MRCET DEPARTMENT OF IT

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHAT IS COMPUTER FORENSICS?

 Computer forensics is the process of methodically examining computer media (hard

disks, diskettes, tapes, etc.) for evidence. In other words, computer forensics is the
collection, preservation, analysis, and presentation of computer-related evidence.
 Computer forensics also referred to as computer forensic analysis, electronic discovery,
electronic evidence discovery, digital discovery, data recovery, data discovery, computer
analysis, and computer examination.
 Computer evidence can be useful in criminal cases, civil disputes, and human resources/
employment proceedings.

1.2 USE OF COMPUTER FORENSICS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

Computer forensics assists in Law Enforcement. This can include:

 Recovering deleted files such as documents, graphics, and photos.

 Searching unallocated space on the hard drive, places where an abundance of data often
resides.

 Tracing artifacts, those tidbits of data left behind by the operating system. Our experts
know how to find these artifacts and, more importantly, they know how to evaluate the
value of the information they find.
 Processing hidden files — files that are not visible or accessible to the user — that contain
past usage information. Often, this process requires reconstructing and analyzing the date
codes for each file and determining when each file was created, last modified, last accessed
and when deleted.
 Running a string-search for e-mail, when no e-mail client is obvious.

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1.3 COMPUTER FORENSICS ASSISTANCE TO HUMAN RESOURCES /

EMPLOYMENT PROCEEDINGS
Computers can contain evidence in many types of human resources proceedings, including
sexual harassment suits, allegations of discrimination, and wrongful termination claims.
Evidence can be found in electronic mail systems, on network servers, and on individual
employee’s computers.
EMPLOYER SAFEGUARD PROGRAM

Employers must safeguard critical business information. An unfortunate concern today is the
possibility that data could be damaged, destroyed, or misappropriated by a discontented
individual. Before an individual is informed of their termination, a computer forensic specialist
should come on-site and create an exact duplicate of the data on the individual’s computer. In
this way, should the employee choose to do anything to that data before leaving, the employer
is protected. Damaged or deleted data can be re-placed, and evidence can be recovered to show
what occurred. This method can also be used to bolster an employer’s case by showing the
removal of proprietary information or to protect the employer from false charges made by the
employee. You should be equipped to find and interpret the clues that have been left behind.
This includes situations where files have been deleted, disks have been reformatted, or other
steps have been taken to conceal or destroy the evidence. For example, did you know?

 What Web sites have been visited?

 What files have been downloaded?

 When files were last accessed?

 Of attempts to conceal or destroy evidence?

 Of attempts to fabricate evidence?

 That the electronic copy of a document can contain text that was removed from the final
printed version?
 That some fax machines can contain exact duplicates of the last several hundred pages
received?

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 That faxes sent or received via computer may remain on the computer indefinitely?

 That email is rapidly becoming the communications medium of choice for businesses?

 That people tend to write things in email that they would never consider writing in a
memorandum or letter?
 That email has been used successfully in criminal cases as well as in civil litigation?

 That email is often backed up on tapes that are generally kept for months or years?

 That many people keep their financial records, including investments, on computers?

1.4 COMPUTER FORENSICS SERVICES

Computer forensics professionals should be able to successfully perform complex evidence
recovery procedures with the skill and expertise that lends credibility to your case.

For example, they should be able to perform the following services:

1. DATA SEIZURE

 Following federal guidelines, computer forensics experts should act as the

representative, using their knowledge of data storage technologies to track down
evidence.
 The experts should also be able to assist officials during the equipment seizure process.

2. DATA DUPLICATION/PRESERVATION

 When one party must seize data from another, two concerns must be addressed:
 the data must not be altered in any way
 the seizure must not put an undue burden on the responding party
 The computer forensics experts should acknowledge both of these concerns by making
an exact duplicate of the needed data.
 When experts works on the duplicate data, the integrity of the original is maintained.

3. DATA RECOVERY

 Using proprietary tools, your computer forensics experts should be able to safely recover

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and analyze otherwise inaccessible evidence.

 The ability to recover lost evidence is made possible by the expert’s advanced
understanding of storage technologies.

4. DOCUMENT SEARCHES

 Computer forensics experts should also be able to search over 200,000 electronic
documents in seconds rather than hours.
 The speed and efficiency of these searches make the discovery process less complicated
and less intrusive to all parties involved.

5. MEDIA CONVERSION

 Computer forensics experts should extract the relevant data from old and un-readable
devices, convert it into readable formats, and place it onto new storage media for
analysis.

6. EXPERT WITNESS SERVICES

 Computer forensics experts should be able to explain complex technical processes in an

easy-to- understand fashion.
 This should help judges and juries comprehend how computer evidence is found, what it
consists of, and how it is relevant to a specific situation.

7. COMPUTER EVIDENCE SERVICE OPTIONS

Computer forensics experts should offer various levels of service, each designed to suit your
individual investigative needs. For example, they should be able to offer the following
services:

 Standard service: Computer forensics experts should be able to work on your case
during nor-mal business hours until your critical electronic evidence is found.
 On-site service: Computer forensics experts should be able to travel to your location to

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per-form complete computer evidence services. While on-site, the experts should
quickly be able to produce exact duplicates of the data storage media in question.
 Emergency service: Your computer forensics experts should be able to give your case
the highest priority in their laboratories. They should be able to work on it without
interruption until your evidence objectives are met.
 Priority service: Dedicated computer forensics experts should be able to work on your
case during normal business hours (8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., Monday through Friday)
until the evidence is found. Priority service typically cuts your turnaround time in half.
 Weekend service: Computer forensics experts should be able to work from 8:00 A.M.
to 5:00 P.M., Saturday and Sunday, to locate the needed electronic evidence and will
continue 14 Computer Forensics, Second Edition working on your case until your
evidence objectives are met.

8. OTHER MISCELLANEOUS SERVICES

Computer forensics experts should also be able to provide extended services. These services
include:

 Analysis of computers and data in criminal investigations

 On-site seizure of computer data in criminal investigations

 Analysis of computers and data in civil litigation.

