persuasion: Changing Attitudes 579
Social Cognition: Understanding Others 582
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Attribution Biases in a Cultural Context: How Fundamental
Is the Fundamental Attribution Error? 586

MODULE 53 Social Influence and Groups 588

Conformity: Following What Others Do 588
Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure 591
Obedience: Following Direct Orders 593

MODULE 54 Prejudice and Discrimination 596

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Decreasing the Damage of
Negative Stereotypes 597
The Foundations of Prejudice 598
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Prejudiced Brain 599
Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Association Test 600
Reducing the Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination 600

MODULE 55 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 602

Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of
Relationships 602
Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others 605
Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature 608
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Dealing Effectively
with Anger 610
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Hollow
Earth
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Hollow Earth

Author: F. T. Ives

Release date: May 19, 2022 [eBook #68122]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Broadway Publishing Company,

1904

Credits: Tim Lindell, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was
produced from images made available by the HathiTrust
Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

HOLLOW EARTH ***
F. T. Ives.
 THE
HOLLOW EARTH
BY F. T. IVES
Author of “Yankee Jumbles.”

BROADWAY PUBLISHING
COMPANY AT 835
BROADWAY NEW YORK
Copyrighted, in 1904.
BY
F. T. IVES,

All Rights Reserved.

 CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Cranks 1
II. Fire and Water 5
III. Icebergs 19
IV. Gulf Stream 28
V. Daily Motion 36
VI. Earthquakes 38
VII. Volcanoes 40
VIII. Rainfalls 44
IX. Springs 55
X. Glaciers 61
XI. Caves 67
XII. Artesian Wells 68
XIII. Oases 71
XIV. Things That Puzzle Us 73
XV. Meteors 80
XVI. Attraction of Gravitation 81
XVII. Scientific Theories 86
XVIII. Surface Influences of Water, and Change of Polarity 88
XIX. Conclusion 95
Appendix 103
 THE HOLLOW EARTH.

