Solar Energy Conversion

Sol r to he t

Twidell nd Weir, Ch pter 4,5, nd 7 (2nd ed.) or Ch pter 2-5 (4th ed.)
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 Solar to heat
• Solar radiation at a location • Devices to exploit the energy source
- Black-body sun - Solar collectors for solar thermal

- Geometry of the earth and sun - Devices for solar photovoltaics

- Part-absorption by the atmosphere - Photo-electrochemical cells for H2

generation

• Applications
- Heating, Heat engines

- Direct electricity generation

- Chemical transformations to store energy

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Ursus maritimus

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Ursus maritimus

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Ursus maritimus

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Ursus maritimus

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 Solar to heat systems
• Solar to heat systems
- used in residential and commercial buildings for
kitchen use, bathrooms, showers, etc.
- Solar collectors can also be used for space heating in
winter

• Collectors for heating

- Unconcentrated solar radiation absorbed and
transferred to a uid
- Flat plate or evacuated collectors

- Typical uid temperatures ≤ 80 C ∘

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 Solar to heat systems

- Passive: insolation is absorbed and utilized without

signi cant work input associated with pumping or
blowing - thermo-siphon system

- Active: solar heat collected by a uid and then pumped

or fanned for use or storage of heat for later use

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 Types of collectors
• Basic solar water heater
- water tubes welded to plate
- all parts coated matt-black
- glass cover
- Insulation on lower enclosure well insulated

• Back ooded plate for improved heat transfer

• Selective surface on the plate reduces heat loss with less emission of
longwave infrared radiation

• Evacuated tube - Outer glass vacuum tube around absorber to nullify/

reduce convective losses
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 Characteristics Performance
indicators
Surface Glazing
type
Yes
Black No rp
res a E iciency
Selective ista
hea nce
thr t lo to
oug sse Tp (m)
h th s the
of t e to stagnation
Single col h e p
lec temperature
Double tor
Evacuated tube

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Analysis of lat plate collectors

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Analysis of lat plate collectors

in g al
co m o r m
In o n n t e
ia t i p la
ra d ct o r
o l le
to c

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Analysis of lat plate collectors
Pl
at
ar e
in g al ea
co m o r m A
In o n n t e
ia t i p la ab
ra d ct o r s
p
l le or
co Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

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Analysis of lat plate collectors
Pl
at
ar e
in g al ea
co m o r m A
In o n n t e
ia t i p la ab
ra d ct o r s
p
l le or
co Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

las s
ce of g
ittan
ns m
Tra

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 Analysis of lat plate collectors
Pl
at
ar e
in g al ea
co m o r m A
In o n n t e
ia t i p la ab
ra d ct o r s
p
l le or
co Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

las s
ce of g
ittan
ns m
Tra

Radiation absorbed by plate → τcovαp ApG

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 Analysis of lat plate collectors
Pl
at
Ambie ar e
g l nt at t ea
m in r m a emp.
In co no T <T A
t io n la t e a ab
a d ia o r p p
s
p
r le ct or
co l Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

las s
ce of g
ittan
ns m
Tra

Radiation absorbed by plate → τcovαp ApG

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 Analysis of lat plate collectors Tp − Ta
Heat loss from plate →
Pl
RL
at
Ambie ar e
g l nt at t ea
m in r m a emp.
In co no T <T A
t io n la t e a ab
a d ia o r p p
s
p
r le ct or
co l Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

las s
ce of g
ittan
ns m
Tra

Radiation absorbed by plate → τcovαp ApG

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 Analysis of lat plate collectors Tp − Ta
Heat loss from plate →
Pl
RL
at
g
Ambie
nt at t ar e ↓
m in m al emp. ea
co no r T <T A Resistance to
In io n a t e ab
d ia t r p l a
p p
ra e ct o s or heat transfer
co l l Te pt
to m an
pe c
eα
ra
tu p
re
T
p

las s
ce of g
ittan
ns m
Tra

Radiation absorbed by plate → τcovαp ApG

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 Composite heat
transfer processes

Tp − Ta dTf
τcovαp ApG − = mC
RL dt

• Solar radiation absorbed by plate • Glass absorbs all energy from plate, including radiative

• Conduction through base • Conduction through glass

• Free convection in the air gap between plate and glass • Free and forced convection between glass and ambient

• Radiation at wavelengths ≈ 10 μm • Longwave radiation losses

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 Composite heat
transfer processes

Tp − Ta dTf
τcovαp ApG − = mC
RL dt
·
= mC(T2 − T1)

• Solar radiation absorbed by plate • Glass absorbs all energy from plate, including radiative

• Conduction through base • Conduction through glass

• Free convection in the air gap between plate and glass • Free and forced convection between glass and ambient

• Radiation at wavelengths ≈ 10 μm • Longwave radiation losses

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 Thermal resistance formulation
Hot temp. Cold temp.

