Week 5

RESEARCH DESIGNS

Prof Mugisha, PhD

 Learning Objectives
By the end of this topic, students should be able to:

 Define a research design

 Explain the different categories of research designs

and their corresponding sub-designs

 Explain thestrength and weaknesses of each sub-

design under the two broad categories

2
What Is Research Design?

Blueprint (outline)

Plan

Guide

Framework (structure)
 What is a research design?
 It is an overall strategy that one chooses to
integrate/mix the different components of the study
in a clear and logical way.
 It constitutes the plan for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data
 It defines the various ways by which information is
gathered for evaluation or assessment.
Types of research designs
Designs fall into broad two categories; i.e.
quantitative and qualitative
 Quantitative research designs are either descriptive
(subjects usually measured once) or experimental
(subjects measured before and after a treatment)
 Qualitative research designs. These describe data
that are not numerical
 Quantitative designs
Quantitative designs fall in two categories;
• Experimental
1. True experimental designs
2. Quasi/virtual experimental designs
• Non experimental
1. Explanatory
2. Descriptive designs
Experimental research

 A research that attempts to determine how and why

something happens.
 It tests the way in which an independent variable
affects a dependent variable.
 It attempts to prove or disprove a hypothesis
numerically, using statistical analysis.
 Experimental research design
 Experimental research design determines how changes
in one independent variable (X) affect another
dependent variable (Y) e.g. Communication and staff
performance
 Experimental research design involves studies that are
used to determine the correlation/relationship between
variables
 This design is most appropriate in controlled
settings such as laboratories.
 It attempts to explore cause and effect relationships
where causes can be manipulated to produce
different kinds of effects.
 Purpose is to compare 2 or more groups that are
formed by random assignment
 The groups differ solely on the basis of what occurs
between measurements (i.e. intervention)
 Changes from pretest to posttest can be reasonably
attributed to the intervention
 Most basic is the pretest-posttest control group
design (randomized controlled trial)
Experimental Design
Example:
 Researchers conducted a study to find out the
effect of progressive resistance exercises in
depressed elders. They studied 35 volunteers who
had depression.
 Participants were randomly assigned to an
exercise group, which met three times per week
for 10 weeks, or a control group which met 2
times per week for an interactive health education
program.
 The outcome variables were: level of depression,
functional status, and quality of life, using
standardized instruments.
 Pretest and posttest measures were taken for both
groups and differences were compared.
Strengths
 Controls the influence of confounding variables,
providing more conclusive answers
 Randomization eliminates bias due to pre-
randomization confounding variables
 Blinding the interventions eliminates bias due to
unintended interventions
 Weaknesses
 Costly in time and money
 Many research questions are not suitable for
experimental designs
 Usually reserved for more mature research questions
that have already been examined by descriptive studies
 Experiments tend to restrict the scope and narrow the
study question
Quasi-Experimental Design
 Have some sort of control of experimental groups,
but these groups probably weren't randomly
selected.
 There are more errors possible in the results
Example:
 A study was designed to examine the effect of
electrical stimulation on passive range of motion of
wrist extension in 16 patients who suffered a stroke.
 Outcomes: effects of treatment on sensation, range
of motion, & hand strength.
 Patients were given pretest and posttest
measurements before and after a 4-week
intervention program.
 Note: No randomization, and no comparison group
Strengths
 Q-E designs are a reasonable alternative to RCT
 Useful where pre-selection and randomization of
groups is difficult
 Saves time and resources vs. experimental designs
Weaknesses

 Nonequivalent groups may differ in many ways --

in addition to the differences between treatment
conditions, introducing bias
 Non-blinding allows the possibility of unintended
interventions; blinding can be used in some Q-E
studies
 Must document participant characteristics
extensively
 Potential biases of the sample must be
acknowledged when reporting findings
 Causal inferences are weakened by the potential
for biases vs. experimental designs
 Explanatory
 It attempts to explore cause and effect relationships
where causes already exist and cannot be
manipulated.
 It uses what already exists and looks backward to
explain why.
 It is conducted after an event has occurred i.e. “from
after the fact”.
 Usually done after variations/differences have
occurred in the independent variable.
 There is no direct control over the independent
variable because the circumstance have already
occurred.
Descriptive research design

 It describes phenomena/occurrences as they exist

 It can be used to indicate what variables might be
worth testing quantitatively.
 Good description does not provoke the `why'
questions of explanatory research
 Descriptive research designs

 Descriptive research designs help provide

answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular
research problem.
 The design cannot conclusively ascertain
answers to why.
 It is used to obtain information concerning the
current status of the phenomena.
 To also describe "what exists" with respect to
variables or conditions in a situation.
Types of descriptive research designs
 Surveys (cross sectional and longitudinal)
 Exploratory

