Research Methodology 1

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MODULE 1:
Meaning, Objectives and Characteristics of research - Research
methods Vs Methodology, Types of research, Descriptive Vs.
Analytical, Applied Vs. Fundamental, Quantitative Vs. Qualitative,
Conceptual Vs. Empirical - Research process - Criteria of good
research -Developing a research plan. Defining the Research Problem:
Research Problem, Selecting the Problem, Necessity of Defining the Problem,
Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research is a derivative of the French word; ‘Researche’ means quest, search, pursuit
and search for truth. The term ‘Research’ consists of two words.
Research = Re + Search. ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something,
the following is the process:

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
❖ The Dictionary meaning of research is “a careful investigation or inquiry especially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
❖ Research can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
❖ The research is defined as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge-Redman and
Mory.
❖ Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
❖ The research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating the hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis-Clifford Woody.
❖ The research is defined as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
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knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”- D. Slesinger and

M. Stephenson
❖ Research is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is research.
❖ The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also
research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consistingof
enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,analysing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
❖ Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic.
❖ It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through
objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of
hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters.
❖ The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings,
books, journals, nature, etc.
❖ A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through
research is it possible to make progress in a field.
❖ Research is indeed civilization and determines the economic, social and political
development of a nation. The results of scientific research very often force a change
in the philosophical view of problems which extend far beyond the restricted domain
of science itself.
❖ Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast areas ofresearch
in other disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociology.
❖ Whatever might be the subject, research has to be an active, diligent and systematic
process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours and
theories. Applying the outcome of research for the refinement of knowledge in other
subjects, or in enhancing the quality of human life also becomes a kind ofresearch and
development.
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Comprehensive definition of research

➢ “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions
which have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly
definite procedure. It is not a mere theorising, but rather an attemptto elicit facts and to
face them once they have been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster
up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which
an inquiry leads, no matter how unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research
adds to the scientific knowledge of the subject- Rusk

➢ “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in its
broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal problems; conversely, any systematic
study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be
considered research.”- George J. Mouly

➢ “To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive, so that
it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that research
is, literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which people engage. By
this definition all intelligent human behaviour involves some research.”

➢ “In social studies, teachers, administrators, or others engage in ‘Research’ when they
systematically and purposefully assemble information about schools, school children, the
social matrix in which a school or school system is determined, the characteristicof the
learner or the interaction between the school and pupil.”- Francis G. Cornell

➢ “The research is a carefully inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; a

diligent investigation to ascertain something”-Webster’s New International
Dictionary.
➢ This definition makes clear the fact that research is not merely a search for truth, but a
prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. In the last analysis, research constitutes a method
for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises
defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions;
collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
Research Methodology 4

conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
the formulating hypotheses”- Clifford Woody
➢ “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialised
tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a
problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects
data or facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence.
It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal. It evolves from a genuine
desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. - C.C. Crawford

➢ “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying

on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of
investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report
of results or conclusions.” - John W. Best thinks

➢ “Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavour or primitive hunting.”–
James Harvey Robinson

➢ “Research is the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the purpose of

generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids inthe
practice of an art.”– Encyclopaedia of Social Science

➢ “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”– V. Redman & Mory

➢ “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual

process that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in purpose and form
and always searching for truth.”- C. Francies Rummel

➢ “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in
the field studied.”- P.M. Cook
He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition:
1. It is an honest and exhaustive process.
Research Methodology 5

2. The facts are studied with understanding.

3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centred.
4. The findings are valid and verifiable.
5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.

➢ “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be

derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of
opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests,
answers to questionnaires, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose
of research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of social
studies; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere
collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it maybe preliminary to it on
eve a part thereof.”- W.S. Monroe

➢ “Research in the sense of the development, elaboration, and refinement of principles,

together with the collection and use of empirical materials to aid in these processes, is one
of the highest activities of a university and one in which all its professors shouldbe
engaged.”- R.M. Hutchins, Chancellor of the University of Chicago, in “The Higher
Learning in America” says,

➢ “Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry employed as the
research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of stimulating progress and
helping society and man relate more efficiently and effectively to the problemsthat
society and man perpetuate and create.”- J.H. McGrath and D.E. Watson

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered till today. Each research study has its own specific purpose. The prime objectives of
research are as follows.
1. To discover the new facts.
2. To verify and test the important facts.
3. To analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship.
Research Methodology 6

4. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and nonscientific problems.
5. To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems.
6. To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern
over practical problems initiate the research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Curiosity about unknown
7. Desire to understand the cause and effect of wide spread social problems
8. Appearance of novel and unanticipated situations
9. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedure as an efficient way to gain
useful and fundamental knowledge.
However, this is not a list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his
hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
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9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.

