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Fundamentals
Physical Layer & Number Systems

Presented by:
Ivan Corral
Angel Solis
Angel Santillan
David Alanis
Jesus Aldana
Josue Fragoso
Introduction
The physical layer of the OSI model sits at the bottom of
the stack. It is part of the Network Access layer of the
TCP/IP model.
Understanding these information well will help us to apply
the theory during practices where these foundamental
concepts are involved

Without the physical layer, you would not have a network.

Module 4 Physical Layer
The Physical Connection: A physical connection can be a wired
connection using a cable or a wireless connection using radio waves.

The Physical Layer

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make
up a data link layer frame across the network media

This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes
it as a series of signals that are transmitted to the local media

The physical layer encodes the frames and creates the electrical, optical,
or radio wave signals that represent the bits in each frame
The destination node physical
layer retrieves these individual
signals from the media, restores
them to their bit representations,
and passes the bits up to the data
link layer as a complete frame.
 Physical Layer Characteristics

Physical Layer Standards

The services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
 Physical Components

The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the
bits. Hardware components such as NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards
associated with the physical layer.
 Encoding

Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a

predefined "code”. Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern
that can be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. In other words, encoding
is the method or pattern used to represent digital information.

Signaling
The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that
represent the "1" and "0" on the media. The way that bits are represented is called the
signaling method. The physical layer standards must define what type of signal
represents a "1" and what type of signal represents a "0". This can be as simple as a
change in the level of an electrical signal or optical pulse. For example, a long pulse
might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse might represent a 0.
 Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from
one place to another in a given amount of time.

Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

Bandwidth Terminology

Latency
It refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.

Throughput
It is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.

Goodput
It is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for
establishing sessions, acknowledgments, encapsulation, and retransmitted bits. Goodput is always lower than throughput,
which is generally lower than the bandwidth.
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Copper Cabling UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling Wireless Media

Types of
Connections
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Copper Cabling
Characteristics:
Inexpensive, easy to install, but limited by
distance and interference.
Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
and crosstalk.

Types:

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable: Common, with color-

coded twisted wire pairs.
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable: Better noise protection but
more expensive.
Coaxial cable: Two conductors, used in specific situations like
wireless installations.
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UTP Cabling
Properties:
Consists of color-coded twisted copper wire
pairs.
Utilizes cancellation and varying twists to reduce
crosstalk.

Standards and Connectors:

Follows TIA/EIA standards with RJ-45 connectors.

Categorized by performance levels (e.g., Category 5e,
Category 6).

Straight-through and Crossover Cables:

Serve different connection needs with T568A and T568B

standards.
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Properties:
Transmits data via light impulses over long
distances with minimal signal loss.
Classified into single-mode fiber (SMF) and
multimode fiber (MMF).

Usage:
Deployed in enterprise networks, fiber-to-the-home (FTTH),
long-haul networks, and submarine cable networks.

Connectors and Patch Cords:

Terminated with connectors like ST, SC, LC for interconnecting

devices.
Patch cords distinguish single-mode (yellow) and multimode
(orange/aqua).
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Wireless Media
Properties:
Utilizes radio or microwave frequencies for data
transmission.
Provides mobility but faces limitations in
coverage, interference, and security.

Types:
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16),
Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4).

Wireless LAN (WLAN):

Components include Wireless Access Points (AP) and NIC

adapters.
Ensures compatibility with various WLAN Ethernet-based
standards.
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Properties and
limitations
Coverage area......
Interference.....

Security .....

Shared medium.....
Types of wireless media.
The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications cover both
the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer specifications are applied
to areas that include the following:

Data to radio signal encoding

Frequency and power of transmission
Signal reception and decoding requirements
Antenna design and construction

Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)
WiMAX (IEEE 802:16)
Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4)
Wireless LAN.
A common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to connect
wirelessly via a LAN. In general, a WLAN requires the following network devices:

Wireless Access Point (AP) - These concentrate the wireless signals from
users and connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure,
such as Ethernet. Home and small business wireless routers integrate the
functions of a router, switch, and access point into one device, as shown in
the figure.
Wireless NIC adapters - These provide wireless communication capability
to network hosts.
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Binary and IPv4 Addresses

IPv4 addresses begin as binary, a series of only 1s and 0s. These are
difficult to manage, so network administrators must convert them to
decimal. This topic shows you a few ways to do this.

Binary is a numbering system that consists of the digits 0 and 1 called bits.
In contrast, the decimal numbering system consists of 10 digits consisting
of the digits 0 – 9.

Binary is important for us to understand because hosts, servers, and

network devices use binary addressing. Specifically, they use binary IPv4
addresses, as shown in the figure, to identify each other.
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Binary Positional Notation

Learning to convert binary to decimal requires an
understanding of positional notation. Positional
notation means that a digit represents different
values depending on the “position” the digit occupies
in the sequence of numbers.
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Binary to decimal
Decimal to binary
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Hexadecimal and IPV6 Adresses.
First of all, to understand IPv6 addresses, you must be able to convert hexadecimal to decimal and vice versa.

Just as decimal is a base ten number system, hexadecimal is a base sixteen system. The base sixteen number
system uses the digits 0 to 9 and the letters A to F.

The hexadecimal numbering system is used in networking to represent IP Version 6 addresses and Ethernet MAC
addresses.
IPV6
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and every 4 bits is represented by a single hexadecimal digit; for a total
of 32 hexadecimal values. IPv6 addresses are not case-sensitive and can be written in either lowercase or
uppercase.

As shown in the figure, the preferred format for writing an IPv6 address is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, with each “x” consisting of four
hexadecimal values. When referring to 8 bits of an IPv4 address we use the term octet. In IPv6, a hextet is the
unofficial term used to refer to a segment of 16 bits or four hexadecimal values. Each “x” is a single hextet, 16 bits, or
four hexadecimal digits.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversions
Converting decimal numbers to hexadecimal values is straightforward. Follow the steps listed:

Convert the decimal number to 8-bit binary strings.

Divide the binary strings in groups of four starting from the rightmost position.
Convert each four binary numbers into their equivalent hexadecimal digit.

The example provides the steps for converting 168 to hexadecimal.

For example, 168 converted into hex using the three-step process.

168 in binary is 10101000.

10101000 in two groups of four binary digits is 1010 and 1000.
1010is hex A and 1000 is hex 8.

Answer: 168 is A8 in hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversions
Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal values is also straightforward. Follow the steps listed:

Convert the hexadecimal number to 4-bit binary strings.

Create 8-bit binary grouping starting from the rightmost position.
Convert each 8-bit binary grouping into their equivalent decimal digit.

This example provides the steps for converting D2 to decimal.

D2 in 4-bit binary strings is 1101 and 0010.

1101 and 0010 is 11010010 in an 8-bit grouping.
11010010 in binary is equivalent to 210 in decimal.

Answer: D2 in hexadecimal is 210 in decimal.

Conversion table
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