 Correlational studies
 Case studies
Survey research
 Survey research involves interviewing or
administering questionnaires, or written surveys
(investigations), to large numbers of people.
 The investigator analyzes the data obtained from
surveys to learn about similarities, differences, and
trends.
 He or she then makes predictions/guesses about the
population being studied.
Characteristics of surveys
 Purpose is to explore and describe
 Involves gathering data from a fairly large group of
persons, often by mail or personal interview
 It is done within a specified period of time within
the study
 Does not generalize relationships in terms of cause
and effect
Census and Sample Surveys

 Descriptive surveys can be either census or

sample surveys.
 A survey that covers the whole population of
interest is called a census survey.
 A survey that studies only a portion of the
population is called a sample survey.
 Surveys fall in 2 categories
 Cross sectional
 Longitudinal
Cross sectional survey
 A cross-sectional survey collects data to make
inferences/conclusions/suggestions about a
population of interest (universe) at one point in time.
Cross-sectional Study

 A Researcher studies a stratified group of subjects at

one point in time
 Draws conclusions by comparing the characteristics
of the stratified groups
 Well-suited to describing variables and their
distribution patterns
 Can be used for examining associations;
determination of which variables are predictors and
which are outcomes depends on the hypothesis
Cross-sectional Study
 Example:
What is the prevalence of chlamydia in women age
18-35 in Kampala, and is it associated with the use
of oral contraceptives?
 Select a sample of 100 women attending an
STD clinic in the city of Kampala
 Measure the predictor and outcome variables
by taking a history of oral contraceptive use
and sending a cervical swab to the lab for
chlamydia culture
o A questionnaire may be used to gather
information about oral contraceptive
history
Strengths
 Fast and inexpensive
 No loss to follow-up (no follow-up)
 Ideal for studying prevalence
 Convenient for examining potential networks of
causal links
Weaknesses:
 Difficult to establish a causal relationship from
data collected in a cross-sectional time-frame
(Lack of a temporal relationship between
predictor variables and outcome variables - Does
not establish sequence of events)
 Not practical for studying rare phenomena
Longitudinal research design
 A longitudinal study follows the same sample over
time and makes repeated observations.
 With it, for example, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling
researchers to track changes over time and to relate
them to variables that might explain why the
changes occur.
Longitudinal research design
 It helps describe patterns of change and help
establish the direction and magnitude of causal
relationships.
 Measurements are taken on each variable over two
or more distinct time periods. This allows the
researcher to measure change in variables over
time.
 It is involves observation or a type of observational
study.
Correlational studies

The purpose of correlational studies is to:

 Describe relationships that exist among variables
 Use the known correlation to predict from one
variable to another
Correlational research design

 A correlation is a relationship between two

variables (or “factors that change”).
 These factors can be characteristics, attitudes,
behaviors, or events.
 Correlational research attempts to determine if a
relationship exists between the two variables, and
the degree of that relationship.
 Compares two or more characteristics from the
same group of people
 Does not show cause and effect
 Shows how two characteristics vary together
(explain), and how well one can be predicted
(predict) from knowledge of the other
Exploratory Research

 Exploratory research is usually conducted at the outset of

research projects.
 It is usually conducted when the researcher does not know
much about the problems.
 Uses of exploratory design
 Gain background information
 Define terms
 Clarify problems and hypothesis
 Establish research priorities
 Exploratory Research

 The investigator examines a phenomenon of

interest and explores its dimensions, including how
it relates to other factors.
 Proven relationships between the phenomenon and
other factors can lead to predictive models
 Correlational studies, cohort and case control,
secondary analysis, historical research
Cohort Study

 A group of individuals who do not yet have the

outcome of interest are followed together over time
to see who develops the condition
 Participants are interviewed or observed to
determine the presence or absence of certain
exposures, risks, or characteristics
 May be simply descriptive
 May identify risk by comparing the incidence of
specific outcomes in exposed and not exposed
participants
Cohort Study
Strengths
 Powerful strategy for defining incidence and
investigating potential causes of an outcome
before it occurs
 Time sequence strengthens inference that the
factor may cause the outcome
Weaknesses
 Expensive – many subjects must be studied to
observe outcome of interest
 Potentialconfounders: e.g. cigarette smoking
might confound the association between exercise
and heart disease
Case-Control Study
 Generally reflective
 Identify groups with or without the condition
 Look backward in time to find differences in
predictor variables that may explain why the cases
got the condition and the controls did not
 Assumption is that differences in exposure histories
should explain why the cases have the condition
 Data collection via direct interview, mailed
questionnaire, chart review
Case-Control Study
 Example
Purpose: To determine whether there is an association between
the use of aspirin and the development of Reye’s syndrome in
children.
1. Draw the sample of cases – 30 patients who have had
Reye’s syndrome
2. Draw the sample of controls – 60 patients from the
much larger population who have had minor viral
illnesses without Reye’s syndrome
3. Measure the predictor variable: ask patients in both
groups about their use of aspirin
 Qualitative research designs
Qualitative research designs include:
 Case study
 Phenomenology

