Chapter Four

Microwave Componenets
Microwave Components :-

Microwave components such as cavity resonators, re-entrant cavities, slow-wave

structures, waveguide Tees/ directional couplers, circulators and isolators are used
in microwave transmission lines and guides or as part of active microwave devices.

Resonant Cavities (Resonators) :-

Theoretically, a given resonator has infinite number of resonant modes and each
mode corresponds to a definite resonant frequency.

Note:-

When the frequency of the signal (wave) is equal to a resonant frequency, maximum
amplitude of the standing wave occurs, and the peak energies stored in the electric
and magnetic fields are equal.

The mode having the lowest resonant frequency is known as the Dominant mode.

Rectangular Cavity Resonators:-

A section of waveguide shorted at each end can support a standing wave pattern,
just like an ordinary T.L.

Provided that the guide is an integral number of 𝜆𝑔 /2 in length.

1
  The electromagnetic fields inside the cavity should satisfy Maxwell’s
equations, subjected to the boundary condition. The electric field tangential
components and the magnetic field normal components to the metal walls
must equal zero.

Note:-

The wave equations in the rectangular resonator should satisfy the boundary
conditions of zero-tangential 𝐸̅ at four of the metal wall.

 It is merely necessary to choose the harmonic function in z to satisfy this

condition at the remaining two walls.

These functions can be found if :-

 For TEmnp

(1)

Where m=0,1,2,3, …… represents the number of the half-wave periodicity in the

x-direction.

n=0,1,2,3, ….. represents the number of the half-wave periodicity in the

y-direction.

p=0,1,2,3, ….. represents the number of the half-wave periodicity in the

z-direction.

 For TMmnp

(2)

m=1,2,3, …..
n=1,2,3, ……
p=0,1,2,3, ……

The separation equation for both TE and TM modes is given by :-

(3)

For lossless unbounded dielectric medium

Therefore, the resonant frequency is expressed as :-

2
 (4)

Note:-
For 𝑎 > 𝑏 < 𝑑 → the dominant mode is the TE101 mode.

Circular Cavity Resonator :-

A circular cavity resonator is a circular waveguide with two ends closed by a metal
wall as shown in the figure below

In a similar analysis to that of rectangular resonator we have :-

For TEnpq modes:-

(1)

n=0,1,2,3, ….. is the number of periodicity in the Φ-direction.

p=1,2,3, ….. is the number of zeros of the filed in the radial direction.
q=1,2,3, ….. is the number pf half waves in the axial direction (z).
𝐽𝑛 = Bessell’s function of the first kind.
𝐻𝑜𝑧 = amplitude of the magnetic field.

For TMnpq modes :-

(2)
n=0,1,2,3, …..
p=1,2,3, ……
q=0,1,2,3, ……
𝐸𝑜𝑧 = is the amplitude of the electric field.

3
The characteristic equations (separation equations) are :-

(3)

(4)

Substitution 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 for lossless dielectric in equations above yields the resonant

frequencies for TE and TM modes respectively, as :-

(5)

(6)

It is interesting to note that for 2𝑎 > 𝑑 , the TM110 mode is the dominant mode, and
for 𝑑 ≥ 2𝑎 , the TE111 mode is the dominant one.

The Q-Factoe of a Cavity Resonator :-

The quality factor Q is measure of the frequency selectivity of a resonant or anti-

resonant circuit defined as :-

(1)

Where :- W= is the maximum stored energy.

P= is the average power loss.

Note:-

At resonant frequency, the electric and magnetic energies are equal and in time
quadrature (90o time phase).

When the electric energy is maximum the magnetic energy is zero.

Note :-

The total energy stored in the resonator is obtained by integrating the energy density
over the volume of the resonator.

(2)

4
Where |𝐸| and |𝐻| are the peak values of the field intensities.

Note:-

The average power loss in the resonator can be obtained by integrating the power
density (given before in the chapter concerning the waveguide) over the inner
surface of the resonator, hence:-

(3)

Where 𝐻𝑡 is the peak values of the resonator, substituting equation (2) and (3) in
equation (1) yields :-

(4)

Note :-

Since the peak value of the magnetic intensity is related to the tangential and normal
components by :-

|𝐻|2 = |𝐻𝑡 |2 + |𝐻𝑛 |2

Where 𝐻𝑛 is the peak value of the normal magnetic intensity.

The value of |𝐻𝑡 |2 at the resonator walls is approximately twice the value of |𝐻|2
averaged over the volume. So the Q of a cavity resonator as shown in equation (4)
can be expressed approximately by :-

(5)

Note :-

An unloaded resonator can be represented by either a series or parallel resonant

circuit.

