Grid Tied Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power Generation

System for Peak Load Management

Sooraj Suresh Kumar Nirmal Mukundan C M Jayaprakash P
Department of EEE Department of EEE Department of EEE
Government College of Government College of Government College of
Engineering, Kannur Engineering, Kannur Engineering, Kannur
Kerala, India Kerala, India Kerala, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Manoj Kumar M V
Department of EEE
Government College of
Engineering, Kannur
Kerala, India
[email protected]

Abstract—Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) based can enable internal reformation of hydrogen. This enables the
Transportation system have been reported as the future of FCEVs to operate with a wide variety of fuels.
human society. The SOFC based systems are pollution free and
it converts fuel to electrical energy at high efficiency. The use One of the major application of SOFC based CaPP will
of these fuel cell electric vehicle as stationary power production be in comes in distributed power generation [2], [3].
unit has added to the future prospects of such systems. This Normally the peak load demands will be much higher than
will help in creating a network of decentralized small scale the base load demands. This makes it necessary to have extra
power production units in the grid. Such power production power plants to meet the peak load demands. Thus the
units can be used effectively to meet the peak power demands concept of CaPP can be used to meet the peak load demands
in the grid. by integrating those systems with the grid. Along with
cogeneration techniques such systems can operate with high
This paper proposes a grid tied Solid Oxide Fuel Cell efficiency (60%). Reference [3] also highlights the
(SOFC) system. The mathematical modelling of fuel cell given limitations and benefits of fuel cell power plants when used
literature has been analysed and a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell as Distributed Generators (DG).
(SOFC) model has been simulated. The SOFC has been further
connected to a boost converter and an inverter to create a grid As the application of fuel cells is growing there has been
connected power generation system. Synchronous reference a need for accurate mathematical modelling of fuel cell
frame (SRF) theory has been used to syncronise the output of systems. Various papers has been proposed over the years on
the proposed system to the grid. The proposed system has also this topic. Section II of this paper reviews various literatures
been simulated using MATLAB with its Simpower system dealing with modelling of fuel cell.
Blockset. The performance of the proposed system is found to
be satisfactory. The output power from a fell cell needs to be conditioned
according to the load requirements. Section III of this paper
Keywords— Solid Oxide Fuel Cell, Car as Power Plant, reviews various power conditioning methods related to the
Dynamic model, local load, Grid tied, Distributed Generation, connection of fuel cell to stand alone and grid connected
Synchronous reference frame. loads. Section IV of this paper gives the modelling of a grid
connected SOFC power plant using Matlab Simulink.
I. INTRODUCTION Section V of this paper gives the conclusion of this paper.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are being proposed as
an alternative to the internal combustion engine vehicles II. MODELLING OF FUEL CELL
(ICEVs). This will be an important step towards the global A. Calculation of Fuel Cell Output Voltage
target of reducing the global greenhouse gas emission. Major
automotive manufactures like Honda, Hyundai, Toyota and The output voltage of a SOFC can be obtained using
Mercedes Benz have introduced fuel cell vehicles into the Nernst’s equation [4] and the considering various losses in
market. The market penetration of such vehicle are expected fuel cell. Calculation of
to rise rapidly is the upcoming decade.
(1)
A notable observation about the usage of vehicles is that
they are used for only a few hours each day. This has led to a
concept called Car as Power Plant (CaPP) [1]. Here the
FCEV doubles as a stationary power generation unit. It has (2)
been observed that such power generation system have
higher efficiency as compared to conventional fossil fuel
Where:
based power plants (38% in full load condition). Further the
use of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) technology for FCEVs : Output voltage of fuel cell (V)
: Reversible open circuit voltage (V)
: Voltage drop due to Activation loss (V)

978-1-5386-8158-9/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE

 : Voltage drop due to Concentration loss (V) : Flow rate of Hydrogen (kmol/s)
: Voltage drop due to Ohmic loss (V) : Flow rate of Oxygen (kmol/s)
: Standard reversible cell potential (V) : Fuel processor response time (s)
: Universal gas constant, 8.314 (J/mol K) : Reaction constant (kmol/s A)
: Stack temperature (K) : Optimal fuel utilization
: Faraday’s constant, 96487 (C/mol) : Ratio of hydrogen to Oxygen
: Number of cell in the stack
: Partial pressure of Hydrogen (Pa) The derivation of the equations for partial pressures and
: Partial pressure of Oxygen (Pa) flow rates can be seen in [6], [8] - [10]. The important
: Partial pressure of Water (Pa) equations needed for modeling has been given as a table in
[5].
From (2) we can see there are various losses in a fuel C. Importance of Fuel Utilisation Factor
cell, namely: Ohmic losses, Concentration losses and
Another important criteria need for proper operation of
Activation losses. Detailed description and equations for fuel cell is Utilization factor. It is the ratio of fuel flow that
calculation of these losses have been given in [5]. Further it reacts and input fuel flow [11]. It is given by the equation:
has been assumed that concentration and activation losses
can be neglected. Ohmic loss is only considered during
(10)
modeling of SOFC. So the (2) can be modified as:

