UNIT – I:

Fluid Properties: Definition of fluid, Properties of fluids- Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume, Specific Gravity, Bulk Modulus, Vapour Pressure, Viscosity, Capillarity and Surface
tension, Newton’s law of Viscosity.
Fluid Statics: Pascal’s Law, Hydrostatic Law, Absolute and gauge pressure. Forces on immersed
bodies: Total pressure, centre of pressure, pressure on curved surface.
Buoyancy: Buoyancy, Metacentre, stability of submerged and floating bodies.
Fluid Kinematics: Classification of fluid flow- steady unsteady, uniform, non-uniform-, one-, two-
and three- dimensional flows. Concept of streamline, stream tube, path line and streak line.
Law of mass conservation – continuity equation from control volume and system analysis.
Rotational and Irrotational flows, Stream function, Velocity potential function, flownet.

✓ Newton’s laws of motion

✓ Fluid& Solid
✓ Solid, Liquid, Gas
✓ Continuum
✓ Ideal & Real fluids
✓ Eulerian & Lengrangian theory
✓ Unit system (SI, MG, BG)
✓ Fluid Properties
✓ Applications
✓ Energy

Newton's laws of Motion:

Newton's laws of motion may be stated as follows:

Every object in a state of uniform motion will remain in that state of motion unless an external force
acts on it. The tendency of undisturbed object to stay at rest or keep moving with the same velocity is
called inertia. An unbalanced force is required to change the status of the moving body or body at rest.
Force equals mass times acceleration [ F= ma = (mv1-mv2)/t = m(dv/dt)].

• For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The mechanics of Fluids vs. Solids:

Particles are more closely packed in solids when compared to liquids and gases.
Most of us have taken some courses on solids or related to solids. A comparison of solids and fluids
will give some guidelines on which properties can be translated to fluids and on what terms.

Differences
Fluids Solids
Fluids have no shape Solids have a definite shape
Fluids cannot sustain a shear force, i.e. a fluid is Solids can sustain a shear force; i.e. they remain
always in motion. static.
Stress is a function of the rate of strain, thus a Stress is a function of strain, thus a solid
fluid had a `dynamic' state. maintains a static.

Similarities
The continuum hypothesis is used for both fluids and solids.
Newton's law of motion (conservation of momentum)
Conservation of Mass
conservation of energy
The constitutive law relating stress and rate of strain also apply to both.
Discrete & continuum system:
Eulerian & Lengrangian theory:

Applications:
✓ Heart, arteries, veins
✓ Flow through pipes
✓ Air conditioning
✓ Automobiles (brakes, fuel injectors)
✓ Aircraft, submarine, boats, rocket
✓ Turbines

Play video<How your heart works>

Specific weight:
√ = weight/vol = m.g/vol = (m/vol).g = ρ.g
Kinetic energy = (½)mv2 = (½)ρ.vol.v2 = (½)(√/g).vol.v2 = (½).(weight/vol).(1/g).vol.v2
Kinetic energy/weight = v2/2g
Potential energy = m.g.h = ρ.vol.g.h = (√/g).vol.g.h = (weight/vol).(1/g).vol.g.h
Potential energy/weight = h
Pressure = √.h
Pressure energy (P/√) = h
Compressible and incompressible fluids:

Liquid vs. Gas:

A fluid is `a body whose particles move easily among themselves. Fluid is a generic term, including
liquids and gases as species.

Water, air, and steam are fluids.

A liquid is being in such a state that the component parts move freely among themselves, but do not
tend to separate from each other as the particles of gases and vapours do.

A liquid is generally incompressible and does not fill a volume by expanding into it.
A gas on the other hand, is compressible and expands to fill any volume containing it.

Compressible fluid: Air, gas

Incompressible fluid: Liquids (water)

The main difference between the study of hydrodynamics and the study of aerodynamics is the
property if incompressibility. Hydrodynamic properties are generally incompressible while
aerodynamic properties are compressible.
FLUID PROPERTIES:
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Pressure P (<play video>), temperature T, volume V, and mass m,
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient,
vapor pressure, surface tension, capillarity.

Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system.

Examples: temperature, pressure, and density. (REMAINS CONSTANT even if we make it
half)
Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the system.
Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum.

Density (ρ) is defined as the

Mass per unit volumeρ = m/V.
Density has units of kg/m3
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

The specific weight (√) is defined as the weight per unit volume
√= Weight/Volume
=mg/V = ρg
whereg is the gravitational acceleration.
Specific weight of water = 9800 N/m3 (√ = ρg= 1000x9.8=9800)

Specific volume is defined as

v = 1/ρ= V/m.
For a gas, density depends on temperature and pressure.

Specific gravity (G or SG), or relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water
at 4°C)
G=ρ/ρwater or G = √/√water

G is a dimensionless quantity.

Substance G
Water 1
Air 0.0012
Blood 1.06
Sea water 1.025
Gasoline 0.68
Mercury 13.6
Ice 0.916
Steel 7.8
Wood 0.9
Vapour Pressure:Vapour Pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
Vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapour in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases at a given temperature in a closed system. The
equilibrium vapour pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate.

Partial pressure: Pressure exerted by individual gas (Atmosphere has 78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen +
1% vapours etc)
Vapour Pressure: Pressure exerted by vapours (gas) in the system
Atmospheric pressure: 1 Atm or 76 CM of Hg

When vapour pressure reaches to atm pressure then boiling starts since the vapour pressure is more
than atm pressure.

Vapours contain thermal energy as much as it can without boiling. When vapours reach the
surrounding environment pressure (or more than the atm pressure) then boiling i.e phase transition
start, so bubbles will be formed. Here the vapour particles start losing/releasing their thermal energy.

Tsat : Saturation temperature i.e boiling point at corresponding pressure (atm pre i.e 1 atm)
Psat: Saturation pressure i.e boiling point at corresponding temperature (temp i.e 1000C)

Ex: Under 1 atm, water Tsat =1000C

Under 0.8 atm (at 2000 m elevation), water Tsat =930C
Under 3 atm (pressure cooker), water Tsat =1340C

Temperature Saturation
in 0C Pressure (KPa)
-10 0.26
0 0.61
10 1.23
20 2.34
100 101.3 (1 atm)
300 8581

Coefficient of Compressibility & Coefficient of volume expansion:

How does fluid volume change with P and T?

Fluids expand as T ↑ or P ↓
Fluids contract as T ↓ or P ↑
Coefficient of compressibility/Bulk modulus of compressibility/Bulk modulus of elasticity
(T is constant, P is variable)

 P   P 
 = −v   =    
 v T  T
V = Volume
K (pascal i.e N/m2) is infinity for truly incompressible substances

Coefficient of volume expansion (P is constant, T is variable)

1  v  1   
 =   =−  
v  T  P   T  P
Large value of ß for a fluid means a large change in density with temp. It happens in compressible
fluids.

VISCOSITY:

We move relative ease in air but not so in water, moving in oil would be even more difficult.
A property that represents the internal resistance of fluid to motion and that property is the
“viscosity”. The force, a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called “DRAG” force,
and magnitude of this force depends on viscosity.
Newton Law of Viscosity:
To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel plates
separated by a distance ℓ (bottom plate is fixed and top plate is movable)

Definition of shear stress is τ = F/A.

Using the no-slip condition, u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) = V

The velocity profile and gradient are

u(y)= Vy/ℓ
du/dy=V/ℓ

During differential time dt, the sides of fluid particles along vertical line MN rotate through a
differential angle dß while the upper plate moves a differential distance da = Vdt. The
angular displacement or deformation (shear strain) can be expressed as

tan(dß)=dß=da/ ℓ = Vdt/ ℓ = (du/dy).dt [du/dy=V/ℓ}

Hence the rate of deformation i.e dß/dt = the velocity gradient i.e du/dy

Shear stress for Newtonian fluid:

τ α du/dy or τ α dß/dt

Τ = µ (du/dy)

Τ is the dynamic viscosity and has units of kg/m2·s, Pas·s, or poise.

Kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity/ρ (cm2/sec or stoke)
Surface Tension: Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid, and the surface of
the fluid acts like a stretched elastic membrane. The pulling forces that causes this tension acts
parallel to the surface and is due to attractive forces between molecules of the liquid. The magnitude
of this force per unit length is called surface tension, represented by (Force/unit length).

Examples:
✓ Drop of blood forms a hump
✓ Drop of mercury forms a sphere
✓ Drop of water droplet
✓ Soap bubble.

Water droplet Mercury droplet An insect can walk on liquid surface

Capillarity: The action by which the surface of a liquid where it is in contact with a solid (as in a
capillary tube) is elevated or depressed depending on the relative attraction of the molecules of the
liquid for each other and for those of the solid.
Example: Wick (a strip of porous material up which liquid fuel is drawn by capillary action to the
flame in a lamp)
Water (capillary rise)-Hg(capillary fall) Wick in lamp

Brick resting on wet surface Capillary tubes

Problems:
Ex1: Find the pressure inside a water droplet having diameter of 0.5 mm at 20 0 C if the outside
pressure is 1.03N/cm 2 and the surface tension of water at that temperature is 0.0736 N/m.
Solution :
Given Data: -

ΔP= Pi – Po = 2 /r

Pressure inside the droplet = 1.62 N/cm 2

Ex 2:

The inside diameters of the two arms of a U-tube are 1.0 mm

and 1.5 mm respectively. Now if it is partially filled with water
having surface tension of 0.0736 N/m and zero contact angle
what will be the difference in the level of meniscus between the
two arms.(shown in the figure below)
Solution :
 Given data:

Diameter of the tubes 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm

respectively

Capillary rise in a tube (h)

For water contact angle 0c = 00 and

Specific weight g = 9810 N/m3

Which gives h1 = 30 mm when tube

diameter is 1mm

And h2 = 20 mm when tube diameter is 1.5

mm.

Answer: 10mm.

(1) A plate (2m x 2m ), 0.25 mm distant apart from a fixed plate, moves at 40 cm/s and requires
a force of 1 N. Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in between the plates.

Solution :
Given data: Change of velocity,

Distance between the plates,

Contact area A = 2x2 = 4 m2

Force required, F = 1 N

Now,

Shear stress, = F/A = 0.25N/m2

And,

Answer:

(2) At a certain point in an oil the shear stress is 0.2 N/m 2 and the velocity gradient is 0.21
 0.21s-1 . If the mass density of the oil is 950 kg/ m3 find the kinematic viscosity.

Solution :

Given data:

Velocity Gradient = 0.21 s -1 .

Shear stress = 0.2 N/m2

Then,

Kinematic viscosity,

Answer: 10.02 stokes

(3) As shown in the figure a cubical block of 20 cm side and of 20 kg weight is allowed to slide
down along a plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal on which there is a film of oil having
viscosity 2.16x10-3 N-s/m2 .What will be the terminal velocity of the block if the film
thickness is 0.025mm?

Solution :

Solution :
Given data : Weight = 20 kg

Block dimension = 20x20x20 cm3

Driving force along the plane

 Shear force

Contact area,

Also,

Answer: 28.38m/s.

(4) A tape of 0.015 cm thick and 1.00 cm wide is to be drawn through a gap with a clearance of
0.01cm on each side. A lubricant of dynamic viscosity 0.021 Ns/m 2 completely fills the gap
for a length of 80 cm along the tape. If the tape can withstand a maximum tensile force of
7.5 N calculate the maximum speed with which it can be drawn through the gap.

Solution :
Given data: Dynamic viscosity=

0.021 Ns/m2

Clearance dy =0.01cm

Contact area

maximum tension the tape can with stand =7.5 N

Shear stress, T = F/A

Maximum shear stress the tape can withstand, = 0.467185 kN/m2

Also shear stress,

Substituting the value of in the above equation, we get

Answer: 2.23 m/s.