 The resonant frequency and the unloaded Q

(6)

(7)

Note :-
If the cavity is coupled by means of an ideal transformer (N:1) and a series
inductance Ls to generator having internal impedance Zg, then the coupling circuit
and its equivalent are as shown in the figure.

5
 Cavity coupled to generator. (a) coupling circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

The loaded 𝑄𝑙 of the system is given by :-

(8)

The coupling coefficient of the system is defined as :-

(9)

The loaded 𝑄𝑙 would become:-

(10)

Rearranging the above equation yields :-

(11)

𝑄𝑜 𝜔𝑜 𝐿
𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡 = = is named external Q.
𝐾 𝑅𝐾

Note :-

There are three types of coupling coefficients :-

1- Critical coupling:- if the resonator is matched to the generator, then:-

𝐾=1 (12)
The loaded 𝑄𝑙 is given by :-
1 1
𝑄𝑙 = 𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑄𝑜 (13)
2 2
2- Over coupling :- (𝐾 > 1) the cavity terminals are at a voltage maximum in the
input line at resonance, the normalized impedance at the voltage maximum is
(zmax) and it is equal to 𝜌 (the SWR) that is :-
𝐾=𝜌 (14)
The loaded 𝑄𝑙 is given by :-
𝑄𝑜
𝑄𝑙 = (15)
1+𝜌

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 3- Under coupling :- if 𝐾 < 1 , the cavity terminals are at voltage minimum and
the input terminal impedance is equal to the reciprocal of SWR i.e. :-
1
𝐾= (16)
𝜌
The loaded 𝑄𝑙 is given by :-
𝜌
𝑄𝑙 = 𝑄𝑜 (17)
𝜌+1

The relationship of the coupling coefficient K and the standing-wave ratio is shown in
figure below:-

Microwave Hybrid Circuits (Hybrid Devices) :-

 Microwave circuit ordinarily consists of several microwave devices connected in

some to achieve the desired transmission of microwave signal.
 The interconnection of two or more devices may be regarded as a microwave
junction.
 Commonly used microwave junctions include such :-
1- Waveguide Tees (T), E-plane T, H-plane T, Magic T.
2- Hybrid ring (rat-race circuit)
3- Directional coupler.
4- Circulators and Isolator.

At low frequencies two ports networks (generally n-ports networks) may be

represented by several sets of parameters h, Y, Z, transfer parameter, ….. relate
total voltage and total current to each other.

7
In microwave it is more convenient to use the scattering parameter, it is a set of
parameters doesn’t depend on the total voltage and current these parameters are
called the S-parameter (scattering parameter). Which are expressed for a two port
network by the two equations :-

Two port network defined by its S-parameter

8
The S-Parameter Theory :-

Assume n-poet junction connected at each port to a device through a lossless

transmission line.

Port 2

b2 a2
Zo2

a1 2 a3

Port 1 Zo1 1 Sij 3 Zo3 Port 3

b1 n b3

Zon
bn an

Port n

n-port microwave junction (network)

ai= is the incident travelling wave coming toward the junction.

bi= is the reflected travelling wave coming outward from the junction.

From the fundamentals of transmission line theory, the incident and reflected wave
are related by :-

𝑏𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∙ 𝑎𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … … 𝑛 (1)

Where 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = Γ𝑖𝑗 is the reflection coefficient of the 𝑖th port 𝑖 = 𝑗 with other ports
matched.

𝑆𝑖𝑗 = T𝑖𝑗 is the forward transmission coefficient of the 𝑗 -port if 𝑖 > 𝑗 with all other
ports matched.

𝑆𝑖𝑗 = T𝑖𝑗 is the reverse transmission coefficient of the 𝑗 -port if 𝑖 < 𝑗 with all other
ports matched.

9
In general equation (1) can be written

𝑏1 = 𝑆11 𝑎1 + 𝑆12 𝑎2 + 𝑆13 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑆1𝑛 𝑎𝑛

𝑏2 = 𝑆21 𝑎1 + 𝑆22 𝑎2 + 𝑆23 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑆2𝑛 𝑎𝑛
⋮
(2)
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛1 𝑎1 + 𝑆𝑛2 𝑎2 + 𝑆𝑛3 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑆𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛
In matrix notation:-

[𝑏] = [𝑆][𝑎] (3)

Where [𝑏] and [𝑎] are column matrices

𝑏1 𝑎1
𝑏 𝑎
[𝑏] = [ 2 ] ; [𝑎] = [ ⋮2 ] (4)
⋮
𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛

The 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix [𝑆] is called the scattering matrix.