Ti − Tj
Pij =
Rij

Heat ow Thermal resistance

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 Thermal resistance formulation
Hot temp. Cold temp.

Ti − Tj
Pij =
Rij

Heat ow Thermal resistance

The thermal resistance method allows each step of a

complex of heat transfers to be added together as a
set of series and parallel connections 10
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 Thermal Thermal Thermal
resistance - resistance - resistance -
conduction convection radiation

Governing Eqn.: Governing Eqn.: Governing Eqn.:

ΔT ΔT
P = − kA P= kA P12 = σA1F12 (T1
′ 4
− T2 )
4
Δx X
→ Nusselt number
[ ϵ1 ϵ2 ]
−1
′ 1 1
Re-arranging terms: F12 = + −1

ΔT Δx
= Rc = − Rewriting: Re-arranging terms:
P kA
ΔT X T1 − T2
= Rv = = Rr = [A1F12σT̄ ]
′ 3
P kA P12
𝒩
𝒩

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𝒩
 Heat transfer circuit equivalent
Current source:
Incoming
radiation normal
to collector
plate
Base
Plate-Glass

Capacitance:
heat capacity
of uid

Glass-Air

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 Heat transfer circuit equivalent
Current source:
Incoming
radiation normal
to collector
plate
Base
Plate-Glass

Capacitance:
heat capacity
of uid

Glass-Air
Tp − Ta Power transfer to
τcovαp ApG − → uid
RL

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 Heat transfer circuit equivalent
Current source:
Incoming
radiation normal
to collector
plate
Base
Plate-Glass

Capacitance:
heat capacity
of uid

Glass-Air
Tp − Ta Power transfer to
τcovαp ApG − → uid
RL

−1 −1

( Rr,pg Rv,pg ) ( Rr,ga Rv,ga )

1 1 1 1
RL = + + Rc,g + +
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 Collector ef iciency
• ratio of the useful heat delivered to the plate to
the radiation incident on the collector
TP − Ta
τcovαP APG − RL
→ ηsp =
APG
1
= τcovαP − (TP − Ta)
AP RLG
UL Constant RL
= τcovαP − (TP − Ta)
G

• transfer e ciency from plate to uid → ηpf, is

taken to be between 0.85 to 1

• collector e ciency, ηC = ηsp × ηpf Reduce radiative loss

- with TP = T̄f, the mean uid temperature 13

Reduce convective transfer
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 Example
• A non-selective black-painted at-plate collector, 1.0 m × 1.0 m in area, has a single 5 mm thick uncoated glass
cover 3.0 cm above it and insulation immediately below of 10 cm thickness. It is exposed to solar irradiance G =
−2
750 W m . Water is the working uid at temperature Tf.

- shortwave (solar) transmittance of glass cover τ = 0.9

- absorptance of the ‘black’ plate α = 0.9

- longwave emittance of plate and glass εp = εg = 0.9

- thermal conductivity of the insulation k = 0.035 W m K

−1 −1

- wind speed over the cover 5.0 m.s

-1

- ambient air temperature 20 °C

• By making reasonable approximations and treating the system as a single composite object
- calculate the resistance to heat loss from the plate containing the uid

- the stagnation temperature, Tp

(m)

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 Example
• A non-selective black-painted at-plate collector, 1.0 m × 1.0 m in area, has a single 5 mm thick uncoated glass
cover 3.0 cm above it and insulation immediately below of 10 cm thickness. It is exposed to solar irradiance G =
−2
750 W m . Water is the working uid at temperature Tf.

- shortwave (solar) transmittance of glass cover τ = 0.9

- absorptance of the ‘black’ plate α = 0.9

- longwave emittance of plate and glass εp = εg = 0.9

- thermal conductivity of the insulation k = 0.035 W m K

−1 −1

- wind speed over the cover 5.0 m.s

-1

- ambient air temperature 20 °C

• By making reasonable approximations and treating the system as a single composite object
- calculate the resistance to heat loss from the plate containing the uid

- the stagnation temperature, Tp

(m)

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 Example
• A non-selective black-painted at-plate collector, 1.0 m × 1.0 m in area, has a single 5 mm thick uncoated glass
cover 3.0 cm above it and insulation immediately below of 10 cm thickness. It is exposed to solar irradiance G =
−2
750 W m . Water is the working uid at temperature Tf.