 Ethnography

 Historical

 Exploratory

 Grounded Theory
 Case study research design
 It is a qualitative research design that performs in-
depth investigation of a narrow situation rather than a
broad statistical survey.
 It narrows a broad area of research into one case
within that field.
 Case studies include data from field notes, interviews
and archival information.
 Case studies have a smaller number with more depth.
 Often involves direct observation or interviews.
 Examples include simple subject research, or small
single social units such as family, a club, a school, etc
Case Study
Example:
In 1848, young railroad worker, Phineas Gage, was forcing gun
powder into a rock with a long iron rod when the gun powder
exploded. The iron rod shot through his cheek and out the top of
his head, resulting in substantial damage to the frontal lobe of his
brain. Incredibly, he did not appear to be seriously injured. His
memory and mental abilities were intact, and he could speak and
work. However, his personality was markedly changed. Before the
accident, he had been a kind and friendly person, but afterward
he became ill-tempered and dishonest.

Phineas Gage’s injury served as a case study for the effects of

frontal lobe damage. He did not lose a specific mental ability,
such as the ability to speak or follow directions. However, his
personality and moral sense were altered. It is now known that
parts of the cortex (called the association areas) are involved in
general mental processes, and damage to those areas can greatly
change a person’s personality.
Case Study Design
Strengths
 Enables understanding of the totality of an individual’s
(or organization, community) experience
 The in-depth examination of a situation or ‘case’ can
lead to discovery of relationships that were not obvious
before
 Useful for generating new hypotheses or for describing
new phenomena
Weaknesses
 No control group
 Prone to selection bias and confounding
 The interaction of environmental and personal
characteristics make it weak in internal validity
 Limited generalizability
 Phenomenology
 This describes accurately the lived experiences of
people.
 It does not aim at generating theories or models of
the phenomenon being studied.
 It is an approach mostly often used by psychologists.
 They seek to explain the "structure and essence of
the experiences" of a group of people
 It is concerned with understanding a certain group of
behaviors from that group's point of view.
 Ethnography
 Goal is to learn about a culture from the people who
actually live in that culture.
 What is a culture?
 A culture is an ethnic population, a society, a
community, an organization, or a social world.
 Ethnography has its roots in cultural
anthropology, which aims to describe the values,
beliefs, and practices of cultural groups.
 The process of ethnography is characterized by
intensive, ongoing, face to face involvement with
participants of the culture being studied and by
participating in their settings and social worlds
during a period of fieldwork.
 Data is essentially collected through participant
observation and in-depth interviewing to allow
researcher to learn about the meanings that
informants attach to their knowledge, behaviors,
and activities.
Historical research
 This is the study of a problem that requires
collecting information from the past
 The study involves studying, understanding and
experiencing past events
 Historical researchers seek data that already exists
 The researcher determines if the data adequately
explores the events in which he/she is interested
 What is grounded theory research?
 A grounded theory design is a systematic,
qualitative procedure used to generate a theory that
explains, at a broad conceptual level, a process, an
action, or interaction about a substantive topic.
When do you use grounded theory research?
 To generate a theory rather than use one “off the
shelf”
 To explain a process, action, or interaction
 When you want a step-by-step, systematic procedure
 When you want to stay close to the data
 Based on facts, reason, reliable evidence
 In touch with reality
 Based on personal feelings at times
Design in the Research Process
 Classification of designs
Quantitative
Approaches

Non-Experimental
Designs Qualitative
Experimental Approaches explana
Designs tory

Explanatory Historical
True Case study
experiment descriptive
Case
study
Pre -
Phinomelogical Grounded theory
experimental
Quasi
surveys ethnography

exploratory correlation
Major sources
Portney LG, Watkins MP. 2000. Foundations of Clinical
Research: applications to practice. 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall Health
Hulley SB, Cummings SR. 1998. Designing Clinical
Research: an epidemiologic approach. Baltimore, MD:
Williams and Wilkins
Cook TD, Campbell DT. 1979. Quasi-Experimentation: design
& analysis issues for field settings. Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company