The parameters 𝑆11 , 𝑆12 , … , 𝑆𝑛𝑛 are called the scattering parameters (S-
parameters) or scattering coefficients.

Definition :-

Two important quantities are related to S-parameters and usually used in specifying
and design of microwave circuits and components :-

 The insertion loss

 The return loss

Consider the two poet network shown in the figure we define four S-parameters as
follows:-

1- The input reflection coefficient obtained by terminating the output port (port 2)
with its characteristic impedance (matched with a2=0).
𝑏1
𝑆11 = |
𝑎1 𝑎
2 =0

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2- The output reflection coefficient obtained by terminating the input port (port 1)
with its characteristic impedance (matched with a1=0).
𝑏2
𝑆22 = |
𝑎2 𝑎
1 =0

3- Forward transmission coefficient (insertion gain) with the output port (port 2)
terminated in its characteristic impedance (matched with a2=0).
𝑏2
𝑆21 = |
𝑎1 𝑎
2 =0

4- Reverse transmission coefficient with the (port 1) terminated in its characteristic

impedance (matched with a1=0).
𝑏1
𝑆12 = |
𝑎2 𝑎
1 =0

The attenuation constant (forward transmission from port 1 to 2) “attenuation of the

transmitted wave”

1
𝛼 = 𝑙𝑛
|𝑆12 (𝑗𝜔)|
1
= 𝑙𝑛 |𝑆 if the network is symmetrical
21 (𝑗𝜔)|
and reciprocal.

The return or the attenuation of the reflected wave in the reverse direction 𝛼𝑟 :-
1 1
𝛼𝑟 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
|𝑆11 (𝑗𝜔)| |𝑆22 (𝑗𝜔)|

The commonly used design values are measured in dB they are :-

1
The insertion loss (dB) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
|𝑆12 (𝑗𝜔)|

1
The return loss (dB) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
|𝑆11 (𝑗𝜔)|
And what is required in practice that a devices have insertion loss ideally zero
actually less than 1 dB, and return loss ideally infinity actually between -20 to -60 dB.

1
The insertion loss = |𝑆 2
12 (𝑗𝜔)|
1
The return loss = |𝑆 2
11 (𝑗𝜔)|

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Directional Couplers :-
A directional coupler is a four port junction. It can be built as a wave guide junction or
coaxial junction or microstrip …..etc.

Waveguide directional coupler

It consist of primary waveguide 1-2 and a secondary waveguide 3-4.

Note:-
When all ports are terminated in their characteristic impedances, there is free
transmission of power, without reflection between port 1 and port 2, and there is no
transmission of power between port 1 and port 3 or between port 2 and port 4
because there is no coupling exists between these two ports.
 The degree of coupling between port 1 and port 4 and between 2 and 3
depends on the structure of the coupler.
 The characteristic of a directional coupler can be expressed in terms of its :
- Coupling factor
- Directivity

Assuming that the wave is propagating from port 1 to port 2 in the primary line then
defining :-

Where :-

P1= power input to port 1

P3= power output from port 3
P4= power output from port 4

Note :-
It should be noted that port 2 port 3 and port 4 are terminated in their characteristic
impedance. The coupling factor is a measure of the ratio of power levels in the
primary and secondary line.

12
One can measure the power in the primary if the coupling factor is known and
measures the secondary power.
The directivity is a measure of how well the forward travelling wave in the primary
waveguide couples only to a specific port of the secondary waveguide.
 The ideal directional coupler should have infinite directivity.
 Actual directional coupler if well designed have a directivity of 30 to 35 dB.

Several types of directional couplers exists such as :-

- Two-hole directional coupler.
- Four-hole directional coupler.
- Reverse coupling directional coupler.
- Bethe-hole directional coupler.

Two-Hole Directional Couplers :-

A two hole directional coupler with travelling wave propagating into is shown in figure
below :-

Two-hole directional coupler.

The spacing between the centers of two holes must be:-

A fraction of the wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes and is
radiated onto the secondary guide as the holes act as slot antennas. The forward
waves in the secondary guide are in the same phase, regardless of the hole space,
and added at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves
progressing from right to left) are out of phase by (2𝐿⁄𝜆𝑔 )2𝜋 (𝑟𝑎𝑑), and are
cancelled at port 3.

Circulators and Isolators :-

Microwave circulators and microwave isolators are nonreciprocal transmission
device, that use the property of Faraday rotation in the Ferrite material.

