SLYCAN Trust

CASE STUDY DRAFT

Climate Displacement and

Internal Migration
in Sri Lanka
A Case Study on
Trincomalee District
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 2

Draft version
Not for citation

Prepared by
SLYCAN Trust

List of Contributions

Researcher
Vositha Wijenayake
Dennis Mombauer

Research Assistant
Amanda de Moore
Ramesh Warallagama
Sandalie Gomes
Vilokya Liyanawatte
Kassala Kamer

© 2019 SLYCAN Trust

 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 3

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. 3

Key Information ................................................................................................................................ 4
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 5
1.1. Country Context................................................................................................................. 5
1.2. Trincomalee District........................................................................................................... 6
2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 9
3. Displacement and Migration .................................................................................................. 10
3.1. Climate-Induced Migration ............................................................................................... 11
3.2. Laws and Policies ............................................................................................................. 11
4. Case Study on Trincomalee District ....................................................................................... 13
4.1. Outward Migration .......................................................................................................... 13
4.2. Left Behind ....................................................................................................................... 13
4.3. Climate Change Impacts .................................................................................................. 14
5. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 16
6. References .............................................................................................................................. 17

Table 1: Migration by Province ........................................................................................................ 6

Table 2: Land use in Trincomalee district......................................................................................... 7
Table 3: Population of Trincomalee district ..................................................................................... 7
Table 4: Sources of drinking water in Trincomalee district ............................................................. 7
Table 5: Rainfall patterns Trincomalee 2015-2017 .......................................................................... 8
Table 6: Migration destinations ..................................................................................................... 13
Table 7: Migrating family members ............................................................................................... 13
Table 8: Migration of family members ........................................................................................... 13
Table 9: Occupation of non-migrating family members ................................................................ 14
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 4

Key Information

▪ The adverse impacts of climate change ▪ Much of this migration is unofficial,

increasingly cause or contribute to temporary, and cyclical. Many migrants
internal migration in Sri Lanka. return to their villages once a month or
every two months, other stay away for
▪ In many rural dry zone communities, even longer periods but come back for
prolonged droughts, soil depletion, and the harvest season.
erratic rainfall patterns disrupt and
threaten agricultural livelihoods and ▪ The main goal of this migration is
food security. These communities providing a substitute income for the
depend on the agriculture sector and failing agriculture sector. It is not an
offer few employment options outside adaptation strategy but instead borne
of it. out of economic necessity.

▪ There is a strong link between climate ▪ If the resilience of these communities

change impacts and migration. During an can be increased and their agricultural
agricultural survey in four villages in livelihoods supported through irrigation,
Trincomalee district, 97% of farmers had water management, climate-smart
experienced droughts and shifting agriculture, drought-resistant crops, and
rainfall patterns; 84% of respondents in livelihood diversification, migration
the migration survey named droughts as numbers are likely to decrease
the main driver of migration. significantly.

▪ The majority of internal climate migrants

in Sri Lanka are men. They move to cities
like Colombo, Kandy, or Vavuniya to find
work while their wives, children, and
families stay behind.
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 5

1. Introduction

As a developing tropical island nation in the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka is highly vulnerable to the
adverse impacts of climate change. Prolonged droughts, erratic rainfall patterns, floods, landslides,
sea level rise, temperature increase, salinization, soil depletion, high winds, and storms are among
the rapid- and slow-onset disasters that are brought on or worsened by anthropogenic global
warming and the resulting climate change.1, 2
Climate change severely threatens the lives and livelihoods of S i La ka’s populatio as ell as the
ou t y’s e o o y. The dry zone agriculture sector is especially at risk due to its high dependence
on irrigation and the vulnerability of the rural population. In many cases, internal migration has
become a last-resort response to the impacts of climate change in dry zone communities.