(3) Where:
: Flow rate of hydrogen at input (kmol/s)
Where: : Flow rate of hydrogen at output (kmol/s)
: Fuel cell output current (A) : Flow rate of reacted hydrogen (kmol/s)
: Internal resistance of fuel cell (V)
Usually the fuel utilisation is kept between 70% - 90%
B. Calculation of Partial Pressures and Flow Rates [12]. If fuel utilisation is less (Underused Fuel), then the cell
The various assumption for modelling of fuel cell voltage will rise rapidly and output power will fall. If fuel
systems have been given in [3], [6] - [8]. Further the utilisation increases above the limit (Overused Fuel), then
conditions imposed by the simulator on the model have been cells will suffer from fuel starvation causing permanent
highlighted in [3], [8]. damage. So an optimal value of fuel utilisation ratio ( ) is
selected between maximum and minimum fuel utilistion
In a fuel cell oxygen and hydrogen chemically combines ratio . Equation to calculate fuel utilisation
to form water. The partial pressure of hydrogen, oxygen and and details on its limits can be referred in [11] - [13]. In [13]
water are given by the following equations: further analysis is done to find a Feasible Operating Area
(FEA) for operation of SOFC. This is done by using graphs
(4) and equation relating Utilisation factor, Stack current and
Stack voltage. Reference [12] also highlights the advantages
of fixing the optimal value of fuel cell.
D. Operational limits of plant
(5)
For proper and safe control of a fuel cell when used as a
power plant, its operational limits should be known [3], [8].
The various limits to be considered are:
(6)  Underused fuel – The output current taken by load is
less in relation to the fuel available for reaction.

(7)  Overused fuel – The output current taken by load is

excess in relation to the fuel available for reaction.

(8)  Stack over-voltage – The voltage given by stack is

very high
 Stack under-voltage – The voltage given by stack is
(9) very low, which can cause the plant to lose its
synchronism with network.
Where: E. Fuel Cell model
: Valve molar constant for Hydrogen (kmol/(s.atm))
: Valve molar constant for Oxygen (kmol/(s.atm)) The model of fuel cell is made with help of (1) – (10).
: Valve molar constant for Water (kmol/(s.atm)) Reference [8] gives the basic dynamic model of SOFC can
: Response time for Hydrogen flow (s) be used to study its performance. This model form has
: Response time for Oxygen flow (s) become the benchmark for subsequent studies. A similar
: Response time for Water flow (s) model have been given in [7]. Further models that were
 I fc Balance Power
Fuel Cell
of plant Conditioning
2Kr Kr r (BOP)
Stack
unit
-
+ Load
+
1 qO2 -
1 +
U opt
 fs 1 qH 2 rHO +

1 1 1 Plant Controller
K H2 K H 2O K O2
1  H 2 s 1   H 2O s 1  O2 s Fig. 2. Block diagram of SOFC Power Plant

pH 2 pH 2O pO2

RT  pH pO2  -
Fuel Cell Pfc DC/DC Pconv Pinv
N [E o
 ln  2
] + + V fc Inverter Grid
2F 