 On-site seizure of computer data in civil litigation

 Analysis of company computers to determine employee activity

 Assistance in preparing electronic discovery requests

 Reporting in a comprehensive and readily understandable manner

 Court-recognized computer expert witness testimony

 Computer forensics on both PC and Mac platforms

 Fast turnaround time.

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1.5 BENEFITS OF PROFESSIONAL FORENSIC METHODOLOGY

A knowledgeable computer forensics professional should ensure that a subject computer

system is carefully handled to ensure that:

1. No possible evidence is damaged, destroyed, or otherwise compromised by the

procedures used to investigate the computer.
2. No possible computer virus is introduced to a subject computer during the analysis process.

3. Extracted and possibly relevant evidence is properly handled and protected from later
mechanical or electromagnetic damage.
4. A continuing chain of custody is established and maintained.

5. Business operations are affected for a limited amount of time, if at all.

6. Any client-attorney information that is inadvertently acquired during a forensic

exploration is ethically and legally respected and not divulged.

1.6 STEPS TAKEN BY COMPUTER FORENSICS SPECIALISTS

The computer forensics specialist should take several careful steps to identify and attempt to
retrieve possible evidence that may exist on a subject’s computer system. For example, the
following steps should be taken:

1. Protect the subject computer system during the forensic examination from any possible
alteration, damage, data corruption, or virus introduction.
2. Discover all files on the subject system. This includes existing normal files, deleted yet
remaining files, hidden files, password-protected files, and encrypted files.
3. Recover all of discovered deleted files.

4. Reveal the contents of hidden files as well as temporary or swap files used by both the
application programs and the operating system.
5. Access the contents of protected or encrypted files.

6. Analyze all possibly relevant data found in special areas of a disk. This includes but is
not limited to what is called unallocated space on a disk, as well as slack space in a file

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(the remnant area at the end of a file in the last assigned disk cluster, that is unused by
current file data, but once again, may be a possible site for previously created and
relevant evidence).
7. Print out an overall analysis of the subject computer system, as well as a listing of all
possibly relevant files and discovered file data.
8. Provide an opinion of the system layout; the file structures discovered; any discovered
data and authorship information; any attempts to hide, delete, protect, and encrypt
information; and anything else that has been discovered and appears to be relevant to the
overall computer system examination.
9. Provide expert consultation and/or testimony, as required.

TYPES OF COMPUTER FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

1.7 TYPES OF MILITARY COMPUTER FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

 Key objectives of cyber forensics include rapid discovery of evidence, estimation of

potential impact of the malicious activity on the victim, and assessment of the intent and
identity of the perpetrator.
 Real-time tracking of potentially malicious activity is especially difficult when the
pertinent information has been intentionally hidden, destroyed, or modified in order to
elude discovery.
 National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center (NLECTC) works with
criminal justice professionals to identify urgent and emerging technology needs.
 NLECTC centers demonstrate new technologies, test commercially available
technologies and publish results — linking research and practice.
 National Institute of Justice (NIJ) sponsors research and development or identifies best
practices to address those needs.
 The information directorate entered into a partnership with the NIJ via the auspices of
the NLECTC, to test the new ideas and prototype tools. The Computer Forensics
Experiment 2000 (CFX-2000) resulted from this partnership.

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COMPUTER FORENSIC EXPERIMENT-2000 (CFX-2000)

 CFX-2000 is an integrated forensic analysis framework.

 The central hypothesis of CFX-2000 is that it is possible to accurately determine the

motives, intent, targets, sophistication, identity, and location of cyber criminals and
cyber terrorists by deploying an integrated forensic analysis framework.
 The cyber forensic tools involved in CFX-2000 consisted of commercial off-the-shelf
software and directorate-sponsored R&D prototypes. CFX includes SI-FI integration
environment.
 The Synthesizing Information from Forensic Investigations (SI-FI) integration
environment supports the collection, examination, and analysis processes employed
during a cyber-forensic investigation.
 The SI-FI prototype uses digital evidence bags (DEBs), which are secure and
tamperproof containers used to store digital evidence.
 Investigators can seal evidence in the DEBs and use the SI-FI implementation to
collaborate on complex investigations.

 Authorized users can securely reopen the DEBs for examination, while automatic audit
of all actions ensures the continued integrity of their contents.
 The teams used other forensic tools and prototypes to collect and analyze specific
features of the digital evidence, perform case management and time lining of digital
events, automate event link analysis, and perform steganography detection.
 The results of CFX-2000 verified that the hypothesis was largely correct and that it is
possible to ascertain the intent and identity of cyber criminals.
 As electronic technology continues its explosive growth, researchers need to continue
vigorous R&D of cyber forensic technology in preparation for the onslaught of cyber
reconnaissance probes and attacks.

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1.8 TYPES OF LAW ENFORCEMENT COMPUTER FORENSIC

TECHNOLOGY

Computer forensics tools and techniques have become important resources for use in
internal investigations, civil lawsuits, and computer security risk management. Law
enforcement and military agencies have been involved in processing computer evidence for
years.

CFX-2000 Schematic
Computer Evidence Processing Procedures

Processing procedures and methodologies should conform to federal computer evidence

processing standards.

1. Preservation of Evidence
 Computer evidence is fragile and susceptible to alteration or erasure by any number of
occurrences.

 Computer evidence can be useful in criminal cases, civil disputes, and human resources/

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employment proceedings.
 Black box computer forensics software tools are good for some basic investigation
tasks, but they do not offer a full computer forensics solution.
 SafeBack software overcomes some of the evidence weaknesses inherent in black box
computer forensics approaches.
 SafeBack technology has become a worldwide standard in making mirror image backups
since 1990.
TROJAN HORSE PROGRAMS

 The computer forensic expert should be able to demonstrate his or her ability to avoid
destructive programs and traps that can be planted by computer users bent on
destroying data and evidence.
 Such programs can also be used to covertly capture sensitive information, passwords,
and network logons.

COMPUTER FORENSICS DOCUMENTATION

 Without proper documentation, it is difficult to present findings.