1.1. Country Context solidified with the start of the Colombo

Process in 2003. Migrant worker remittances
A 2015 IDMC report identifies Sri Lanka as are a key source of income for Sri Lanka and
the country with the highest relative risk of amount to 8-9% of the total GDP.5
being displaced by disaster in South Asia; The majority of international Sri Lankan
even by absolute numbers, the small island migrants are now women, and while their
nation is ranked 13th world-wide. For every main driver for migration might be economic,
million inhabitants, 15,000 are at risk of it is undeniable that the changing climate
being displaced every year in Sri Lanka.3 adds pressure and makes other employment
In 2017 alone, the country experienced seven options in their home areas unviable.
disaster events, mainly floods and landslides, The UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 10
and 135,000 new displacements due to (Reduced Inequalities) includes the
disaster. Sri Lanka is also at risk from slow- fa ilitatio of o de ly, safe, egular and
onset impacts like soil degradation, saltwater responsible migration and mobility of
intrusion, water scarcity, and crop failure.4 people as o e of its ta gets, ut othe SDGs
Sri Lanka is one of the main countries of are impacted by migration as well as their
origin for migration within Asia. Like the success depends on the successful handling
Philippines, Sri Lanka has a robust framework of climate-induced displacement and
for temporary labour migration, which was migration.

1
(Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, 2015)
2
(Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, 2016)
3
(Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2015)
4
(Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2018)
5
(Department of Census & Statistics, 2018)
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 6

Province Outward Migration Inward Migration Net Migration

Central 665,786 407,911 -257,875
Eastern 169,153 196,769 27,616
North Central 203,311 308,281 104,970
Northern 480,653 431,420 -49,233
North Western 359,382 365,817 6,435
Sabaragamuwa 385,014 252,736 -132,278
Southern 607,485 306,709 -300,776
Uva 266,215 203,400 -62,815
Western 817,685 1,481,281 663,596
Total6 3,954,684 3,954,324
Table 1: Migration by Province

The 2012 census found that one in five Sri Western, Sabaragamuwa, and Uva provinces
Lankans is an inter-district migrant, and one for marriage or because of the requirements
in seven an inter-province migrant, 40% of of a family member; they move to the
which are living in the Western Province. This Northern Province due to Resettlement and
means that they reported a different place of Displacement; and they move to the Western
usual residence than their place of previous Province to find employment.
residence.7
However, these numbers do not account for
Nationwide, marriage is the most common temporary migrants.
reason for migration (31.7%), followed by
employment (20.4%), requirement of a family
member (18.8%), and resettlement after 1.2. Trincomalee District
displacement (8.9%).
However, it is worth breaking this down by Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces and
province and district (Table 1). twenty-five districts. Together with Ampara
and Batticaloa, Trincomalee is one of the
In Colombo, most migrants (42.8%) have th ee dist i ts fo i g S i La ka’s Easte
come for work, just as in Gampaha (30.6%). Province. With 2,727 km2, it is S i La ka’s
The majority of people in the Northern tenth largest district but only number
Province moved there due to resettlement twenty-one in terms of population.
after displacement (Kilinochchi 95.6%,
Mullaitivu 88.3%, Jaffna 70.1%, Mannar The Eastern Province is sometimes called the
66.0%), while marriage and family are the G a a y of S i La ka, as it is espo si le fo
predominant reasons for most of the rest of oughly o e ua te of the ou t y’s e ti e
the country. Roughly said, people move to paddy output,8 and Trincomalee fits into this
the Central, Eastern, North Central, North picture.

6
(Department of Census and Statistics, 2012)
7
(Department of Census and Statistics, 2012)
8
(The Economist, 2016)
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 7

Land Area in square kilometres9

Paddy OFC Perennial Garden Abandoned Not Cultivated Forest
Trincomalee
361.67 498.32 24.20 188.30 119.51 520.30 817.10
Table 2: Land use in Trincomalee district

The district is largely agrarian-oriented, with drought, which was the worst drought in 40
almost half the land area (47.13%) used for years, but far from the only one. Other
cultivation. severe drought events happened in 2014,
2012, 2004, and 2001, and scarcity of
Trincomalee district has a net migration
drinking water is an annual problem.13
mostly due to resettlement (33.2%), marriage
(19.7%), and requirements of a family People without their own well have to walk
member (17.3%). The net migration has to access clean water, sometimes 150
reduced from 1981 to 2012, just like in the meters, 800 meters, even to the next village.
other districts of the Eastern Province.10
As climate change alters long-term weather
Trincomalee District patterns and leads to increasing droughts,
Total Born here floods, and storms, more and more people
Population
379,541 325,769 are turned into climate migrants and
Inward Outward Net refugees.
Migration
52,123 77,093 24,970
<5y 5-9 y > 10 y MAIN SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER
Length of Stay
35,006 7,917 34,170
Table 3: Population of Trincomalee district Bottled water 4.96