- shortwave (solar) transmittance of glass cover τ = 0.9

- absorptance of the ‘black’ plate α = 0.9 Base

- longwave emittance of plate and glass εp = εg = 0.9

- thermal conductivity of the insulation k = 0.035 W m K

−1 −1

- wind speed over the cover 5.0 m.s

-1

- ambient air temperature 20 °C

• By making reasonable approximations and treating the system as a single composite object
- calculate the resistance to heat loss from the plate containing the uid

- the stagnation temperature, Tp

(m)

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 Example
• A non-selective black-painted at-plate collector, 1.0 m × 1.0 m in area, has a single 5 mm thick uncoated glass
cover 3.0 cm above it and insulation immediately below of 10 cm thickness. It is exposed to solar irradiance G =
−2
750 W m . Water is the working uid at temperature Tf.

- shortwave (solar) transmittance of glass cover τ = 0.9

Plate-
Glass
- absorptance of the ‘black’ plate α = 0.9 Base

- longwave emittance of plate and glass εp = εg = 0.9

- thermal conductivity of the insulation k = 0.035 W m K

−1 −1

- wind speed over the cover 5.0 m.s

-1

- ambient air temperature 20 °C

• By making reasonable approximations and treating the system as a single composite object
- calculate the resistance to heat loss from the plate containing the uid

- the stagnation temperature, Tp

(m)

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 Example
• A non-selective black-painted at-plate collector, 1.0 m × 1.0 m in area, has a single 5 mm thick uncoated glass
cover 3.0 cm above it and insulation immediately below of 10 cm thickness. It is exposed to solar irradiance G =
−2
750 W m . Water is the working uid at temperature Tf.

- shortwave (solar) transmittance of glass cover τ = 0.9

Plate-
Glass
- absorptance of the ‘black’ plate α = 0.9 Base

- longwave emittance of plate and glass εp = εg = 0.9

- thermal conductivity of the insulation k = 0.035 W m K

−1 −1

- wind speed over the cover 5.0 m.s

-1

- ambient air temperature 20 °C

Glass-Air
• By making reasonable approximations and treating the system as a single composite object
- calculate the resistance to heat loss from the plate containing the uid

- the stagnation temperature, Tp

(m)

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⏟ ⏟
0.032 0.040
0.107 0.467 0.005

0.018
0.087

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 −1 −1

( Rr,pg Rv,pg ) ( Rr,ga Rv,ga )

1 1 1 1
RL = + + Rc,g + +

⏟ ⏟
0.032 0.040
0.107 0.467 0.005

0.018
0.087

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Surface modi ications of the collector

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

2898
• Two ranges of radiation (Wien’s displacement law: λm =
T
)

- incoming short-wave with a peak around 0.5 μm

- outgoing long-wave with a peak around 10 μm

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

2898
• Two ranges of radiation (Wien’s displacement law: λm =
T
)

- incoming short-wave with a peak around 0.5 μm

- outgoing long-wave with a peak around 10 μm

• Selective surface
- Kircho ’s Law: αλ = ϵλ

- black in short-wave (solar) irradiation (α0.5 = 1)

- poor emitter in the long-wave (collector) region (ϵ10 = 0)

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

2898
• Two ranges of radiation (Wien’s displacement law: λm =
T
)

- incoming short-wave with a peak around 0.5 μm

- outgoing long-wave with a peak around 10 μm

• Selective surface
- Kircho ’s Law: αλ = ϵλ

- black in short-wave (solar) irradiation (α0.5 = 1)

- poor emitter in the long-wave (collector) region (ϵ10 = 0)

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 Surface modi ications of the collector
• Maximise solar irradiance heat gain and minimise radiative losses

2898
• Two ranges of radiation (Wien’s displacement law: λm =
T
)

- incoming short-wave with a peak around 0.5 μm

- outgoing long-wave with a peak around 10 μm

• Selective surface
- Kircho ’s Law: αλ = ϵλ

- black in short-wave (solar) irradiation (α0.5 = 1)

- poor emitter in the long-wave (collector) region (ϵ10 = 0)

• Anti-re ection coating to reduce re ection losses 16

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 Selective surfaces
• intrinsic absorbers
- Metallic ZrB2

• semiconductor–metal tandems
- Absorb short-wave, no long-wave emission, Cu2O/Cu