p H 2O  E

Stack Converter
Fig. 3. Fuel cell system with DC/DC converter and DC/AC
inverter
Fig. 1. Model of SOFC
created by also considering the fuel processor [10] -
[13].The detailed model of SOFC for implementing the Fuel Cell Pfc Pinv
Inverter Grid
model in a simulation software have been given in [11]. The Stack
implementation of the model in PSCAD software for Fig. 4. Fuel cell system with only DC/AC inverter
simulation have been shown in [9], [15], [16]. The values
for various parameters for implementation of model can be A. Power Conditioning Unit
taken from [11]. The model of SOFC is given in fig. 1. Fuel cells generate DC power, while grid and commercial
Further [10] proposes the application of Auto Regression load need AC power. The uses of PCU has been highlighted
with Exogenous signal (ARX) for lower order system model in [17]. The fuel also have some special requirements which
for SOFC. In the paper model for SOFC was created and must be considered during design of PCU. Those
ARX algorithm was used to model to the transfer function requirement includes – Prevention of reverse current,
for the system. The new model was checked in a test system Reducing input ripple current, need for secondary energy
made with IEEE test feeders. The operation with new model source for fast response (to power variations) and to provide
was found to be similar with operation of actual SOFC electrical isolation[17]. Also there is a need for power
power plants in power system. electronic device to have a thermal isolation from the fuel
cell.
III. SOFC POWER PLANT
Fuel cell power plants are promising alternative to the The various converter topologies that are applicable for
conventional fossil fuel based power plants [12]. SOFC fuel cells used in power application have been reviewed in
power plant are flexible and controllable, making it useful in [17]. Basically all the available topologies can be classified
microgrid. It can be used to fill power gap caused by the into two groups. The first group has a two stage conversion,
unbalance power condition caused by the variation in power as shown in fig. 3. The DC/DC converter helps in boosting
supply from the renewable sources (solar, wind) or due to the DC output from the fuel cell. The inverter helps in the
sudden change in load. interface of system with AC grid. The kind of topology has
more no of switched and it can work of a wide range of
The basic block diagram of a fuel cell power plant has voltage (from the fuel cell). The dc converter can be a boost
been given in fig. 2. The main part of a SOFC power plant is [9], [15], [18] or buck boost converter [5], [19]. The second
the fuel cell stack, which is responsible for the production of type of topology uses a single stage conversion by using an
DC power by oxidation of fuel. The number of cells in the inverter as shown in fig. 4 [6] - [8], [10], [12], [13], [16].
stack depends on the output power requirements. The This topology uses less no of switches, but the voltage from
Balance of Plant (BoP) equipment are used for controlling, the fuel cell should be within a small range. This is not an
processing and supply of fuel and oxidant to the fuel cell issue because fuel cells are usually operated with a constant
stack. It also manages the exhaust flow from the stack. The fuel utilization factor, which limits the voltage variation. .
power conditioning unit (PCU) helps in converting the dc
power output of stack to AC power which is required by the B. Control of fuel cell power plant..
load. The load is usually a grid connected load, but at times it The output fuel cell power plant can be supplied to a
can be standalone load. It can also be a DC load. The plant standalone load or gird. To increase the effectiveness of fuel
controller monitors and controls the BoP, FC stack and the cell power plants it should be able to supply the power
PCU. It monitors the load and gives control commands to according to the load or gird requirements. Besides for grid
PCU which help in the proper interface and load sharing with connection, the power generated must synchronise with the
the grid. The output power flow is also controlled by grid power. For the above mentioned purposes an effective
controlling the PCU and the BoP (control of fuel flow). control of the plant is needed. As shown in fig. 2 this is done
by the plant controller. By controlling the PCU the
synchronising of power plant with the grid is possible. Also
 Fig. 5. Model of SOFC power plant for peak load management

the power flow can be controlled by controlling the PCU. controlling the firing angle of inverter. The second one
Another control option available is the controlling the power controls the voltage by controlling the modulation index of
output from the fuel cell. But it should be noted that the fuel the converter. This control methods give good operation
cell output cannot be controlled directly. From (8) and (10) it even under fault condition.
can be observed that output current is proportional to flow
rate of hydrogen to fuel cell. By controlling the fuel input (by A combinational control of fuel flow to SOFC and
controlling BoP) to the fuel cell its output can be controlled. control of fuel cell has been proposed in [13]. A strategy
But it should be noted that while control of input fuel flow, block is used to obtain a reference fuel cell current
depending on online values of error in power and fuel
the operational limits of power plant mentioned in the
previous section must be taken care. So optimal control of utilization factor. During a power change the new reference
current can be found by four methods - step change in
PCU and fuel flow must be achieved for safe operation of
plant. This control also help to overcome limitation that fuel reference current, ramp change in reference current,
cell that it has a slow response time. PCU has a fast response combination of step and ramp and finally online control.
time, so proper control can help in achieving operational Among them online method is found to be most effective.
balance during transient conditions. In distributed generation application fuel cell generators
Various control methods have been given in different are used along with other renewable energy sources. The
papers. PQ theory has been used for controlling the PCU [8] performance of a wind – fuel cell hybrid system along with
[16] and [19] to regulate the output power flow. These STATCOM is studied in [14]. The hybrid consists of a
systems performs well in constant load condition. But in PMSG, SCIG, DFIG and SOFC. The STATCOM is used to
variable load condition, momentary spikes are observed in improve the transient voltage stability and help the hybrid
system to remain connected to the grid during a fault
fuel utilization factor which goes beyond the limits. Besides
Phase locked loop (PLL) can also be used for synchronizing condition. The fault ride through capability of system is
the inverter output with the grid [14]. enhanced by the STATCOM.