10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may
be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science
7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena
10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method
11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect
12. Research cannot be a mechanical process

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The significance of research is understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may
mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood.
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights..
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work.
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
Research Methodology 8

social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
Research Methods versus Methodology [Research methods and Research methodology]
Is there any difference between Research methods and Research methodology?
Table 1.1
Type Methods Techniques

1.Library Analysis of historical (i) Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape

Research and Film listening and Research recordsanalysis.

(ii) Statistical compilations and manipulations,

Analysis of documents reference and abstract guides, contents analysis.

2.Field i. Non-participant Observational behavioural scales, use of score

Research cards, etc

ii. Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape

recorders, photo graphic techniques.

iii. Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using

independent observers in public places

iv. Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic

background of respondents.

v. Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques,

use of sociometric scales.

vi. Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open

and closed questions.

vii. Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given

experience and its effects.

viii. Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed

simultaneously.

ix. Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and

for discerning opinion; may also be used as a
follow up of questionnaire.

x. Case study and life Cross sectional collection of data for intensive
history analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character.

3. Small group study of Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of

Laboratory random behaviour, play observers, etc.
Research and role analysis
Research Methodology 9

Research Methods [Table 1.1]

The research methods are the methods used by the researcher during the course of studying
the research problem. The research methods are classified into following three groups.
❖ Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed
as research methods.
❖ They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral.
❖ They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes,
statistical approaches, etc.
❖ Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem.
Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations basedon collected
facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone.
❖ They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.
Research methodology
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. The research methodology
has many dimensions and research methods. So the research method constitutes a part of the
research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
❖ It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the
procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining
and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
❖ It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim
is to give the work plan of research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify the state as it exists at present.
It uses description, classification, measurement and comparison to describe a situation. The
main characteristic is that the researcher has no control over the variables. He only reports the
situation as it is at that time. The term ex-post facto is usually used for descriptive research studies
in social sciences. The survey method is commonly used in descriptive research.
Research Methodology 10

Analytical research is a continuation of descriptive research. The researcher attempts

to analyze and explain why or how something is happening. Thus, analytical research aims to
understand phenomena by discovering and measuring causal relations among them.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental [Action research Vs Basic or Pure research].
Applied research
❖ Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organisation. It deals with practical problems. In the present
world situation, more importance is being given to applied research to solve problems.
These problems are arising out of over population and scarcity of natural resources.
❖ Applied research is to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research or the marketing research or evaluation
research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem.
Fundamental [Action research Vs Basic or Pure] research
❖ Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. The research onhuman
welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare is known as basic, pure or
fundamental research.
❖ “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” The
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation
of a theory.
❖ Basic research is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as: (a) what makes things happen,
(b) why society changes and (c) why social relations are in a certain way. In fact, it is
the source of most new theories, principles and ideas. To sum up, basicresearch is
purely theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior. But it
does not seek to solve any existing problem.
Difference between Applied Research and Fundamental Research
Applied Research
▪ Tries to eliminate the theory by adding to the basics of a discipline.
▪ Problems are analysed from the point of one discipline.
▪ Generalisations are preferred.
▪ Forecasting approach is implemented.
▪ Assumes that other variables do not change.
▪ Reports are compiled in a language of technical language of discipline.
Research Methodology 11

Fundamental Research
▪ Aims to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of a discipline.
▪ Often several disciplines work together for solving the problem.
▪ Often researches individual cases without the aim to generalise.
▪ Aims to say how things can be changed.
▪ Acknowledges that other variables are constant by changing.
▪ Reports are compiled in a common language.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is
expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. The result of this research is essentially
a number or a set of numbers.
Quantitative research is more concerned with questions about: how much? How many?
How often? To what extent? etc.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/ method are:
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses
numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
The quantitative research finds applications not only in physical sciences but also in economics,
social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods often begins with the
collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or experiment followed bythe application of
descriptive or inferential statistical methods.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is undertaken to gain insights. Insights concerning to attitudes,
beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to behave in a particular manner. The nature
of this type of research is to explore a social or human problem and open ended. It includes the
methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies.
Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with:
why? How? In what way?
Research Methodology 12

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality.

Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
• It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: Which is better?
The modern scientific research is often divided into two classes: conceptual research and
empirical research. But the distinction is not so clear till today.
Conceptual Research: Pen and Paper
Conceptual research focuses on the concept (abstract/ideas) or theory that explains the
phenomenon being studied. The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with pen in hand and tries
to solve these problems by thinking about them. The conceptual analysis is the preferred method
of analysis in social sciences (humanities) and philosophy.
Here, the researcher tackles the problem part by part. He breaks down the concept into
smaller simpler parts to understand it better. This method of analysis has gained immense
popularity; in spite of that, there is a lot of criticism against it.
Empirical research
In empirical research, data collection is done through observation and experimentation.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. It is also known as experimental type of research.
Ex.: Suppose that there is a hypothesis and two different scientists are working separately
on it. Scientists collect the information about the same hypothesis through the observation and
experimentation. They arrive at slightly different results. This is because; the observation part
which involves is bound to be different. The two different persons have different perception while
doing the same research.
(v) Some Other Types of Research
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches.
They are based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time
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i. One-time research or longitudinal research.

a) In one-time research, the research is confined to a single time-period.
b) In case of longitudinal research, the research is carried on over several time-
periods.
c) Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
ii. Clinical or diagnostic research.
Such researches follow case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that
interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
iii. Exploratory or it may be formalized.
a) The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather
than their testing.
b) Formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested.
iii. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc.
to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.
iv. Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented.
a) While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize
as he wishes.
b) Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since
it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative
basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

RESEARCH PROCESS/ VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research. The following are the various steps of research process.
1. Formulating the research problem.
2. Extensive literature survey.
3. Developing the hypothesis.
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4. Preparing the research design.

5. Determining sample design.
6. Collecting the data.
7. Execution of the project.
8. Analysis of data.
9. Hypothesis testing.
10. Generalisations and interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.

1. Formulating the research problem/: Identify the Problem

A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell about you, your research supervisor
and your readers what you intend to research.
i. The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. There
are two types of research problems, viz., related to i) states of nature and ii) relationships
between variables.
ii. A researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter to study.
This serves as the focus of the study.
iii. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view.
iv. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues
or with some expertise in the matter.
Research Methodology 15

v. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
vi. The task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process.
2. Extensive literature survey/ Review the Literature
i. Once the problem has been identified, a brief summary (synopsis) of it should be
prepared. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D degree.
The synopsis of the topic is to be submitted to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
ii. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This
step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
iii. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area.
3. Development of working hypotheses
i. After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for research
ii. The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
iii. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because
it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the
area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on the more important facets of the problem.
The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on
a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design
The researcher is required to prepare a research design. There are several research designs,
such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental
Research Methodology 16

designs can be either informal designs or formal designs, out of which the researcher must
select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
i. The means of obtaining the information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
iii. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will
be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
iv. The time available for research; and
v. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design
The way of selecting a sample is popularly known as the sample design. In other words,
a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected. Samples can
be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
❖ The probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.
❖ The non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
i. Deliberate sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.Judgement
sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be
to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
ii. Simple random sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling. In this
each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
EX.: if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items,then
we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling.
Ex.: To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300
five digits random numbers are selected from the table.
Research Methodology 17

iii. Systematic sampling

In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on
a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling.
iv. Stratified sampling
It is important that the sample includes representative groups of study units with specific
characteristics. Ex.: Residents from urban and rural areas. The sampling frame mustbe divided
into groups, or strata, according to these characteristics. Random or systematic samples of a
predetermined size will then have to be obtained from each group (stratum). This is called
stratified sampling.
v. Quota sampling
The actual selection of items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s judgement. This
is called quota sampling. Quota sampling is an important form of non-probability sampling.
Quota samples generally are judgement samples rather than random samples.

vi. Cluster sampling and area sampling

Cluster sampling involves grouping the population. Then the groups or clusters are
selecting rather than individual for inclusion in the sample.
Ex.: Suppose a departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards
to 15,000 customers. The sample size is say 450. Among 15,000 customers, 100 clusters
are formed. Each cluster consists of 150 card holders. Three clusters are selected for the
sample randomly.
Under area sampling the total area is to be divided into a number of smaller non-
overlapping areas. These are generally known as geographical clusters. Then a number of these
smaller areas are randomly selected. All units in these small areas are included in the sample.
vii. Multi-stage sampling
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling
units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the
technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as
multi-stage random sampling.
viii. Sequential sampling
This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical
quality control.
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6. Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. They are differing considerably
in context of money costs, time and other resources of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. The
researcher conducts an experiment and observes some quantitative measurements or the data.
With the help of data the truth contained in the hypothesis can be examined.
In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation. The information obtained relates only to what is currently
happening and is not about either the past or future. This method is no doubt an expensive
method. The information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is
not suitable for large samples are concerned.