• multilayer tandems
- multiple very thin alternating layers of ‘tandem’ metal and
dielectric material
- 3 nm thick metal layers (< skin depth)

• ceramic–metal composites (known as cermets)

- nanoscale metal particles embedded in a ceramic matrix 17
Evacuated tube collectors
• Improved collector performance by
reducing heat losses from the collector
- Receiver metallic tube carries water/ uid
- Shrouded by a glass tube
- Annulus is evacuated

• Heat loss from the outer surface of the

receiver to the inner surface of the glass Dp
tube is by radiation only

• Heat lost from the outer glass surface

• convection
• radiation 18
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 Evacuated tube collectors - analysis
• Heat loss from collector

Qloss = UL Ap (Tp − Ta)

·

UL → overall heat loss coe cient

−1

( rr,ga rv,ga )
1 1 1
= rr,pg + rc,g + +
UL

• The expressions for radiative and convective heat

transfer resistances are as before

( Dgi )
Dgo
ln
• rc,g = Rc,g × Ag can typically be neglected →
2πkgL
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 Evacuated tube collectors - Problem

Calculate the loss resistance of an evacuated collector

and estimate its stagnation temperature. Given:
• Dg = 5.0 cm, Dp = 4.0 cm; tube length = 1.0 m

• longwave (infrared) emittances εP = 0.10, εg = 1.0, εair = 1.0 Dp

• shortwave (solar) absorptance of plate αP = 0.85

• transmittance of glass τg = 0.90

• G = 750 W m −2

• Ta = 20°C, Tcov = Tg = 40°C, Tp = 100 °C

• wind speed, u = 6.5 m s .−1

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 Evacuated tube Dp

collectors 2Dp
21

• several tubes in parallel arrangement in a at-plate stationary collector

• solar radiation passing between the tubes is re ected by the back plate
·
QU = τgαpGeff Ap,p − UL Ap(Tp − Ta)
·
QU = mwcp (Tw,out − Tw,in)
·
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 Evacuated tube Dp

collectors 2Dp
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• several tubes in parallel arrangement in a at-plate stationary collector

• solar radiation passing between the tubes is re ected by the back plate
·
QU = τgαpGeff Ap,p − UL Ap(Tp − Ta)
·
QU = mwcp (Tw,out − Tw,in)
·
Geff → e ective solar radiation
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 Evacuated tube Dp

collectors 2Dp
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• several tubes in parallel arrangement in a at-plate stationary collector

• solar radiation passing between the tubes is re ected by the back plate
·
QU = τgαpGeff Ap,p − UL Ap(Tp − Ta)
·
QU = mwcp (Tw,out − Tw,in)
·
Geff → e ective solar radiation Ap → tube area = ntube × πDp × L
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 Evacuated tube Dp

collectors 2Dp
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• several tubes in parallel arrangement in a at-plate stationary collector

• solar radiation passing between the tubes is re ected by the back plate
·
QU = τgαpGeff Ap,p − UL Ap(Tp − Ta)
·
QU = mwcp (Tw,out − Tw,in)
·
Ap,p → projected area = ntube × Dp × L Geff → e ective solar radiation Ap → tube area = ntube × πDp × L
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 Evacuated tube collectors - Problem
• A solar collector with 15 evacuated tubes of 1.8-m length is used to provide hot water for a house. The tubes are
placed in a rectangular frame with an aperture size of 1.8 m × 1.50 m. The speci cations of the evacuated tubes and
the operating conditions at a certain location and time are given as follows:
- Glass tube: Diameter D = 5 cm, thickness 5 mm , ε = 0.4, τg = 0.8, Tg = 35 °C, kg = 1 W/m⋅K
gi g

- Receiver tube: Diameter: Dp = 4 cm, εp = 0.1, αp = 0.8, Temperature Tp = 80 °C

- Convection heat transfer coe cient at the outer surface of the glass tube hconv = 15 W/m2⋅K
- Ambient air temperature Ta = 20 °C
- Incident solar radiation G = 600 W/m2
- E ective solar radiation Ge = 750 W/m2
- Water: Inlet and outlet temperatures Tw,in = 75 °C, Tw,out = 85 °C, Speci c heat cw = 4.2 kJ/kg⋅K

Calculate
- overall heat loss coe cient
- rate of useful heat supplied to the water
- collector e ciency
- mass ow rate of water 22
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Solar water heater con igurations

Natural circulation

Cold countries

Pumped circulation

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