 If the security or audit findings become the object of a lawsuit or a criminal

investigation, then documentation becomes even more important.
FILE SLACK

 Slack space in a file is the remnant area at the end of a file in the last assigned disk
cluster, that is unused by current file data, but once again, may be a possible site for
previously created and relevant evidence.
 Techniques and automated tools that are used by the experts to capture and evaluate file
slack.

DATA-HIDING TECHNIQUES

 Trade secret information and other sensitive data can easily be secreted using any
number of techniques. It is possible to hide diskettes within diskettes and to hide entire
computer hard disk drive partitions. Computer forensic experts should understand such
issues and tools that help in the identification of such anomalies.

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E-COMMERCE INVESTIGATIONS

 Net Threat Analyzer can be used to identify past Internet browsing and email activity
done through specific computers. The software analyzes a computer’s disk drives and
other storage areas that are generally unknown to or beyond the reach of most general
computer users. Net Threat Analyzer avail-able free of charge to computer crime
specialists, school officials, and police.
DUAL-PURPOSE PROGRAMS

 Programs can be designed to perform multiple processes and tasks at the same time.
Computer forensics experts must have hands-on experience with these programs.

TEXT SEARCH TECHNIQUES

 Tools that can be used to find targeted strings of text in files, file slack, unallocated file
space, and Windows swap files.
FUZZY LOGIC TOOLS USED TO IDENTIFY UNKNOWN TEXT

 Computer evidence searches require that the computer specialist know what is being
searched for. Many times not all is known about what may be stored on a given
computer system.
 In such cases, fuzzy logic tools can provide valuable leads as to how the subject computer
was used.

2. Disk Structure
 Computer forensic experts must understand how computer hard disks and floppy
diskettes are structured and how computer evidence can reside at various levels within
the structure of the disk.
 They should also demonstrate their knowledge of how to modify the structure and hide
data in obscure places on floppy diskettes and hard disk drives.

3. Data Encryption
 Computer forensic experts should become familiar with the use of software to crack
security associated with the different file structures.

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
4. Matching a Diskette to a Computer
 Specialized techniques and tools that make it possible to conclusively tie a diskette to a
computer that was used to create or edit files stored on it. Computer forensic experts
should become familiar how to use special software tools to complete this process.
5. Data Compression
 Computer forensic experts should become familiar with how compression works and
how compression programs can be used to hide and disguise sensitive data and also
learn how password- protected compressed files can be broken.
6. Erased Files
 Computer forensic experts should become familiar with how previously erased files can
be recovered by using DOS programs and by manually using data-recovery technique &
familiar with cluster chaining.
7. Internet Abuse Identification and Detection
 Computer forensic experts should become familiar with how to use specialized software
to identify how a targeted computer has been used on the Internet.
 This process will focus on computer forensics issues tied to data that the computer user
probably doesn’t realize exists (file slack, unallocated file space, and Windows swap
files).
8. The Boot Process and Memory Resident Programs
 Computer forensic experts should become familiar with how the operating system can
be modified to change data and destroy data at the whim of the person who configured
the system.
 Such a technique could be used to covertly capture keyboard activity from corporate
executives, for example. For this reason, it is important that the experts understand
these potential risks and how to identify them.


1.9 TYPES OF BUSINESS COMPUTER FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

The following are different types of business computer forensics technology:-

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REMOTE MONITORING OF TARGET COMPUTERS

 Data Interception by Remote Transmission (DIRT) is a powerful remote control

monitoring tool that allows stealth monitoring of all activity on one or more target
computers simultaneously from a remote command center.
 No physical access is necessary. Application also allows agents to remotely seize and
secure digital evidence prior to physically entering suspect premises.
CREATING TRACKABLE ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS

 Binary Audit Identification Transfer (BAIT) is a powerful intrusion detection tool that
allows users to create trackable electronic documents.
 BAIT identifies (including their location) unauthorized intruders who access, download,
and view these tagged documents.
 BAIT also allows security personnel to trace the chain of custody and chain of
command of all who possess the stolen electronic documents.

THEFT RECOVERY SOFTWARE FOR LAPTOPS AND PCS

 What it really costs to replace a stolen computer:

 The price of the replacement hardware & software.

 The cost of recreating data, lost production time or instruction time, reporting
and investigating the theft, filing police reports and insurance claims, increased
insurance, processing and ordering replacements, cutting a check, and the like.
 The loss of customer goodwill.

 If a thief is ever caught, the cost of time involved in prosecution.



 PC PHONEHOME

 PC PhoneHome is a software application that will track and locate a lost or stolen
PC or laptop any-where in the world. It is easy to install. It is also completely
transparent to the user.

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 If your PC PhoneHome-protected computer is lost or stolen, all you need to do is

make a report to the local police and call CD’s 24-hour command center. CD’s
recovery specialists will assist local law enforcement in the recovery of your
property.


FORENSIC SERVICES AVAILABLE

Services include but are not limited to:

 Lost password and file recovery

 Location and retrieval of deleted and hidden files

 File and email decryption

 Email supervision and authentication

 Threatening email traced to source

 Identification of Internet activity

 Computer usage policy and supervision

 Remote PC and network monitoring

 Tracking and location of stolen electronic files

 Honeypot sting operations

 Location and identity of unauthorized software users

 Theft recovery software for laptops and PCs

 Investigative and security software creation

 Protection from hackers and viruses.

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COMPUTER FORENSIC EVIDENCE & CAPTURE

1.10 Data Recovery Defined

 Data recovery is the process in which highly trained engineers

evaluate and extract data from damaged media and return it in an intact format.

 Many people, even computer experts, fail to recognize data recovery

as an option during a data crisis. But it is possible to retrieve files that have
been deleted and passwords that have been forgotten or to recover entire hard
drives that have been physically damaged.

1.11 Data Back-up and Recovery

Back-up Obstacles

 Back-up Window: The back-up window is the period of time when

back-ups can be run. The back-up window is generally timed to occur during
nonproduction periods when network bandwidth and CPU utilization are low.

 Network bandwidth: If a network cannot handle the impact of

transporting hundreds of gigabytes of data over a short period of time, the
organization’s centralized backup strategy is not viable.