Due to the impacts of climate change, Rainwater 0.2

droughts have become more common. After
floods, droughts are the second most Tube well 1.76
common disaster in Sri Lanka affecting
Rural water projects 0.55
people and economy.11
Pipe-born water 47.79
Trincomalee, along with the rest of the
Eastern Province, is in an area with a very Unprotected well 3.71
high drought hazard. According to the
Protected well 41.03
National Disaster Relief Services Centre
(NDRSC), 178,800 people were affected by 0 20 40 60
drought in 2017 and 20,120 people in 2016.12
Trincomalee was the worst affected district in Table 4: Sources of drinking water in Trincomalee district
the Eastern Province during the 2016/2017

9
(Department of Census and Statistics, 2018)
10
(Department of Census and Statistics, 2012)
11
(The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, 2017)
12
(National Disaster Relief Services Centre, 2018)
13
(The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, 2017)
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 8

Monthly Rainfall 2015-2017 in mm

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2015 36.2 184.1 68.7 48 122.6 22.3 9.5 30.7 255.6 393.8 647.7 211.1
2016 101.4 22.3 43.5 4.1 331.6 0.1 81.2 58.5 9.2 87.9 175.4 81.1
2017 179.7 18.6 234.8 0 40 1.4 171.9 106.6 94.9 277.4 510.9 142.6

2015 2016 2017

Table 5: Rainfall patterns Trincomalee 2015-2017

Not even half of all households in kidney disease and other illnesses become
Trincomalee district receive their drinking widespread and the quality of life lowers.
water from the tab. Over 40% of households Without reliable rainfall, even home
have access to a protected well instead while gardening or small-scale cultivation of other
the rest relies on bottled water, unprotected crops becomes difficult, leading to strong
wells, and other means of collecting drinking economic pressure on farmers and their
water. families.
These rural communities depend on rains not
just for agriculture but for all areas of life:
from drinking to washing to laundry. If no
clean and safe sources of water are available,
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 9

2. Methodology

This case study is informed by an extensive, from government entities such as the Climate
in-depth literature review of studies, Change Secretariat and the Disaster
information notes, and research papers to Management Centre, various UN agencies,
establish a comprehensive national, regional, and NGOs, CSOs, and the private sector.
and global context.
Trincomalee has been chosen because it is
Ground-level data has been gathered part of the dry zone, has a high dependence
through a migration-focused survey of fifty on agriculture, and is heavily affected by
people in four villages in Trincomalee district climate change impacts in general and
as well as interviews with farmers, droughts in particular.
housewives, and migrant workers. The data
The case study aims to give a detailed picture
was complemented by additional surveys of a
of the ground-level situation in rural villages
total of 118 people in four villages in
in Trincomalee district and the effects of
Trincomalee district which focused on
climate change as a driver for internal
climate change impacts on agriculture and
migration and displacement. It then connects
farmers' adaptation measures to these
the specific situation in Trincomalee to the
impacts.
wider context in Sri Lanka's dry zone and the
Furthermore, consultations and interviews repercussions of in- and out-migration across
took place with stakeholders and experts the whole island.
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 10

3. Displacement and Migration

The International Organization for Migration legal status awarded under the 1951 Refugee
IOM defi es displa e e t as the Convention as well as subsequent protocols
movement of persons who have been forced and conventions. They are able to seek
or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or asylum, and countries have a responsibility to
places of habitual residence, in particular as a ensure their safety.
result of or in order to avoid the effects of
Displacement and migration can be
armed conflict, situations of generalized
permanent or temporary, both can happen
violence, violations of human rights or
within a country or across borders.
natural or human- ade disaste s. 14
Displacement can be directly caused by
Migration, on the other hand, is more loosely climate disasters such as floods or storms,
defi ed as the o e e t of pe so s a ay but this is rarely the case for migration. There
from their place of usual residence, either are social, political, economic, demographic,
across an international border or within a and environmental drivers for migration, and
State. 15 a combination of them usually leads to the
decision to move. Environmental degradation
To distil the difference, people are displaced
adds to other migration drivers and can tip
as the direct result of some kind of event or
the scales, and climate change can aggravate
situation that poses a serious threat and
existing tensions or even lead to conflicts
forces them to flee; migrants, on the other
itself when water and other resources
hand, are not threatened by persecution,
become scarce.
death or imprisonment if they return to their
home countries. If they move across borders, Different organisations use different
they are subject to national immigration terminologies, from climate refugees to
procedures and laws: but the majority is environmental migrants, from
migrating from rural to urban areas within environmentally displaced persons to forced
their countries. They move for temporary environmental migrants: but it is clear that
work opportunities, the reunited with their climate change is not a choice, and that its
families or as part of cyclical rural-urban impacts can be just as life-threatening and
exchange patterns. Migration can even be an forceful as war or persecution.
adaptation strategy itself, for example in
pacific island communities that relocate their
village farther away from the shoreline.
Both displaced persons and migrants are
different from refugees, which is a specific