13
Ferrite is a family of MeO·Fe2O3, when a piece of Ferrite is affected by a dc magnetic
field, the Ferrite exhibits Faraday rotation.
It does so because the ferrite is nonlinear material and its permeability is asymmetric
tensor.

where

The propagation constant for a linearly polarized wave inside the ferrite can be
expressed :-

where

The relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 changes with the applied dc magnetic field as given by:-
𝛾𝑒 𝑀𝑒
𝜇𝑟± = 1 +
|𝛾𝑒 |𝐻𝑑𝑐 ± 𝜔
Where
𝛾𝑒 : gyromagnetic ratio of an electron.
𝑀𝑒 : saturation magnetization.
𝜔: angular frequency of a microwave field.
𝐻𝑑𝑐 : dc magnetic field.
𝜇𝑟+ : relative permeability in the clockwise direction (right or positive circular
polarization).
𝜇𝑟− : relative permeability in the counter clockwise direction (left or negative circular
polarization).

If 𝜇𝑟+ is greater than 𝜇𝑟− i.e. 𝜇𝑟+ ≫ 𝜇𝑟− , the wave rotates in the clockwise direction.
Consequently, the propagation phase 𝛽 + for the forward direction differs from the
propagation phase constant 𝛽 − for the backward direction.
By choosing the length of the ferrite slab and the dc magnetic field so that :-

14
We obtain a differential phase shift of 90o for the two direction of propagation.

“A nonreciprocal phase shifter” can be obtained by placing a thin slab of ferrite in a

rectangular waveguide at a point where the dc magnetic field of the incident wave
made is circularly polarized.

Microwave Circulators :-
A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow
only from the nth port to the (n+1)th port in one direction.
 There is no restriction on the number of ports, but the four port microwave
circulator is the most common.
 One type of four port circulator is a combination of two 3-dB side-hole
directional coupler and a rectangular waveguide with two non-reciprocal
phase shifters as shown in the figure below:-

Schematic diagram
of four port circulator

15
The operation principle :-
The operation principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analysed with the aid
of the previous figure.
Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase shift of 90 o, and
each of the two phase shifters produces a certain amount of phase change in a
certain direction as indicated.
When a wave is incident to port 1 the wave is split into two components by coupler 1.
The wave in the primary guide arrives at port 2 with a relative phase change of 180 o.
The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the secondary guide and
arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180o.
Since the two waves reaching port 2 are in phase, the power transmission is
obtained from port 1 to port 2. However, the wave propagates through the primary
guide, phase shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of
270o.
The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary guide and it arrives at port 4
with a phase shift of 90o. Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by
180o. The power transmission from port 1 to port 4 is zero.
In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions of propagation
in waveguide containing ferrite phase shifters should be :-

Where m and n are any integers, including zeros.

 A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2 emerges at port 3 and
so on. As a result, the sequence of power flow is designed as 1→2→3→4→1.
 Many types of microwave circulator are in use today. However, their principles
of operation remain the same.
 A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circular has an S
matrix of the form:-

Using the properties of S-parameters, the S-matrix can be simplified to :-

16
Microwave Isolator :-
An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one
component from reflection of other components in the transmission line.
 An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power from propagation in one
direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction.
 Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave
generators, such as Klystron and Magnetrons, in which the reflection from the
load affects the generating frequency.
 Isolator can be constructed in many ways :- they can be made by terminating
port 3 and port 4 of a four-port circulator with match load.
 They can be made also by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a
rectangular waveguide.

Hybrid Couplers :-
Hybrid couplers are interdigitated microstrip couplers consisting of four parallel strip
lines with alternate line tied together. A single ground plane, a single dielectric, and a
single layer of metallization are used. This type of coupler, called a Lange hybrid
coupler, has four ports, as shown in figure below :-

A signal wave incident in port 1 couples equal power into port 2 and 4, but none into
port 3. There are two basic types of Lange couplers :- 180o hybrids and 90o
(quadrature) hybrids.
Hybrid couplers are frequently used as components in microwave systems or
subsystems such as attenuators, balanced amplifier, balanced mixers, modulators,
….., etc.

17
In modern microwave circuit design, Lange hybrid couplers are commonly used in
balanced amplifier circuitry for high-power and broad-bandwidth applications, as
shown in figure below :-

Balanced amplifier with Lange couplers.

Single-stage or cascaded double-stage GaAs MESFET chips are connected in

parallel to two 3-dB and (0-degree Lange hybrid couplers.

And

Where a and b indicates the two GaAs MESFET chips, and 1 and 2 refer to the input
and output port respectively. The SWR of the balanced amplifier can be expressed
as :-

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