I.
CRANKS.
Cranks are appliances to turn things round.
A Crank that revolves only half way will not always accomplish much
of a change, and in many cases would only aggravate the situation.
Were it not for Cranks nearly all mechanical appliances would be
motionless.
Men’s thoughts and opinions would all be the same, without some
such device to get them out of the old notions, grooves and ruts in
which they long have indulged and plodded. The world has known
Cranks ever since our first parents adopted the wearing of fig leaves,
and Noah took up ship building on the weather bureau suggesting
cloudy weather and showers in Eastern Turkey. Moses was a Crank
when he forbid the eating of pork, salt water eels, turkey buzzards,
owls and all other unclean birds, fish or animals of any kind, but
there is no doubt that these commands were none of his mistakes.
Sacred writ gives a plenty of such characters, but, by skipping to
times more recent, we find such Cranks as Copernicus, Galileo,
Columbus, Newton, Franklin, and, during the last century, the Crank
family has greatly increased with Daguerre, Watt, Howe, Edison,
Marconi and Tesla and scores of others, who, in some of the earlier
times, would have been hung or burned as wizards and sorcerers.
Political, historical and religious Cranks have sprung up, turning over
and upsetting many old-fogey and absurd notions and beliefs of the
past.
In former times Cranks were the subject of ridicule and persecution
for trying to inject some new ideas into the public mind. History is
profuse with abuses of some of the best thoughts and discoveries
that have come to the human race.
Supposing Copernicus had never advanced and enforced a
conclusion that the Earth was round and revolved on its axis, such
motion causing the apparent rising and setting of the Sun. Only for
this we might to this day believe in the story of Joshua’s command
over the sun and moon, and associate believers with Parson Jasper
that “De sun do move.” It is pleasant to realize that we are living in a
time when new thoughts do not frighten people, and we are not
scared at what we cannot understand, even if it does not harmonize
with antiquated ideas purporting to be 4,000 to 6,000 years old.
The humble and obscure individual who presumes to offer the few
succeeding pages of crude ideas may be classed among pigmy
Cranks, but, nevertheless, feels impelled to sow a little thoughtful
seed on a subject that, to his knowledge, has never been discussed;
and with a hope that such seed may some of it fall in good ground,
and spring up a crop of criticism that may ultimate in some better
mind taking it up and demonstrate with the success that the writer
believes it merits.
To prove that the Earth was round required a long time and a serious
amount of persecution. Now, to assume that it is hollow, may require
more time than the brief discussion in this small book. Yet it is hoped
the ideas here may take root in the enlightenment of the present day
and start a growth productive of good fruit in the future. In order to
discuss this question involves a task that in the outset may look
discouraging, as follows:
The ax must be laid at the root of many favorite and long accepted
beliefs laid down by scientific authorities to explain the principal
phenomena of disturbances on and in the Mother Earth, and to
overthrow nearly all accepted theories on the following subjects:
The assumption that the Earth is intensely hot or in a molten state in
its interior;
The presumption that it is a solid ball;
The supposition that there is an actual pole;
That hills and mountains are always results of volcanoes;
That volcanoes are a prime or natural existence;
That living springs and lakes are results of surface influence;
The theories of the Gulf Stream;
Icebergs and the Ice belt, their formation;
Glaciers, how formed;
Equable condition of the Mediterranean Sea;
And the Law of Attraction of Gravitation,
Or that the Sun is a mass of heat.
 II.
FIRE AND WATER.
The two elements of fire and water are evidently the source of all
created things.
It is the purpose in this plain and homely dissertation to review and
criticise some theories set forth by scientists, and to introduce some
new ones more acceptable to the mind of the writer, and to be
submitted to observing minds to decide upon their merit.
It is a generally believed assertion that the Earth has been a molten
mass at or near its origin, except from the rather doubtful story of
creation related in first chapter of Genesis, where it appears that the
spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. When or how they
were created, the story fails to relate. But, admitting the waters to
prevail to such an extent as to incline God’s spirit for a voyage
thereon, would make the idea of a molten Earth rather improbable.
The Earth is said to be undergoing a cooling process for the past
thousands of years, but at some remote time in the past it was
covered with ice and traversed by glaciers.
There are various explanations of the phenomena of icebergs,
glaciers, volcanoes, the Gulf Stream, and why the Mediterranean
Sea does not fill up or change its conditions through the thousands
of years known to history. The philosophy of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, increase of heat in digging deep in the earth, artesian