14 15
(International Organization for Migration, 2019) (International Organization for Migration, 2019)
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 11

3.1. Climate-Induced Migration challenges and have large populations living

in unprotected, densely populated slums that
Climate change is usually not the sole driver are vulnerable to flooding and sanitary
for migration. Usually, it is part of a complex issues.
multitude of factors or exacerbates other Tens of millions of people in South Asia will
migration drivers such as poverty. be forced to move internally due to slow-
The number of climate migrants is predicted onset impacts of climate change, leaving
to increase dramatically by 2050, with their homes when the rains become
estimates ranging from 25 million to one unreliable, the soil is no longer fertile or
billion climate migrants and 200 million being floods and storm surges threaten their lives.
a widely cited figure.16
A ou d a ua te of the o ld’s populatio 3.2. Laws and Policies
lives in South Asia, and the region is
predicted to experience the strongest climate
At the moment, climate-induced migration
change impacts and disasters. Almost half the
and climate displacement are not categories
egio ’s populatio li es i a eas that ill
of international law: only refugees are
become moderate to severe climate hotspots
protected 1951 Refugee Convention, to
by 2050, and most of them are already
which Sri Lanka is not signatory. This means
characterised by poverty and poor
that especially for internal migrants and
infrastructure.17
internally displaced persons, the primary
South Asian countries have a high responsibility lies with the country and its
dependency on rain-fed agriculture, a large government.
rural population, and high population
UNHCR published its first policy paper on
density, especially along the coasts. There is
climate change and displacement in 2008 and
already sizeable internal and international
identified three areas of engagement:
migration, in part because increasing
operations management, protection
development has increased mobility (and
strategies, and advocacy.
mobility for women in particular).
The 2016 New York Declaration for Refugees
Rising temperatures and sea levels, changing
and Migrants mentions climate change and
rainfall and monsoon patterns, and tropical
acknowledges that poverty,
storms will lead to great numbers of climate
underdevelopment, lack of opportunities,
migrants in South Asia. The direction of
poor governance and environmental factors
internal and international migration goes
are among the drivers of migration. 18
toward cities and will continue to do so.
Emerging and existent urban regions, most of In a resolution adopted in December 2017,
them coastal, struggle with infrastructural the UN General Assembly has expressed

16 18
(International Organization for Migration, 2008) (United Nations General Assembly, 2016)
17
(International Organization for Migration, 2016)
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 12

concern about the challenges of climate Ordinary and Regular Migration went one
change and environmental degradation for step further and formulated the goal to
internally displaced persons. UNHCR analyse and map migration movements
published its first police caused by natural disasters, climate change
impacts, and environmental degradation and
In 2018, the global compact on refugees
develop adaptation and resilience strategies
recognized the increasing interaction
that take them into account.
between the drivers of refugee movements
and environmental degradation and natural
disasters. The Global Compact for Safe,
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 13

4. Case Study on Trincomalee District

The o e of the ase study’s data has ee gathe ed f o a 50-person survey and interviews in
four villages in Trincomalee district in August 2018: Bakmeegama, Dekapiyawara mahadiwulwewa,
Medawachchiya, and Pulikandikulama.

4.1. Outward Migration Much of this migration is unofficial and

difficult to count because the migrants
Compared to official migration figures, the maintain a strong connection to their home
survey results paint a different picture. village and frequently return for harvest
According to the 2012 census, Trincomalee season.
has a positive net migration, with more
people moving into than out of the district DESTINATION
and Gampaha, Anuradhapura, and Colombo Colombo Kandy Vavunia Other
as the main destinations.
5% 3%
FAMILY MEMBERS 5%

