Load Characteristics

&
Load Metrics
(Part II)

1
Outlines
♦ Introduction
♦ Classifications of loads
– Residential loads
– Industrial loads
– Commercial loads
– Agricultural loads
♦ Load characteristics
– Basic Definitions
– Load factors
♦ Examples
♦ Application of load characteristics
♦ Load Modeling

2
 Load Metrics (Definitions)

Demand
Load averaged over a specific period of time and it can be kW, kvar, kVA, or A
Example: the 15-minute kW demand is 100 kW

Maximum Demand
Greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time and it must include
demand interval, period, and units
Example: the 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW

Average Demand
The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month, etc.)
and it must include demand interval, period, and units
Example: the 15-minute average kW demand for the month was 350 kW

3
 Load Metrics (Definitions)
Diversified Demand
Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period and it
must include demand interval, period, and units
Example: the 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period ending at 9:30 was 200 kW

Maximum Diversified Demand

Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads over a
particular period and it must include demand interval, period, and units
Example: the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week was 500 kW

Maximum Noncoincident Demand

For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands without any
restriction that they occur at the same time. It must include demand interval,
period, and units
Example: the maximum noncoincident 15-minute kW demand for the week was 700 kW

4
 Load Metrics (Definitions)
Demand Factor
Ratio of maximum demand to connected load
Maximum demand
Demand Factor (DF) 
Total connected load
Load Factor
Ratio of the average demand of any individual customer or group of customers
over a period to the maximum demand over the same period

Average 15  min kW demand

Load Factor ( FLD ) 
Max 15  min kW demand

Utilization Factor
Ratio of the maximum demand to rated capacity

Maximum KVA Demand

Utilizatio n Factor ( Fu ) 
Transforme r kVA Rating

5
 Load Metrics (Definitions)
Diversity Factor
Ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand to the maximum diversified
demand
Maximum noncoincid ent demand
Diversity Factor  FD 
Maximum diversifie d demand
n

D i
FD  i 1
Dg
Load Diversity
Difference between maximum noncoincident demand and the maximum
diversified demand

 n 
LD    Di   Dg
 i 1 

6
 Example 1
N FD N FD

1 1 11 2.67

2 1.6 12 2.7

3 1.8 13 2.74

4 2.1 14 2.78

5 2.2 15 2.8
T1 T2 T3
6 2.3 16 2.82

7 2.4 17 2.84

8 2.55 18 2.86

9 2.6 19 2.88

1 2.65 20 2.9

1. For each transformer find,

a) the 15-minute non-coincident maximum kW demand
b) The 15-minute diversified kW demand
c) The 15-minute maximum kVA diversified demand for each transformer
assuming power factor = 0.9
2. Repeat parts a and b for each line segment.
7
 Example 1, Solution

T1:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 12.4+13.4+16.1+12.9+11.9 = 66.7 kW

Non  coincident max 66.7

Max. Div. demand    30.3 kW
Diversity factor for 5 2.2

T2:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 12.9+13.8+14.2+16.3+14.3+17 = 81.6 kW

Non  coincident max 81.6

Max. Div. demand    35.5 kW
Diversity factor for 6 2.3

T3:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 17+15.1+16.7+18.3+17.3+16.1+17 = 117.5 kW

Non  coincident max 117.5

Max. Div. demand    49.5 kW
Diversity factor for 7 2.4
8
 Example 1, Solution

30 .3
Max. kVA T1 . demand   33 .6 kVA
0.9
35 .5
Max. kVA T2 . demand   39 .4 kVA
0 .9
49 .0
Max. kVA T3 . demand   54 .4 kVA
0 .9

Segment N1-N2

The maximum non-coincident kW demand is the sum of

the maximum demands of all 18 customers.
Non-coincident max. demand: 66.7+81.6+117.5 = 265.5 kW

Non  coincident max 265.8

Max. Div. demand    92.8 kW
Diversity factor for 18 2.86

9
 Example 1, Solution

Segment N2-N3

The line sees 13 customers. The maximum non-coincident

kW demand will be
Non-coincident max. demand: 81.6+117.5 = 199.1 kW

Non  coincident max 199.1

Max. Div. demand    72.6 kW
Diversity factor for 13 2.74

Segment N3-N4

The line segment sees the same non-coincident demand

and diversified demand as that of transformer T3.

10
 Example 2

There are six residential customers connected to a

distribution transformer as shown below. Assume that the
connected load is 9 kW per house and that the demand
factor and diversity factor are 0.65 and 1.1 respectively.
Determine the following:
a)The diversified demand on the distribution transformer.
b)The needed rating of the transformer if the power factor
is 0.85 lagging and available standard transformer ratings
are 10, 25, 35, 50 and 100 kVA.

