CHAP 05

Quantum Physics
BLACK BODY RADIATION:
A black body is an ideal body that absorbs all radiation incident on its surface regardless of
frequency or angle of incidence. Unlike real objects, a perfect blackbody does not reflect or
transmit any radiation; it is a perfect absorber and emitter. In thermal equilibrium it emits
radiation at a specific spectrum that depends on its temperature, known as black body radiation.
• There is no such body which is 100% blackbody (carbon-graphite is 96%).
Example:
1. Sun at higher temperature radiate or emit all radiation
2. Earth absorbs all radiation up to 99%.
(Candle is not black body because it emits only yellow)

A good approximation of blackbody is a small hole leading to

the inside of hollow object, shown in figure. Radiation incident
on a hole trapped in the cavity.

• Light emitted by any object didn’t depend on size and

nature of object, but it depends on temperature.
• Any object heated around 4000K it gives out radiation in
visible region (1st Red) more heated it will become blue
and finally white (all 𝜆 of visible region)

Classical View and the Blackbody Spectrum

In the late 19th century, physicists attempted to describe the energy distribution of radiation
emitted by a blackbody at different temperatures
1) Stefan Boltzmann Law:
It states that the radiated intensity of a blackbody is directly proportional to the fourth power of
its absolute temperature (T).
Mathematically:
 𝐼(𝑇) 𝛼 𝑇 4
𝐼(𝑇) = 𝜎𝑒𝑇 4
Here,

𝜎 = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 4

e = emissivity
e = 1 for ideal black body
e = 0 for perfect reflector.

e: define as the ratio of radiation emitted by a surface of a body to the radiation emitted by
blackbody.

2. Wien Displacement Law:

Wien’s Displacement Law is a fundamental principle in thermal radiation that describes how the
peak wavelength of radiation emitted by a blackbody shifts with temperature. This law helps us
understand the color changes in heated objects.
Statement:
It states that the wavelength at which the emission of a blackbody is at its maximum intensity is
inversely proportional to the temperature of the blackbody.
Mathematically
𝑏
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇

b = Wien’s displacement constant = 2.897×10-3 m⋅K

3. Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
It states that the intensity of blackbody radiation is inversely proportional to fourth power of the
wavelength.
Mathematically
2𝜋𝑘𝑏 𝑇
𝐼(𝜆, 𝑇) =
𝜆4
This theory worked well at long wavelengths (low frequencies) but diverged at shorter
wavelengths, predicting an infinite intensity of radiation as the wavelength decreases, especially
in the ultraviolet region.
Ultraviolet Catastrophe:
The failure of classical physics to describe the
behavior of blackbody radiation at short
wavelengths was a significant problem.
Experimental observations showed that at lower
wavelength, the intensity sharply decreases rather
than increasing infinitely. This discrepancy
between theory and observation became known
as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

4. Planck’s Hypothesis:
Max Planck was the first to introduce the idea of quantized energy to explain blackbody radiation.
He proposed that the energy of electromagnetic waves is not continuous but emitted in discrete
packets, or quanta. This revolutionary idea explained the observed black body radiation
spectrum.
2ℎ𝑐 2 1
𝐼(𝜆, 𝑇) = ℎ𝑐
𝜆5
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1
2ℎ𝑓 3 1
𝐼(𝑓, 𝑇) = ℎ𝑓
𝑐2
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1
He gave two assumptions
1) The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete value 𝐸𝑛 .
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓
2) Oscillator emit or absorb energy when making a transition from one quantum state to another.
Δ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖

Explanation of graph:
(a) Point (1):
At shorter wavelengths (𝜆), the separation between quantum energy levels is large. This results
in a lower probability of transitions between these states. Consequently, the intensity of
radiation is low.
(b) Point (2):
At the peak of the curve (intermediate wavelength), the energy
levels are closer together, and transitions have a high probability.
This leads to the highest intensity of radiation.
(c) Point (3):
At longer wavelengths (𝜆), the energy difference becomes smaller,
but the probability of transitions and the energy associated with
them decrease. As a result, the intensity gradually decreases.