 System throughput: Three I/O bottlenecks are commonly found in

traditional backup schemes. These are

1. The ability of the system being backed up to push data to the backup
server

2. The ability of the backup server to accept data from multiple systems
simultaneously

3. The available throughput of the tape device(s) onto which the data is
moved

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 Lack-of Resources: Many companies fail to make appropriate

investments in data protection until it is too late.

1.12 The Role of Back-up in Data Recovery

There are many factors that affect back-up. For example:

 Storage costs are decreasing: The cost per megabyte of primary

(online) storage has fallen dramatically over the past several years and
continues to do so as disk drive technologies advance.

 Systems have to be on-line continuously: Because systems must be

continuously online, the dilemma becomes that you can no longer take files
offline long enough to perform backup.

 The role of Back-up has changed: The role of backup now includes
the responsibility for recovering user errors and ensuring that good data has
been saved and can quickly be restored.

CONVENTIONAL TAPE BACK-UP IN TODAY’S MARKET

 A typical tape management system consists of a dedicated workstation

with the front-end interfaced to the network and the back-end controlling a
repository of tape devices. The media server runs tape management software.
It can administer backup devices throughout an enterprise and can run
continuous parallel backups and restores.

 An alternative to tape backup is to physically replicate or mirror all

data and keep two copies online at all times. The advantage is that the data
does not have to be restored, so there are no issues with immediate data
availability.
ISSUES WITH TODAY’S BACK-UP

 NETWORK BACKUP creates network performance problems.

Using the production network to carry backup data, as well as for normal user

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data access, can severely overburden today’s busy network resources.

 OFFLINE BACKUP affects data accessibility. The time that the host
is offline for data backup must be minimized. This requires extremely high-
speed, continuous parallel backup of the raw image of the data.
 LIVE BACKUPS allow data access during the backup process but
affect performance. The downside to the live backup is that it puts a
tremendous burden on the host.
 MIRRORING doesn’t protect against user error and replication of
bad data. Fully replicated online data sounds great, albeit at twice the cost per
megabyte of a single copy of online data.

NEW ARCHITECTURES AND TECHNIQUES ARE REQUIRED

 Backup at extremely high speed is required. Recovery must be

available at file level. The time that systems off-line for back-up must be
eliminated.
 Remote hot recovery sites are needed for immediate resumption of
data access. Backup of critical data is still required to ensure against data
errors and user errors.
 To achieve effective backup and recovery, the decoupling of data from its storage
space is needed.

 It is necessary to develop techniques to journal modified pages, so that

journaling can be invoked within the primary storage device, without host
intervention.
 Part of the primary storage area must be set aside for data to be backed
up. This area must be as large as the largest backup block. We should have fast
nonrandom restoration of critical data.

1.13 The Data Recovery Solution

SHRINKING EXPERTISE, GROWING COMPLEXITY

a. The complex systems that have evolved over the past 30 years must be

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monitored, managed, controlled, and optimized. But most of the bright

young graduates this term haven’t had much exposure to mainframe
concepts.

b. Backups often take place while an application is running. Application

changes take place on the fly. If an outage occurs, the company stands
to lose tens of thousands of dollars an hour.
FAILURES:
Disk storage is more reliable than ever, but hardware failures are still possible. A simple
mistake can be made by an application programmer, system programmer, or operations person.
Logic errors in programs or application of the wrong update at the wrong time can result in a
system crash or, worse. Disasters do really occurs! Floods, tornadoes, earthquakes, tsunamis,
and even terrorism can do strike. We must be ready.

BUDGETS AND DOWNTIME

We have fewer resources (people, processing power, time, and money) to do more work than
ever before, and we must keep your expenses under control. Systems must remain available to
make money and serve customers. Downtime is much too expensive to be tolerated.

RECOVERY: THINK BEFORE YOU BACK-UP

One of the most critical data-management tasks involves recovering data in the event of a
problem. You must evaluate your preparations, make sure that all resources are available in
usable condition, automate processes as much as possible, and make sure you have the right
kind of resources.

Evaluate your preparation

If all of the resources (image copies, change accumulations, and logs) are available at recovery
time, these preparations certainly allow for a standard recovery. Finding out at recovery time
that some critical resource is missing can be disastrous!
Don’t let your resources fall through the cracks
Identifying different types of conditions is critical to ensuring a successful recovery. Checking
your assets to make sure they’re ready should be part of your plan.

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Automated Recovery

With proper planning and automation, recovery is made possible, reliance on specific
personnel is reduced, and the human-error factor is nearly eliminated.

Data integrity and your business relay on building recovery job control language (JCL). In the
event of a disaster, the Information Management System (IMS) recovery control (RECON) data
sets must be modified in preparation for the recovery.

Cleaning your RECON data sets can take hours if done manually, and it’s an error-prone process.

Make Recoveries Efficient

Multithreading tasks shorten the recovery process. Recovering multiple databases with one
pass through your log data certainly will save time. Taking image copies, rebuilding indexes,
and validating pointers concurrently with the recovery process further reduce downtime.

Take Back-ups

The first step to a successful recovery is the backup of your data. Your goal in backing up data
is to do so quickly, efficiently, and usually with minimal impact to your customers. You might
need only very brief out-ages to take instant copies of your data, or you might have intelligent
storage devices that allow you to take a snapshot of your data. Both methods call for tools to
assist in the management of resources.

BACK-UP AND RECOVERY SOLUTION

BMC software has developed a model called the Back-up and Recovery Solution (BRS) for the
Information Management System (IMS) product.

Image Copy

BRS contains an Image Copy component to help manage your image copy process.
BRS can take batch, on-line (fuzzy), or incremental image copies; Snapshot copies; or
Instant Snapshot copies.

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The Image Copy component of BRS offers a variety of powerful features: dynamic allocation of
all input and output data sets, stacking of output data sets, high performance access methods
(faster I/O), copying by volume, compression of output image copies, and database group
processing--- all while interfacing with DBRC and processing asynchronously.

Change Accumulation

The BRS Change Accumulation component takes advantage of multiple engines, large virtual
storage resources, and high-speed channels and controllers that are available in many
environments.