11
 Example 2, solution

 TCD  DF i i
The diversified demand Dg  i 1
FD
6

 9  0.65
Dg  i 1
 31.9 kW
1.1

31 .9
The kVA rating will be: kVA   37 .5 kVA
0.85

To avoid any overloading of the transformer the closest

transformer will be the 50 kVA.

12
 Example 3

For the following data find

the following:
a) The class contribution factors
for each of the three load
classes.
b) The diversity factor for the
primary feeder.
c) The diversified maximum
demand of the load group.
d) The coincident factor of the
load group.

13
 Example 3, solution

For better visualization to the load, the summation of the

three loads is added as shown below

14
 Example 3, solution

a) The class contribution is defined as:

class demand at time of system peak

ci 
class non - coincident maximum demand

0 kW
cstreet  0
100 kW

600 kW
cresidential   0 .6
1000 kW

1200 kW
ccommercial   1.0
1200 kW

15
 Example 3, solution
n

D i
b) The diversity factor is defined as: FD  i 1

Dg

As previously defined, the maximum diversified demand is defined

as follows:

Dg  c1  D1  c2  D2  ...  cn  Dn
n

D i
100  1000  1200
FD  i 1
  1.278
n
0 100  0.6 1000  1.0 1200
c  D
i 1
i i

16
 Example 3, solution

c) The maximum diversified demand

Dg  c1  D1  c2  D2  ...  cn  Dn  1800 kW

Also this can be shown

from the previous figure.

d) Coincidence factor :

1 1
FC    0.7825
FD 1.278

17
Application of Load Characteristics

♦ There are two main types of applications

to load characteristics in distribution
systems;
– Loss evaluation
– Load estimation.

18
Loss Evaluation
♦ During a specified interval, assume the load is
“a” for time t1, “b” for time t2, and “c” for time t3.
The average load (demand) is

a  t1  b  t 2  c  t3
Pav 
t1  t 2  t3
♦ The demand loss is then calculated as
2
 a  t1  b  t 2  c  t3 
PLS ,av  k  P  k  
2

t1  t 2  t3
av
 

where: k is the proportionality constant

19
 The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors
♦ Consider the following primary feeder connected to a variable load

PLS,1

P1
♦ Assume also that the load is characterized by the following arbitrarily and ideal
daily load curve

♦ load factor and loss factors for this daily

load curve are:

Pav P
FLD   av
Pmax P2

PLS ,av PLS ,av

FLS  
PLS ,max PLS , 2

20
The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors, cont’d

FLD 
Pav P
 av But P2  t  P1  (T  t )
Pav 
Pmax P2 T
P2  t  P1  (T  t ) t P1 (T  t )
FLD  FLD   
P2  T T P2 T

PLS ,av PLS ,av

Also, FLS  P 
PLS , 2
LS , max

t PLS ,1 (T  t )
FLS   
It can be shown that: T PLS , 2 T

21
The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors, cont’d

The copper losses are the function of the associated loads:

PLS ,1  k  P12 PLS , 2  k  P22

2
t  P1  (T  t )
FLS     
T  P2  T

Using the above equations, the load factor can be

related to the loss factor for three different cases:
a) Off-peak load is zero
b) Very short lasting peak
c) Load is steady

22
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, cont’d

a) Off-peak load is zero:

PLS ,1  0 and P1  0

t
FLD  FLS 
T
b) Very short lasting peak:
T t
t 0 and 1
T

FLS  FLD 
2

23
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, cont’d

c) Load is steady t T

In this case the difference between the peak load and the
off-peak load is negligible. An example for such load is a
petrochemical plant.
FLS  FLD

So, the value of the loss factor is:

F2LD  FLS  FLD
Therefore, in general, the loss factor cannot be determined
from load factor. However, limiting values of the relation
can be found.
24
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, cont’d

 Buller and Woodrow developed an approximate

formula to relate the loss factor with the load factor.
For urban areas:

FLS  0.3FLD  0.7 FLD

2

 For rural areas, the formula has been modified as

follows:
FLS  0.16FLD  0.84FLD
2

Both FLD and FLS are in per unit

25
 Load Estimation
♦ Estimation of Residential Distribution Transformer Loads
Based on the following paper:
C.E. Arvidson, “Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential
Distribution Transformer Loads”, Edison Electr. Inst. Bull., Vol.8,
October 1940, pp 469-479.

26
 Maximum Diversified 30 Min Demand Characteristics
Of Various Modern Residential Loads Figure *

* C.E. Arvidson, “Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential Distribution Transformer Loads”, Edison
Electr. Inst. Bull., Vol.8, October 1940, pp 469-479. 27
 Maximum Diversified 30 Min Demand Characteristics
of Various Modern Residential Loads Figure *
a = clothes dryer;
b = off-peak water heater, "off-peak" load;
c = water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked elements;
d = range;
e = lighting and miscellaneous appliances;
f = 0.5-hp room coolers;
g = off-peak water heater, "on-peak" load, upper element uncontrolled;
h = oil burner;
i = home freezer;
j = refrigerator;
k = central air-conditioning, including heat-pump cooling, 5 hp heat pump (4-ton air
conditioner);
l = house heating, including heat-pump-heating-connected load of 15 kW unit-type
resistance heating or 5-hp heat pump.