wells, springs and lakes, all have various solutions for being as they
are, but this discussion proposes to throw into the waste-basket
nearly all of the accepted conclusions on the subject, and, in order to
go to an extreme limit of Crankism, will dispute the law of Attraction
of Gravitation. To dispute the long accepted conclusions on most of
these topics would be presumptuous without an effort to give good
and sufficient reason for such skepticism.
The first element to consider will be fire, or heat, without which, it
seems safe to assert, nothing can be produced from the Earth, or by
the devices of man. To draw a base line to work from, we will begin
at the polar center of the Earth’s motion. The Earth, unlike any other
object that perpetually revolves that we see or know of, does not
have a shaft, or axle, or anything to create friction, and, therefore,
heat. There is but one word in the English language that tells what
will produce heat; that is friction, which may claim motion for its
parentage. Now, this proposition is offered for a starting point. All
heat is produced by friction, in the absence of which there can be no
heat. This claim made, and presumably well established, how can
there be any central heat of the Earth, revolving on nothing but an
imaginary center? Will any scientist explain at what point heat begins
to generate? It would appear as difficult as to accurately fix the point
where moral responsibility commences in a child, or just when the
wheel of time will cease to revolve. At whatever point heat begins, is
it supposable that it works internally or outward? Any observing mind
can give but one answer.
It is claimed, to prove the molten condition of the Earth’s interior, that
the various borings for artesian wells and diggings in mines show a
uniform increase of heat as greater depths are attained. All these
ratios of increase differ somewhat in different localities, but not
enough to have ever banished the idea that at a few thousand feet of
depth everything would be a liquid mass. This idea ought to be
absurd enough to make a brazen image smile.
Let us consider what these explorations into the bowels of the Earth
amount to. The deepest holes bored or dug are, without exception,
less than a mile deep. Admitting a mile, that is 1-4000 of the distance
toward the center. Imagine a puncture on an orange, or on a ball
eight inches in diameter being four inches to the center. Is there any
man living could see a hole as small in proportion to its size to 1-
4000 of one-half of its diameter? How insignificant such a test.
Reasons for this delusion will be given later on, under treatment of
Volcanoes.
Again, the Earth’s surface is covered with at least four-fifths water at
depths ranging from one to five miles, including the millions of
springs, lakes and rivers on land, to say nothing of the inexhaustible
quantities of water encountered in the aforesaid boring and mining
operations.
The deepest explorations in mines are the salt mines of Poland, the
Calumet and Hecla copper mines and Comstock Lode. These have
all been on trail of some mineral deposit formed by some remote
work of Nature in the undefinable past, when volcanic or other
influences in Nature’s laboratory left their deposit. These are the only
places that man has explored, only insignificant depths, and formed
extravagant conclusions of the rest of the way.
But let us go back to the oceans, with their great depths and
extended areas, and what do we find? It is this: Whether on the
Equator or on the coasts of Greenland, in the tropics or frigid
latitudes the same, that at the deepest sea soundings the
temperature is near or below the freezing point, being literally liquid
ice. These temperatures are at depths of five times as deep as
anybody has bored or dug, and cover four-fifths of the Earth’s
surface, and, instead of being hot, or even warm, are extremely cold.
If the internal heat is as great as is claimed, it ought to be enough to
set every drop of water in the oceans into a boiling condition inside
of fifteen minutes, but there does not seem to be heat enough to
warm the bottom of the kettle.
It is assumed that the earth originated in a nebulous form, or an
aggregation of small starry bodies, or something else which nobody
has as yet explained clearly.
It is evident that our Earth has come into its present form through a
vast amount of time and changes, and is made up largely of liquids
and plastic substances, which must have had an existence in its
origin. There is little doubt but that all its composition has been
revolving through space in some form for countless millions of years
with its mixtures of liquid, gaseous and solid constituents.
It does not need a long argument to demonstrate that bodies in such
revolutions as the earth is making have a tendency, by centrifugal
force, to throw the heavier elements to the outside, and as this
seems to be a universal law in all scientific experiments by man, it
seems reasonable to suppose the earth’s centrifugal forces are no
exception in their results. Such being the case, leads at once to the
supposition and probability that the Earth is a hollow globe, and not a
solid mass, with points of actual poles at each end that can be
explored.