Use of multiple tack control block (TCB) structures enables overlapping of as much processing
as possible, reducing both elapsed and CPU time.

Recovery

 The BRS Recovery component, which functionally replaces the IMS Database
Recovery utility for null- function (DL/I) databases and data-entry databases (DEDBs),
allow recovery of multiple databases with one pass of the log and change accumulation
data sets while dynamically allocating all data sets required for recovery.

 BRS recovers multiple databases to any point in time. BRS can determine the best
choice for a Point-in- Time (PIT) recovery. Full DBRS support includes:

RECOVERY MANAGER

 Recovery Manager component lets you automate and synchronize recoveries

across applications and databases by creating meaningful groups of related databases and
creating optimized JCL to perform the recovery of these groups.
 Recovery Manager component provides a positive response for the IMS
commands that are used to deallocate and start your databases.
 Recovery Manager component fully automates the process of cleaning the
RECON data sets for restart following a disaster recovery.
 Recovery Manager component also allows you to test your recovery strategy and

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notifies you when media errors have jeopardized your recovery resources.
POINTER CHECKING

BRS offers the capability to verify the validity of database pointers through the Concurrent
Pointer Checking function for both full-function databases and Fast Path data-entry databases
(DEDBs).

INDEX REBUILD

If indexes are ever damaged or lost, the Index Rebuild function of BRS allows you rebuild them
rather than recover them.

RECOVERY ADVISOR

The Recovery Advisor component of BRS allows you to monitor the frequency of your image
copies and change accumulations.

It helps you to determine whether all your databases are being backed-up. By using any
number of back-up and recovery tools available, you can better manage your world and be
ready to recover!

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Unit-II
EVIDENCE COLLECTION AND DATA SEZIURE
2.1 Why Collect Evidence?

The simple reasons for collecting evidence are:

 Future Prevention: Without knowing what happened, you have no hope of ever being
able to stop someone else from doing it again.

 Responsibility: The attacker is responsible for the damage done, and the only way to
bring him to justice is with adequate evidence to prove his actions. The victim has a
responsibility to the community. Information gathered after a compromise can be
examined and used by others to prevent further attacks.

2.2 Collection Options

Once a compromise has been detected, you have two options:

 Pull the system off the network and begin collecting evidence: In this case you may
find that you have insufficient evidence or, worse, that the attacker left a dead man
switch that destroys any evidence once the system detects that its offline.

 Leave it online and attempt to monitor the intruder: you may accidentally alert the
intruder while monitoring and cause him to wipe his tracks any way necessary,
destroying evidence as he goes.

2.3 Obstacles

 Computer transactions are fast, they can be conducted from anywhere, can be encrypted
or anonymous, and have no intrinsic identifying features such as handwriting and
signatures to identify those responsible.

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 Any paper trail of computer records they may leave can be easily modified or destroyed,
or may be only temporary.

 Auditing programs may automatically destroy the records left when computer
transactions are finished with them.

 Investigating electronic crimes will always be difficult because of the ease of altering the
data and the fact that transactions may be done anonymously.

 The best we can do is to follow the rules of evidence collection and be as assiduous as
possible.

2.4 Types of Evidence

 Real Evidence: Real evidence is any evidence that speaks for itself without relying on
anything else. In electronic terms, this can be a log produced by an audit function—
provided that the log can be shown to be free from contamination.

 Testimonial Evidence: Testimonial evidence is any evidence supplied by a witness. As

long as the witness can be considered reliable, testimonial evidence can be almost as
powerful as real evidence.

 Hearsay: Hearsay is any evidence presented by a person who was not a direct witness.
Hearsay is generally inadmissible in court and should be avoided.

2.5 The Rules of Evidence

1. Admissible: Admissible is the most basic rule. The evidence must be able to be used in
court.

2. Authentic: You must be able to show that the evidence relates to the incident in a relevant
way.

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3. Complete: It’s not enough to collect evidence that just shows one perspective of the
incident.

4. Reliable: Your evidence collection and analysis procedures must not cast doubt on the
evidence’s authenticity and veracity.

5. Believable: The evidence you present should be clearly understandable and believable to a
jury.

Using the preceding five rules, we can derive some basic do’s and don’ts:

 Minimize handling and corruption of original data: Once you’ve created a master
copy of the original data, don’t touch it or the original. Any changes made to the
originals will affect the outcomes of any analysis later done to copies.
 Account for any changes and keep detailed logs of your actions: Sometimes evidence
alteration is unavoidable. In these cases, it is absolutely essential that the nature, extent,
and reasons for the changes be documented.
 Comply with the five rules of evidence: Following these rules is essential to
guaranteeing successful evidence collection.
 Do not exceed your knowledge: If you ever find yourself ―out of your depth,‖ either go
and learn more before continuing (if time is available) or find someone who knows the
territory.
 Follow your local security policy: If you fail to comply with your company’s security
policy, you may find yourself with some difficulties.
 Capture as accurate an image of the system as possible: Capturing an accurate image
of the system is related to minimizing the handling or corruption of original data.
 Be prepared to testify: If you’re not willing to testify to the evidence you have collected,
you might as well stop before you start. No one is going to believe you if they can’t
replicate your actions and reach the same results.
 Work fast: The faster you work, the less likely the data is going to change. Volatile
evidence may vanish entirely if you don’t collect it in time. If multiple systems are

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involved, work parallel.

 Proceed from volatile to persistent evidence: Always try to collect the most volatile
evidence first.
 Don’t shutdown before collecting evidence: You should never, ever shutdown a
system before you collect the evidence. Not only do you lose any volatile evidence, but
also the attacker may have trojaned the startup and shutdown scripts, plug-and-play
devices may alter the system configuration, and temporary file systems may be wiped
out.
 Don’t run any programs on the affected system: The attacker may have left trojaned
programs and libraries on the system; you may inadvertently trigger something that
could change or destroy the evidence you’re looking for.