* C.E. Arvidson, “Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential Distribution Transformer Loads”, Edison Electr. Inst. Bull.,
Vol.8, October 1940, pp 469-479.

28
Hourly Variation Factor Table *

29
 Hourly Variation Factor Table *

* = Load cycle and Maximum diversified demand are dependent on

outside temperature, dwelling construction and insulation among
other factors.

† = Load cycle and maximum diversified demands are dependent on

tank size, and heater element rating: values shown apply to 52-gal
tank, 1500 and 1000 W elements.

‡ = Load cycle is dependent on schedule of Water heater restriction.

§ = Hourly variation factor is dependent on living habits of individuals:

in a particular area, values may be different from those shown.

* C.E. Arvidson, “Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential Distribution Transformer Loads”, Edison Electr. Inst. Bull., Vol.8, October 1940, pp
469-479.

30
 Load Estimation
♦ Step 1: Determine the total number of appliances by multiplying
the total number of customers by the per unit saturation.

♦ Step 2: From the curve in the Maximum diversified 30 min

demand characteristics figure, obtain the corresponding
diversified demand per customer for the given number of
customers.

♦ Step 3: The maximum demand is obtained by multiplying the

demand found in step 2 by the total number of appliances.

♦ Step 4: The contribution of this type of load to the group

maximum demand is obtained by multiplying the resultant value
from step 3 by the corresponding hourly variation factor found in
the Hourly variation factor table.

31
 Load Models
 Load Modeling can be utilized in static and dynamic applications.

 Static applications: Not time dependent. Incorporate only the voltage-

dependent characteristic include the following.
– Power flow (PF)
– Distribution power flow (DPF)
– Harmonic power flow (HPF)
– Transmission power flow (TPF)
– Voltage profile (VP)

 Dynamic applications: Time dependent. Incorporate both the voltage -

and frequency-dependent characteristics include the following;
– Transient stability (TS)
– Dynamic stability (DS)
– Voltage stability (VS)
– Operator training simulators (OTS)

24-Jan-18 32
 Simple Load Models
 Loads can be represented by one of the following simple
models for simple analysis,
– Constant power: The load is assumed to draw constant power
independent on the applied voltage or weather conditions.

– Constant impedance: The load is assumed to have constant

impedance independent on the applied voltage or weather
conditions.

– Constant current: The load is assumed to draw constant current

independent on the applied voltage or weather conditions.

 The choice of modeling depends on the required accuracy

as will be discussed later.

24-Jan-18 33
 Voltage Dependent Load Models
♦ These models express the active and reactive powers, at any
instant of time, as a function of the bus voltage magnitude and
frequency.
♦ Exponential load model: The load can be modeled as an
exponential function of voltage ( for a constant frequency)

34
Voltage Dependent Load Models, cont’d

♦ The following terminology is commonly used in

describing different types of load models.
- Constant impedance load model is a load model where
the power varies directly with the square of the voltage
magnitude. It may also be called a constant admittance load
model.
- Constant current load model is a load model where the
power varies directly with the voltage magnitude.
- Constant power load model is a load model where the
power does not vary with changes in voltage magnitude. It
may also be called constant MVA load model.

35
Voltage Dependent Load Models, cont’d
♦ Polynomial load model: It represents the power
relationship to voltage magnitude as a polynomial equation,
usually in the following form:

- The parameters of this model are the coefficients (a1 to a6)

and the power factor of the load. This model is sometimes
referred to as the “ZIP” model, since it consists of the sum of
constant impedance (Z), constant current (I), and constant
power (P) terms.
- Po and Qo are the real and reactive power consumed by the
load at nominal voltage respectively.
36
 Voltage Dependent Load Models, cont’d
 These models loads can be expressed as:


P  PO a o  a1 V  a 2 V 2 
Q  Q b
O o  b1 V  b2 V 2 
Where;
– a o  a1  a 2  1 and bo  b1  b2  1

– Po and Qo are the real and reactive power consumed by the load at
nominal voltage respectively.