As water is, and has been in all history we know of, so large a part of
the earth’s mass, the object of this writing is to show the wonderful
influence it exerts in the world’s affairs, and the ample provision
Nature has in store, and where it is stored, for man, and animals,
and vegetation to bank on.
But, in passing, it is just that a name for many recent years that has
been a subject for ridicule should be noticed with profound respect
for his wise and superior observations. This man for whom I wish to
speak a word of commendation and admiration is Captain John
Cleves Symmes, who I am prepared to allow the honor of first
advancing the theory that the Earth is hollow, and has been held up
as the authority for finding “Symmes’s Hole.” While the present writer
had never seen or read any of his arguments for such a hole, the
idea came originally, as if never thought of by my worthy
predecessor. To avoid any charge of plagiarism, this topic will,
therefore, be treated as if never before thought of.
Assuming that the Earth is hollow, the purpose will be in the following
pages to show how and why, and the great importance to the
inhabitants of the outside that it should be so. The first proposition is,
therefore, a hollow Earth from causes heretofore named by
centrifugal force; next, that the inside is an ocean of fresh water, with
continents of land, and the outside oceans of salt water and its
continents, as we have partially learned of them.
That the ice belts in each frigid zone are the dividing lines between
salt and fresh water. That openings at the approach to either pole
are at least 1,500 miles across, and that a magnetic compass above
a latitude of eighty to eighty-eight degrees will not keep its natural
position at any point within such latitude, but will, in its endeavor to
point the needle to the true center of motion, lift up the point in order
to keep the right bearing, or show some other embarrassment or
irregularity. Whoever explores at these latitudes is, instead of going
in a course directly to the center of motion, unconsciously rounding a
circle toward the inside.
The flattened condition of the Earth at the poles goes to
accommodate both the claims of being hollow and how it came to be
so.
We are informed that every raindrop is hollow falling through a short
amount of space, and how more reasonable to suppose the Earth’s
great mass to be so, revolving in an eternity of space.
It is more than presumable to suppose that every planetary body in
the universe is hollow, and made so by the same fixed law for all
flexible bodies in revolution to become hollow. Are not the rings of
Saturn thus produced?
Here is a planet they tell us is seven hundred times as large as the
Earth, but its density only ninety times as great. His mean diameter
about 70,000 miles and compression one-tenth, so that the polar
diameter is 3,500 miles less, and the equatorial 3,500 miles more
than its mean, thus duplicating largely the shape and globular form
of the Earth. Is it not reasonable, then, to suppose that the lack of
density has allowed its revolutions to produce its series of rings,
those most dense being outside? And the whole order being such,
that our position allows us to look through them instead of on to an
outside surface?
Jupiter has the same characteristics in diameters. The mean, 85,000
miles; equatorial, 87,800; polar, 82,200, a difference of 5,600 miles,
which means the same influences and same reason to make it
hollow. While 1,233 times as large as the Earth, its density of
substance is only 301 times as much. Here we have the two largest
planets, perhaps yet in their period of development for being
inhabited, in very like form relatively as the Earth.
It may not be ill-timed to assert at this point the belief that all
planetary bodies are hollow and cool, not one in a molten condition
or giving out heat, but only generating heat in their own
atmospheres, thus giving out light, which we, in our ignorance,
attribute to a mass of intense heat or a globe in combustion. Such a
condition seems unreasonable to exist in a body traveling unlimited
space, which is cold beyond any degree of ascertaining. The sun is
subject to the same conditions as the Earth, as far as obtaining heat,
and this work will claim that we receive no more direct heat from the
Sun than from Mars or Venus.
Taking the first proposition, that in the absence of friction there can
be no heat or light, the assumption is that the Sun generates its heat
and light by its wonderful revolution in its own atmosphere. With a
diameter of 860,000 miles, and revolving in 25.38 days, the Sun is
moving through its atmosphere a mile in eight-tenths of a second,
and seventy-five miles a minute, and 4,500 per hour.
With an atmosphere of relative density of the Earth’s, it is easy to
see what a pyrotechnical and electrical display this would reveal to
the lens of a telescope, giving the impression of fire on an
inconceivable magnitude. It seems unreasonable that in the realm of
Nature anything, or that anywhere fuel can be found for an eternal
fire except in an old orthodox Hell.
To an observer on Mars or Venus, the earth would, no doubt, present
the same starlike appearance that those planets do to our earthly
eyes.
The electrical sparks on a trolley wire or dynamo give the same