2.6 Volatile Evidence

Always try to collect the most volatile evidence first. An example an order of volatility
would be:

1. Registers and cache

2. Routing tables
3. Arp cache
4. Process table
5. Kernel statistics and modules

6. Main memory
7. Temporary file systems
8. Secondary memory

9. Router configuration
10. Network topology

2.7 General Procedure

 Identification of Evidence: You must be able to distinguish between evidence and junk
data

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 Preservation of Evidence: The evidence you find must be preserved as close as

possible to its original state.
 Analysis of Evidence: Analysis requires in-depth knowledge of what you are looking
for and how to get it.
 Presentation of Evidence: The manner of presentation is important, and it must be
understandable by a layman to be effective.

2.8 Collection and Archiving

Once we’ve developed a plan of attack and identified the evidence that needs to be
collected.

Logs and Logging: You should run some kind of system logging function. It is
important to keep these logs secure and to back them up periodically. Messages and
logs from programs can be used to show what damage an attacker did.

Monitoring: By monitoring we can gather statistics, watch out for irregular, and trace
where an attacker is coming from and what he is doing. Unusual activity or the sudden
appearance of unknown users should be considered definite cause for closer inspection.
You should display a disclaimer stating what monitoring is done when users log on.

2.9 Methods of Collection

There are two basic forms of collection: freezing the scene and honeypotting.

Freezing the Scene

 It involves taking a snapshot of the system in its compromised state. You should then
start to collect whatever data is important onto removable nonvolatile media in a
standard format.

 All data collected should have a cryptographic message digest created, and those
digests should be compared to the originals for verification.

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Honeypotting

 It is the process of creating a replica system and luring the attacker into it for further
monitoring.
 The placement of misleading information and the attacker’s response to it is a good
method for determining the attacker’s motives.

2.10 Artifacts

 There is almost always something left behind by the attacker be it code fragments,
trojaned programs, running processes, or sniffer log files. These are known as artifacts.

 Never attempt to analyze an artifact on the compromised system.

 Artifacts are capable of anything, and we want to make sure their effects are controlled.

2.11 Collection Steps

1. Find the Evidence: Use a checklist. Not only does it help you to collect evidence, but it
also can be used to double-check that everything you are looking for is there.

2. Find the Relevant Data: Once you’ve found the evidence, you must figure out
what part of it is relevant to the case.

3. Create an Order of Volatility: The order of volatility for your system is a good
guide and ensures that you minimize loss of uncorrupted evidence.

4. Remove external avenues of change: It is essential that you avoid alterations to the
original data.

5. Collect the Evidence: Collect the evidence using the appropriate tools for the job.

6. Document everything: Collection procedures may be questioned later, so it is

important that you document everything you do. Timestamps, digital signatures, and
signed statements are all important.

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2.12 Controlling Contamination: The Chain of Custody

Once the data has been collected, it must be protected from contamination. Originals
should never be used in forensic examination; verified duplicates should be used.

A good way of ensuring that data remains uncorrupted is to keep a chain of custody. This
is a detailed list of what was done with the original copies once they were collected.

Analysis

 Once the data has been successfully collected, it must be analyzed to extract the
evidence you wish to present and to rebuild what actually happened.

Time

 To reconstruct the events that led to your system being corrupted, you must be
able to create a timeline.
 Never, ever change the clock on an affected system.

Forensic Analysis of Back-ups

 When we analyze back-ups, it is best to have a dedicated host for the job. We need a
dedicated host which is secure, clean and isolated from any network for analyzing back-
ups.

 Document everything you do. Ensure that what you do is repeatable and capable of
always giving the same results.

Reconstructing the Attack

After collecting the data, we can attempt to reconstruct the chain of events leading to and
following the attacker’s break-in. We must correlate all the evidence we have gathered.
Include all of the evidence we’ve found when reconstructing the attack---no matter how
small it is.

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Searching and Seizing

There is no one methodology for performing a computer forensic investigation and analysis.

There are too many variables for to be just one way. Some of the typical variable that comes
to the mind includes operating systems; software applications; cryptographic algorithms and
applications; and hardware platforms. But moving beyond these obvious variables spring
other equally challenging variables: law, international boundaries, publicity, and
methodology.

There are a few widely accepted guidelines for computer forensic analysis:

 A computer forensic examiner is impartial. Our job is to analyze the media and report
our findings with no presumption of guilt or innocence.
 The media used in computer forensic examinations must be sterilized before each use.

 A true image (bit stream) of the original media must be made and used for the analysis.

 The integrity of the original media must be maintained throughout the entire investigation.

Before the Investigation

 For the sake of first argument, you must have skilled technicians in-house and a top notch
lab
the right equipment, the right computer forensic tools, and so on.

 District attorneys may require more documentation on the chain of evidence handling.

 When you have a case arise, you know what is required and can work the case from the
inception in support of these requirements.
Methodology Development

 Define your methodology, and working according to this methodology.

 Here methodology defines a method, a set of rules: guidelines that are employed by a
discipline.

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Document Everything

The chain of evidence is so important in computer forensic investigations. If resources

allow, have two computer forensic personnel assigned to each case every step of the way.
Important in the documentation are the times that dates steps were taken; the names of those
involved; and under whose authority were the steps taken?

Evidence Search and Seizure

Prior to search and seizure, you already have the proper documents filled as well as permission
from the authority to search and seize the suspect’s machine.

Step 1: Preparation

You should check all media that is to be used in the examination process. Document the
wiping and scanning process. Check to make sure that all computer forensic tools are
licensed for use and all lab equipment is in working order.

Step 2: Snapshot

We should photograph the scene, whether it is a room in a home or in a business. You

should also note the scene. Take advantage of your investigative skills here. Note pictures,
personal items, and the like. Photograph the actual Evidence. For example, the evidence is a
PC in a home office. Take a photograph of the monitor. Remove the case cover carefully
and photograph the internals.

Step 3: Transport

If you have the legal authority to transport the evidence to your lab, you should pack the
evidence securely. Photograph/videotape and document the handling of evidence leaving the
scene to the transport vehicle and from transport vehicle to the lab examination facility.