 There are no standard values for the load model constants. However, the
Independent Market Operator (IMO) of Ontario uses 50% constant current and
50% constant impedance for real loads and 100% constant impedance for
reactive load, i.e. a0 = 0, a1 = 0.5, a2 = 0.5, b0 = 0, b1 = 0, b2 =1

24-Jan-18 37
 Application of Constant Impedance
Representation

♦ For certain voltage unbalance and motor starting

calculations, the constant impedance representation
may be used.
♦ It is developed assuming that all three phase loads
are balanced.
♦ Consider a balanced three phase load that
consumes certain active and reactive power at a
line to line voltage, the impedance of the load can
be calculated as follows:
P3 Q3
R  2
X 
3 I L 3 I 2 L

38
 Application of Constant Current
Representation
♦ In distribution circuit voltage drop and loading
calculations, the loads are typically modeled as
constant current sinks.
♦ It is assumed that both the current magnitude and
phase angle are constant regardless of the
applied voltage.
♦ This assumption results in a change in the power
consumed by the load, but provides sufficient
accuracy.

39
 Application of Constant Power
Representation

♦ In transmission system load flow and voltage drop

calculations, the constant power model is
commonly used.
♦ In this representation of the load, it is assumed
that the active, reactive and apparent power will
be constant regardless of the actual voltage
applied to the load.
♦ The current and voltage magnitudes will be
allowed to vary in order to maintain constant
power conditions.

40
 Z
Constant Impedance

Constant Power
P+jQ
Load Models Representations

Current source
41
Load Modeling Technique
♦ There are two approaches in load modeling,
a)The component based approach: Loads are
modeled based on the static and dynamic
behavior of all the individual loads; and
b)The measurement based approach: This
approach uses system identification to estimate a
proper model and its parameters.

42
 Component-Based Approach

♦ It is a “bottom-up” approach in that the different load

component types comprising load are identified.

♦ Each load component type is tested to determine the

relationship between real and reactive power
requirements versus applied voltage and frequency.

♦ A load model, typically in polynomial or exponential

form, is then developed from the respective test data.

♦ The range of validity of each model is directly related

to the range over which the component was tested.
43
Component-Based Approach (Cont’d)
♦ The load model is expressed in a per-unit basis (i.e.,
normalized with respect to rated power, rated voltage,
rated frequency, rated torque if applicable, and base
temperature if applicable).

♦ A composite load is approximated by combining

appropriate load model types in certain proportions
based on load survey information. The resulting
composition is referred to as a “load window.”

44
Component-Based Approach (Cont’d)

The following are examples for component load models, which

are constructed based on measurements conducted by EPRI
i) 1-ph Central Air Conditioner load
p  1.0  0.4311* V  0.9507 * T  2.07 * V 2  2.388 * T 2  0.900 * V * T
Q  0.315  0.664 * V  0.543 * V 2  5.422 * V 3  0.839 * T 2  1.455 * V * T

ii) 3-ph Central Air Conditioner load

p  1.0  0.269 * V  0.487 * T  1.005 * V 2  0.188 * T 2  0.154 * V * T

Q  0.695  2.37 * V  0.058 * T  5.81* V 2  0.199 * T 2  0.597 * V * T

iii) Freezer
p  1.0  1.32 * V  12.616 * V 2  133.6 * V 3  380 * V 4
Q  1.38  0.269 * V  427.276 * V 2  293 * V 3  0995 * V 4

where: ΔV is the voltage difference and ΔT is the temperature

deference
45
Measurement Approach
♦ It is a “top-down” approach in that measurements are
taken at either a substation level, feeder level, some load
aggregation point along a feeder, or at some individual
load point.
♦ Variation of frequency for this type of measurement is not
usually performed unless special test arrangements can be
made.
♦ Voltage is varied using a suitable means and the
measured real and reactive power consumption recorded.
♦ Statistical methods are then used to determine load
models.
♦ A load survey may be necessary to classify the models
derived in this manner.
♦ The range of validity for this approach is directly related to
the realistic range over which the tests can be conducted
without damage to customers’ equipment. 46
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties
Protective Relays
♦ Protective relays are difficult to model.

♦ The entire load of a substation can be tripped off as a

result of protective relay operations.

♦ At the utilization level, motors on air conditioner units

and motors in many other residential, commercial,
and industrial applications contain thermal and/or
over-current relays whose operational behavior is
difficult to predict.

47
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, cont’d
Thermostatically Controlled Loads
♦ Air conditioning units, space heaters, water heaters, refrigerators,
and freezers are all controlled by thermostatic devices.

♦ The effects of such devices are especially troublesome to model

when a distribution load is reenergized after an extended outage
(cold-load pickup).

♦ The effect of such devices to cold-load pickup characteristics can

be significant.

48
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, cont’d
Voltage Regulation Devices
♦ Voltage regulators, voltage controlled capacitor
banks, and automatic LTCs on transformers exhibit
time-dependent effects.

♦ These devices are present at both the bulk power and

distribution system levels.

49
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, cont’d

Discharge Lamps (Mercury Vapor, Sodium

Vapor, and Fluorescent Lamps)
♦ These devices exhibit time-dependent characteristics
upon restart, after being extinguished by a low-
voltage condition, usually about 70% to 80% of rated
voltage.

50