Work function:
The work function of a material is the minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron
from its surface. It is measured in electron volts (eV).
Threshold frequency:
The threshold frequency of a material is the minimum frequency of light (or other
electromagnetic radiation) needed to eject an electron from its surface. It is measured in hertz
(Hz).

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a material when it absorbs
electromagnetic radiation (light). When a photon's energy is greater than or equal to the work
function of the material, it can eject an electron. These ejected electrons are called
photoelectrons.
Experimental Result:
1. At constant potential difference, number
of photons emitted from cathode is
directly proportional to intensity of
radiation.

2. For a constant intensity, the photocurrent

varies with the potential difference V and
reaches a constant value beyond which further
increase in potential has no effect; instead, a
negative potential (retarding potential)
reduces the current until it stops. Point where
photocurrent become zero known as cut-off or
stopping potential.
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉

3. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons

depends on the light frequency, not intensity.
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

4. Each substance has a threshold frequency, below

which no photoelectrons are emitted.
5. The time delay between radiation incidence and
photoelectron emission is extremely small, less
than 10-9 seconds.
Einstein Analysis:
1) Einstein suggested that the electromagnetic radiation field is quantized into particles
called photons. Each photon has the energy quantum of
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
Where, f is the frequency of light and h is the Plank’s constant.
2) The Photon travels at the speed of light in a vacuum, and it’s wavelength is given by
𝑐
𝜆=
𝑓
3) Conservation of energy:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 (𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛) = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜙 + 𝑘. 𝐸 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛)

Where, 𝜙 is the work function of the metal

1
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Compton Effect:
It is a phenomenon in which high energy electromagnetic waves (X-ray, gamma) are observed to
be shifted to a longer wavelength after being scattered off of the electron in material.

• This wavelength shift cannot be explained using classical wave theory.

• It provides evidence for the particle nature of light supporting the concept of photon and
quantum theory.
• The resulting change in the 𝜆 of the radiation is a direct result of the conservation of
energy and momentum in the collision between photon and an electron.
Explanation:
➢ In the target material, the valence electron is loosely bound in atoms and behave like a
free electron.
➢ The incident beam of photon collides with a valence electron and transfer some part of
its energy and momentum to the target electron
And leaves as a scattered photon.
The collision between the photon and electron obeys 2 principles;
1) The conservation of linear momentum:

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝛾
= 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝛾 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2) Conservation of total relativistic energy:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ𝑓𝑜 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝓇𝑚𝑐 2
Using this principle, the following relationship can be derived:
ℎ
Δ𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Here, Δ𝜆 = 𝜆𝑓 − 𝜆𝑖 ; Compton shift

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = =
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (9.11 × 10−31 )(3 × 108 )
𝜆𝑐 = 2.43 𝑝𝑚
Wave Nature of Matter/ De-Broglie Hypothesis:
Introduction
• De-Broglie extended the wave-particle duality concept of light (established by Einstein
and Planck) to all matter.
• Wave-Particle Duality: Just as photons (light) can behave as particles and waves,
particles like electrons can also exhibit wave-like behavior.
• De-Broglie suggested that particles such as electrons, protons, and even larger objects
have associated wavelengths.
De-Broglie Hypothesis
• Any particle with momentum has an associated wavelength, called the De-Broglie
wavelength.
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
Experimental Evidence:
1. Conducted by Davisson and Germer in 1927; Demonstrated that electrons
produce diffraction patterns when passed through a crystal, confirming their wave
nature.
2. Electrons passing through two slits form an interference pattern, further validating
the wave nature.
Importance:
Explains phenomena such as: Stability of electrons in atomic orbits (Bohr model).
Laid the foundation for the development of quantum mechanics.
Limit:
• Observable wave nature is significant only for very small particles (e.g., electrons,
protons).
• For macroscopic objects, the wavelength is negligible due to large momentum.

Postulate of Quantum Mechanics: In class