Step 4: Examination

You should prepare the acquired evidence for examination in your lab. There are many

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options to on what tool to use image the drive. You could use EnCase, the Unix command
DD, ByetBack, or also SafeBack. It is wise to have a variety of tools in your lab. Each of
these tools has its respective strengths. The important note to remember here is: Turn off
virus-scanning software. We must record the time and date of the COMS. Do not boot the
suspect machine.

When making the image, make sure that the tool you use does not access the file system of
the target evidence media. After making the image, seal the original media in an
electrostatic-safe container, catalog it, and initial the container. Finally, the examination of
the acquired image begins.

DUPLICATION AND PRESERVATION OF DIGITAL EVIDENCE

2.13 Preserving the Digital Crime Scene

 After securing the computer, we should make a complete bit stream backup of all
computer data before it is reviewed or processed.

 Bit stream backups are much more thorough than standard backups.

 They involve copying of every bit of data on a storage device, and it is recommended
that two such copies be made of the original when hard disk drives are involved.

 Any processing should be performed on one of the backup copies.

 IMDUMP was the first software for taking bit stream back-ups developed by Michael
White.

SafeBack

 SafeBack has become a law enforcement standard and is used by numerous government
intelligence agencies, military agencies, and law enforcement agencies worldwide.

 SafeBack program copies and preserves all data contained on the hard disk.

 Even it goes so far as to circumvent attempts made to hide data in bad clusters and even
sectors with invalid CRCs.

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SnapBack

 Another bit steam back-up program, called SnapBack, is also available and is used by
some law enforcement agencies primarily because of its ease of use.

 Its prices several hundreds of dollars higher than SafeBack.

 It has error-checking built into every phase of the evidence back-up and restoration
process.
 The hard disk drive should be imaged using specialized bit stream back-up software.

 The floppy diskettes can be imaged using the standard DOS DISKCOPY program.

 When DOS DISKCOPY is used, it is recommended that the MS DOS Version 6.22 be
used and (data verification) switch should be invoked from the command line.

 Know and practice using all of your forensic software tools before you use them in the
processing of computer evidence.

 We may only get one chance to do it right.

2.14 Computer Evidence Processing Steps

There really are no strict rules that must be followed regarding the processing of computer
evidence.
The following are general computer evidence processing steps:

1. Shut down the computer.

Depending on the computer operating system, this usually involves pulling the plug or
shutting down a network computer using relevant commands required by the network
involved. Generally, time is of the essence, and the computer system should be shut down as
quickly as possible.

2. Document the hardware configuration of the system.

Be-fore dismantling the computer, it is important that pictures are taken of the computer

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from all angles to document the system hardware components and how they are connected.
Labeling each wire is also important, so that it can easily be reconnected when the system
configuration is restored to its original condition at a secure location.

3. Transport the computer system to a secure location.

A seized computer left unattended can easily be compromised. Don’t leave the computer
unattended unless it is locked up in a secure location.

4. Make bit stream backups of hard disks and floppy disks.

All evidence processing should be done on a restored copy of the bit stream backup rather
than on the original computer. Bit stream backups are much like an insurance policy and are
essential for any serious computer evidence processing.

5. Mathematically authenticate data on all storage devices.

You want to be able to prove that you did not alter any of the evidence after the computer
came into your possession. Since 1989, law enforcement and military agencies have used a
32- bit mathematical process to do the authentication process.

6. Document the system date and time.

If the system clock is one hour slow because of daylight-savings time, then file timestamps
will also reflect the wrong time. To adjust for these inaccuracies, documenting the system
date and time settings at the time the computer is taken into evidence is essential.

7. Make a list of key search words.

it is all but impossible for a computer specialist to manually view and evaluate every file on
a computer hard disk drive. Gathering information from individuals familiar with the case to
help com-pile a list of relevant keywords is important. Such keywords can be used in the
search of all computer hard disk drives and floppy diskettes using automated soft-ware.

8. Evaluate the Windows swap file.

The Windows swap file is a potentially valuable source of evidence and leads. When the

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computer is turned off, the swap file is erased. But the content of the swap file can easily be
captured and evaluated.

9. Evaluate file slack.

It is a source of significant security leakage and consists of raw memory dumps that occur
during the work session as files are closed. File slack should be evaluated for relevant
keywords to supplement the keywords identified in the previous steps. File slack is typically
a good source of Internet leads. Tests suggest that file slack provides approximately 80 times
more Internet leads than the Windows swap file.

10. Evaluate unallocated space (erased files).

Unallocated space should be evaluated for relevant keywords to supplement the keywords
identified in the previous steps.

11. Search files, file slack, and unallocated space for keywords.

The list of relevant keywords identified in the previous steps should be used to search all
relevant computer hard disk drives and floppy diskettes. It is important to review the output
of the text search utility and equally important to document relevant findings.

12. Document file names, dates, and times.

From an evidence standpoint, file names, creation dates, and last modified dates and times
can be relevant. The output should be in the form of a word-processing-compatible file that
can be used to help document computer evidence issues tied to specific files.

13. Identify file, program, and storage anomalies.

Encrypted, compressed, and graphic files store data in binary format. As a result, text data
stored in these file formats cannot be identified by a text search program. Manual evaluation
of these files is required. Depending on the type of file involved, the contents should be
viewed and evaluated for its potential as evidence.

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14. Evaluate program functionality.

Depending on the application software involved, running programs to learn their purpose
may be necessary. When destructive processes that are tied to relevant evidence are
discovered, this can be used to prove willfulness.

15. Document your findings.

It is important to document your findings as is-sues are identified and as evidence is found.
Documenting all of the software used in your forensic evaluation of the evidence, including
the version numbers of the programs used, is also important. Be sure you are legally
licensed to USE the forensic software. Screen prints of the operating software also help
document the version of the software and how it was used to find or process the evidence.

16. Retain copies of software used.

As part of your documentation process, it is recommended that a copy of the software used
be included with the output of the forensic tool involved. Duplication of results can be
difficult or impossible to achieve if the soft-ware has been upgraded and the original version
used was not retained.

2.15 Legal Aspects of Collecting and Preserving Computer

Forensic Evidence

Definition

 A chain of custody is a roadmap that shows how evidence was collected, analyzed, and
preserved in order to be presented as evidence in court.