MOVING
Husband Wife Son Daughter None

20%
87%
2%
4%
2%
Table 6: Migration destinations
72%
Out of forty respondents with a member of
their family migrating, twenty-five reported
Table 7: Migrating family members that they would come back once per month
or at least every two months to stay for a few
Out of fifty interviewees in the survey, forty
days or a week.
(80%) had a family member who had
migrated, almost always the husband (72%),
almost always to Colombo (87%).
4.2. Left Behind
The reason for this temporary migration is
work-related in most cases, and 42 out of 50 From fifty families, thirty-six reported the
interviewees named droughts as the main husband migrating away, at least on a
reason for their economic problems. temporary basis.
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 14

OCCUPATION
16

14

13
4

3
HOME GARDENING HOUSEWIFE PADDY FARMING SMALL-SCALE UNEMPLOYED
BUSINESS

Table 9: Occupation of non-migrating family members

Even if those men frequently return and even labour as a response measure to deal with
if they are able to send money, this means the climate-related impacts
that in many families in Trincomalee, the
women and children are left to fend for
themselves for much of the year. 4.3. Climate Change Impacts
Among those that remain in the villages,
home gardening was by far the most The primary migration survey was
common occupation, followed by paddy supplemented with data from an additional
farming and small-scale businesses (selling survey of 118 people in four villages in
wades, bites, sesame balls). However, the Trincomalee district (Bakmeegama,
majority of respondents named either Athabandhiwewa, Mahadullewa, and
housewife or unemployed as their Kinniya) who named agriculture as their
occupation, meaning that they have no way primary (and often only) profession.
of earning money themselves and have to If asked if they experienced climate change
rely on thei hus a d’s i o e, fa ily, a d impacts within the past ten years without
government relief programmes like explaining climate change, only 13%
Samurdhi. answered that they had not: if asked for
Everyone involved in home gardening or specific impacts, that number dwindled even
paddy farming reported climate impacts further. 97% of farmers had experienced
related to drought (90%) or floods (10%). droughts and shifts in rainfall patterns, 93% a
Around two thirds reported financial change in the annual amount of rain, 90% a
problems and no proper income. Some temperature increase and reduction of water
survive on very low amounts of below LKR retention in cultivation soil, and still 83%
10,000 per month. The most common reported an increase in underground water
occupations were home gardening, paddy scarcity and more diseases and pests
farming, and small-scale businesses (mostly (insects) in cultivations. Water scarcity, high
selling food) salinity, and increases in pests and diseases
were also overwhelmingly named when
Half of the families with a migrating family asked about climate threats within the
member (21) named the migration to find timespan from 2014 to 2019.
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 15

Their main methods to deal with climate harvest (40%), shifting planting cycles and
change impacts were crop insurance (60%) planting improved varieties (37%) or seeking
and adopting a secondary income-generating early warning information on climate change
activity (60%), although many also reported and following instructions given by
problems with existing crop insurance agricultural instructors or extension officers
schemes, an issue backed up by research. (33%). One in six farmers named abandoning
agriculture as a solution.
Around 33-40% already adopted some
climate-smart agriculture (CSA) activities
such as shifting harvesting period/early
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 16

5. Conclusion

Climate change already impacts Sri Lanka in are key drivers for migration: but climate
severe and deep-reaching ways and is slated change is what makes agriculture increasingly
to worsen significantly in the coming difficult and forces farmers to move to the
decades. For many rural communities in the cities for weeks, months, or even years at a
dry zone of Sri Lanka, agriculture and time.
especially paddy cultivation are less and less
This migration is not an adaptation strategy,
reliable as the main source of income and
it is a last resort. If given the choice, the
food security, with grave implications for the
majority of people would stay back in their
country at large.
villages with their families. If the resilience of
Trincomalee is a good example of a dry zone these communities can be increased and
district with heavy reliance on agriculture their agricultural livelihoods supported
and a large rural population. through better irrigation, water storage and
drainage facilities, drought-resistant crop
People are unwilling to move, but without
varieties, climate-smart cultivation methods,
sufficient rainfall, they are left with no other
diversified livelihoods, improved resilience
choice. The rural economy depends on
through risk transfer and disaster risk
agriculture, and if there is no rain, there are
reduction and recovery, migration numbers
o jo s. People’s eed fo sustainable
are likely to decrease significantly.
livelihoods clashes with the desire to keep
their roots intact and stay in their villages.
This leads to temporary, cyclical migration
between rural and urban areas, with men
going to Colombo and other cities to work as
drivers, in construction, or in factories, and
women and children staying behind.
Lack of development and education, poverty,
and insufficient diversification of livelihoods
 Climate Displacement and Internal Migration in Sri Lanka 17

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