The use of fuzzy logic controllers for controlling the A coordinated control strategy (CCS) has been proposed
PCU have been given in [18]. The system is found to be for control of SOFC power plant in microgrid application in
accurate even in absence of an accurate model. This control [12]. The similarities between SOFC – inverter system to the
conventional boiler - turbine system in the control point of
method is adaptive and hence performs well in variable load
conditions. view has been utilized in this method of control. Using this
theory, two control strategies have been proposed. First one
The output active and reactive power from the plant can is Fuel cell follows inverter coordinated control strategy. In
be controlled by controlling the output current [6]. The paper this method the inverter does the fast power tracking while
proposes current control through two methods – Constant fuel controller follows to bring fuel utilization factor to
current control and Constant power control. It is seen that reference value. The second control method is Inverter
these control methods gives a safe for operation during a follows fuel cell coordinated control strategy. In this method
sudden change in power. the fuel controller controls the power while the inverter
balances the DC and AC power to maintain fuel utilization
The control of PCU using two control loops has been
factor. It is observed that the current THD is high in this
proposed in [7]. One loop controls power output by
 Fig. 6. Model of grid syncronisation control

system. This issue can be solved by replacing the PI

controller in the system with a better controller.
IV. SIMULATION AND RESULT OF SOFC POWER PLANT
The model of an SOFC power plant used for supplying
peak load has been simulated in MATLAB using Simulink
platform. The block diagram of the power plant has been
shown in fig. 5. The fuel cell block available has been used.
The value used for modelling has been given in Appedix A.
The output voltage of the fuel cell has been boosted using a
boost converter. This output is then fed to a three phase Fig. 8. Parameters during grid connection
inverter. The output power from the inverter partly fed to a
local load and the excess energy is supplied to the grid.
The Grid Syncronisation control of inverter is shown in
fig. 6. The reference signal (Ig*) for the inverter is obtained
by using a control strategy based on Syncronous Reference
frame (SRF) theory and further Phase disposition – Pulse
Fig. 7. Input and output parameters of Fuel cell
width modulation (PD-PWM) is used to get the gating
signals [20]. The inputs given to the controller are load
current (IL), grid current (Ig), grid voltage (Vg) and V. CONCLUSION
converter voltage (Vconv). The three phase load current is The analysis of mathematical modelling of SOFC has
converted to two phase d-q components. The sine and cosine been done in this paper to model an SOFC in MATLAB. An
values for this transformation is obtained from the grid overview of various power converter topologies and control
voltage using phase locked loop (PLL). The DC component method for grid connection has been given. The simulation
corresponding to the fundamental load current is obtained of grid connected fuel cell power generation system has been
from the d- current by passing it through a low pass filter done. The proposed system is suitable for peak load
(LPF). Further the converter voltage is compared with the operation. The working of the plant to supply power to a
reference voltage needed for operation of inverter (Vactual), local load and the excess power to the grid has been
and fed to a Proportional integral (PI) controller. This signal successfully demonstrated.
is added mixed with the DC component of fundamental load
current. The resultant signal is converted to abc - reference APPENDIX
frame to get the grid reference currents (Ig*). These currents
are then compared with the real time grid current and fed to A. Parmeters for Sofc modelling
the PD-PWM which give the gate signal for the inverter.
TABLE I. PARAMETER FOR SOFC MODELLING
The result of the simulation has been shown in fig. 7 and
Parameter Symbol Value
fig. 8. Figure 7 shows various parameters related to the fuel
cell. It can be observed that partial pressures hydrogen and Absolute temprature T 1273 K
oxygen takes nearly 20 sec to settle, however the output Faraday,s constant F 96487C/mol
voltage and current settles down quickly after the initial 8413 J/(kmol
transients. The output voltage of the fuel cell is nearly 400V, Universal gas constant R
K)
which is boosted to 800V by the boost converter. The
Standard reversible cell potential 1.18 V
parameter of system during grid connection has been shown
in fig. 8. By observing fig. 8 we can observe that the fuel cell Number of cells in stack N 384
supplies current to the local load (IL). The excess current
Reaction constant
after supplying to the local load is injected into the grid. Grid kmol/s A
voltage (Vg) and Grid current (Ig) are out of phase, which Optimal fuel utilization 0.85
implies the current flows from the fuel cell power plant to
grid. It can also be observed that due to use of SRF control Maximum fuel utilization 0.9
the distortion in the injected current is very less. Minium fuel utilization 0.8
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