 Preserving a chain of custody for electronic evidence requires proving that:

 No information has been added or changed.

 A complete copy was made.

 A reliable copying process was used.

 All media was secured.

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Legal Requirements

 When evidence is collected, certain legal requirements must be met. These legal
requirements are vast, complex, and vary from country to country.

 CERT Advisory CA-1992-19 suggests the following text be tailored to a corporation’s

specific needs under the guidance of legal counsel:

 This system is for the use of authorized users only. Individuals using
this computer system without authority, or in excess of their authority,
are subject to having all of their activities on this system monitored and
recorded by system personnel.

 In the course of monitoring individuals improperly using this system, or

in the course of system maintenance, the activities of authorized users
may also be monitored.

 Anyone using this system expressly consents to such monitoring and is

advised that if such monitoring reveals possible evidence of criminal
activity, system personnel may provide the evidence of such monitoring
to law enforcement officials.

 The legality of workplace monitoring depends primarily on whether employment

policies exist that authorize monitoring and whether that policy has been clearly
communicated to employees.

 To prove that the policy has been communicated, employees should sign a statement
indicating that they have read, understood, and agreed to comply with corporate
policy and consent to sys-tem monitoring.

Evidence Collection Procedure

When the time arrives to begin collecting evidence, the first rule that must be followed is

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Do not rush.

 The investigation team will need a copy of their incident-handling procedure, an

evidence collection notebook, and evidence identification tags.

 They may also need to bring tools to produce reliable copies of electronic evidence,
including media to use in the copying process.

 In some cases, legal counsel will want photographs of the system prior to search and
seizure. Then include a Polaroid camera in the list of tools.

The Incident Coordinator

Policy and procedure should indicate who is to act as incident coordinator.

The Incident coordinator

 will contact the other members of the response team as outlined in the Incident
Response Policy, when an incident is reported.

 will be responsible for ensuring that every detail of the incident-handling procedure
is followed, upon arrival at the incident site.

 will assign team members the various tasks outlined in the incident-handling procedure.

 serve as the liaison to the legal team, law enforcement officials, management, and
public relations personnel.

Ultimate responsibility for ensuring that evidence is properly collected and preserved, and
that the chain of custody is properly maintained, belongs to the incident coordinator.

The Evidence Notebook

 One team member will be assigned the task of maintaining the evidence note-book.
 This person will record the who, what, where, when, and how of the investigation
process. At a minimum, items to be recorded in the notebook include the following task.
a) Who initially reported the suspected incident along with time, date, and circumstances
surrounding the suspected incident?
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b) Details of the initial assessment leading to the formal investigation.

c) Names of all persons conducting the investigation.

d) The case number of the incident.

e) Reasons for the investigation.

f) A list of all computer systems included in the investigation, along with complete system
specifications. Also include identification tag numbers assigned to the systems or
individual parts of the system.

g) Network diagrams.

h) Applications running on the computer systems previously listed.

i) A copy of the policy or policies that relate to accessing and using the systems previously
listed.

j) A list of administrators responsible for the routine maintenance of the system.

k) A detailed list of steps used in collecting and analyzing evidence. Specifically, this list
needs to identify the date and time each task was performed, a description of the task,
who performed the task, where the task was performed, and the results of the analysis.

l) An access control list of who had access to the collected evidence at what date and time.

 A separate notebook should be used for each investigation. It should be bound in such a
way that it is obvious if a page or pages have been removed.

 This notebook is a crucial element in maintaining chain of custody. Therefore, it must be

as detailed as possible to assist in maintaining this chain.

Evidence Collection
 Another team member (or members) will be assigned the task of evidence collection.

 To avoid confusion, the number of people assigned this task should be kept to a minimum.

 This member (or members) should also be highly proficient with copying and analysis

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tools.

 This person will tag all evidence and work with the person responsible for the evidence
notebook to ensure that this information is properly recorded.

 Next, the person will also be responsible for making a reliable copy of all data to be used
as evidence.

 The data will include complete copies of drives on compromised or suspect systems, as
well as all relevant log files.
 This can be done on-site or the entire system can be moved to a forensics lab, as needs
dictate.

 A binary copy of the data is the proper way to preserve evidence.

 A reliable copy process has three critical characteristics.

 The process must meet industry standards for quality and reliability.

 The copies must be capable of independent verification.

 The copies must be tamperproof.

 Once all evidence is collected and logged, it can be securely transported to the forensics
lab.

 A detailed description of how data was transported and who was responsible for the
transport, along with date, time, and route, should be included in the log.

Storage and Analysis of Data

 The lab must provide some form of access control; a log should be kept detailing
entrance and exit times of all individuals.

 It is important that evidence never be left in an unsecured area.

 If a defense lawyer can show that unauthorized persons had access to the evidence, it
could easily be declared inadmissible.

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 As analysis of evidence is performed, investigators must log the details of their actions
in the evidence notebook. The following should be included at a minimum:

 The date and time of analysis

 Tools used in performing the analysis

 Detailed methodology of the analysis

 Results of the analysis.

 Finally, once all evidence has been analyzed and all results have been recorded in the
evidence notebook, a copy of the notebook should be made and given to the legal team.

 If the legal team finds that sufficient evidence exists to take legal action, it will be
important to maintain the chain of custody until the evidence is handed over to the
proper legal authorities.

 Legal officials should provide a receipt detailing all of the items received for entry into
evidence.

COMPUTER IMAGE VERIFICATION AND AUTHENTICATION

2.16 Special Needs of Evidential Authentication

 During an investigation, it is decided that evidence may reside on a computer system.

 It may be possible to seize or impound the computer system, but this risks violating the
basic principle of innocent until proven guilty, by depriving an innocent party of the
use of his or her system.

 It should be perfectly possible to copy all the information from the computer system in
a manner that leaves the original system untouched and yet makes all contents
available for forensic analysis.

 The courts may rightly insist that the copied evidence is protected from either
accidental or deliberate modification and that the investigating authority should prove
that this has been done. Thus, it is not the content that needs protection, but its

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