expression to our eyes, though in miniature, with no consciousness
of heat to our feelings.
It is doubtful if, with all the observations of the Sun by telescopes, we
have gained any knowledge of its structure, but only of its
revolutions, size and movements, the same as the Earth. It would be
a very difficult subject to diagnose clearly as to its productions of
animal and vegetable life. The electrical influences through an
atmosphere proportionally deep with ours, with its clouds that must
exist in the same, could very thoroughly obscure the surface of the
Sun. Unless at special intervals, when certain exposures would be
called Sun-spots, either on a great space of continent or ocean.
The great flames of gases in the atmosphere would give the
impression, by telescopic view, of a burning mass, when under these
atmospheric flames all is cool and calm.
In the writer’s mind there is no doubt but the Sun is as favorable in
condition for animal and vegetable life as the Earth, and has both in
proportional greater variety and species. Nature having no limit to
designs, uses no duplicates, never repeats herself in anything. No
two grains of seed, no two snow flakes, are ever just alike. A million
bushels of peas will have no two alike, yet every one has its
individuality as a pea. Man cannot discriminate one blackbird from
another in a flock, but to the birds they are as individual as mankind
to each other. For these reasons it is easy to see that every planet
may be peopled with different varieties of animal and vegetable life
as it is to find the variations in different countries of the Earth. While
the climate of the Sun may be hotter than that of the Earth, Nature
can adapt itself to any condition of heat or cold.
Thus far the argument has been chiefly in considering the influence
of heat by friction on planetary surfaces. Later this influence will be
briefly taken up to demonstrate its interior effect in producing
earthquakes and volcanoes.
For a diversion, we will for a while consider the effect of centrifugal
force on the Earth. The Earth gives many manifestations of said
force in the shape of the continents, courses of rivers, outlets of bays
and ranges of mountains. North America gradually swings to the east
as it approaches the Equator; South America, at the Equator, bulges
most to the east. The mountain ranges, the Rocky, Sierra Nevada
and Cordilleras, in North America, the Andes, in South America,
forming a barrier against the further encroachment of the Pacific
Ocean. The West Coast of Africa is protected from the Atlantic
largely by the mountains of Morocco, including the Black and White,
running south, somewhat protecting Senegambia, and then the
Kong, with other mountain ranges in upper and lower Guinea, stop
the encroachment on line of Gulf of Guinea. In Asia, Hindustan has
the Ghant Mountains for a barrier, while another range of mountains
holds the Peninsula of Malacca in place. It will be plainly seen that all
these points of countries lean toward the Equatorial center of motion.
The islands of Oceanica, strung out on the line of the Equator, also
show the effect of the Earth’s revolution.
The Island of Australia is apparently a new production in embryo of a
new continent in future connection with some of the large adjacent
islands, and ultimately of most of the island groups of Oceanica. The
same result is likely to follow with the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
The rivers are marked evidence of centrifugal force on both
continents. The largest, the Amazon, running nearly on line of the
Equator and emptying there. All the rivers, almost without exception,
north of the equator to the Arctic circle run southeast when they can,
and at their mouths tend that way. Those south tend northeast where
the face of the country will admit. The Nile, a freak river, is about the
only marked exception. On the north outflows like the Yukon,
McKenzie, and Great Fish in North America; the Yenisei and Lena,
and many smaller streams of Europe and Asia flow to the Arctic
Ocean.
These last named streams so far from the great center of motion and
on account of the marked incline to the country toward the polar
centers head that way and no doubt contribute largely to the great
inflow of water to the internal ocean. The west coasts of both
continents are marked for their dearth of great streams. The open
sea that some Arctic explorers have presumed to be about the poles
is no doubt the beginning of the fresh water ocean.
The open sea problem introduces the importance of this disquisition.
If there is an open sea, which is in all probability true, it must be the
open door to an inside world as truly as the coming back from those
high latitudes and entering open sea is the evidence of our habitable
outside world.
With all deference to the reports of Arctic explorers, it is very doubtful
if they really know their actual positions or latitudes with freaky
compasses and unfavorable conditions about them, so that their
stories and adventures while honestly told need to be taken with a
grain of salt. They tell us of witnessing the breaking off of icebergs of
mammoth size from glaciers, which, no doubt, is true. It would be
true if one was seen big as the Capitol at Washington, or as large as
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