(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of questions through personal interviews. In this method the output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves

contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but
it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions. Particularly,the
survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: Questionnaires are mailed by the researches to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
used method in various economic and business surveys.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up
the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Muchdepends
upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional
field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
7. Execution of the project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process.
❖ The data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
❖ The project should be executed in a systematic manner and in time.
Research Methodology 19

❖ The data are to be collected through interviewers.

❖ The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals. Manuals explain
clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
❖ A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey as much realistic as possible.
❖ The steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control So
that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of
accuracy.
❖ If some of the respondents do not cooperate, then some suitable methods should
be designed to tackle this problem.
❖ To deal with the non-response problem, make a list of the non-respondents and
take a small sub-sample of them. Then with the help of experts vigorous efforts
can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data
After the collection of data the next task is of analysis of the data. The analysis of data
requires a number of operations. Such as
❖ Establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding, tabulation and then drawing.
❖ The unwieldy data should be converted into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis.
❖ The raw data should be classified into some purposeful and usable categories.
❖ Coding operation is done at this stage. Through this coding the categories ofdata
are transformed into symbols. Then they may be tabulated and counted.
❖ Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With
coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
❖ Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put
in the form of tables.
❖ The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A large data in large
inquiries is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make
it possible to study large number of variables of a problem simultaneously.
❖ Analysis work is based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients,
etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.
Research Methodology 20

❖ In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting

with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis-testing
After analysing the data the next step is the hypotheses test.
❖ Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. These test depending upon the nature and object
of research inquiry.
❖ Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
it.
10. Generalisations and interpretation
❖ When hypothesis is tested several times, it is possible to arrive to build atheory.
❖ The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.
❖ When there is no hypothesis to start with, findings can be explained on the basis
of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
❖ The process of interpretation will trigger off new questions. In turn it may lead
to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list
of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report
should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
Research Methodology 21

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end
of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be givenin the end. Index
should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraintsexperienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance. The
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under
Research Methodology 22

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified stepsto
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly
does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN

Here are some tips for planning and doing a research project.
Step 1: Defining of our Research Project
• What is our purpose in doing the research?
• What do we need to find out - and why?
• How much time do we have to do the research?
Step 2: Making a List of Specific Questions
These are the questions that we should answer in doing our research. Prioritize them.
Step 3: Developing of Research Plan
• Who is most likely to know the answers to our questions? We can go to those
resources first.
• Thinking about our resources broadly - include people and libraries. We can speak
with someone who has already done our research is the fastest way to get an answer.
• We can Use a search engine as a last resort, not as a starting point.
• If we are doing research with a group, we should assign research questions so that
we are not duplicating efforts.
Step 4: Research
Research Methodology 1

• Keeping our priorities in mind. If we are having a hard time finding an answer to a
particular question, we should ask ourself how important it is to answer - before
we spend lots of time researching
Step 5: Review of Findings
• Have you answered your questions?
• How will we use the information we have found?
• Did our research raise additional
questions?How important are they in relation to our
purpose?

DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The selection and properly defining a research problem is the first and foremost crucial step
in research process. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research. Defining a research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process.
It is the foundation of any research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case
study.
Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a problem
to reach the core of the problem i.e. threadbare analysis.”

(a) Need of defining a problem

The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the
researcher.
4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken
up into the investigation through a problem involved into so many variables.
5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.
(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem
The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem.
1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning.
2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.
Research Methodology 2

3. The assumptions are to be recognised for the study.

4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education.
5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.
(c) Steps in defining a problem
The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem
1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The
conceptual framework should be such that it can be stated into verbal form.
Research Methodology 3

2. Delimiting the elements of the problem.

3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group.
4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework.
5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem.
6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual
framework of the problem.
7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.
(d) Ways to Define the Problem
The following are various ways of defining a problem:
1. Analyse the major problems or problems in terms of subordinate problems.
2. Statement delimits the scope of the study.
3. Orientation of the problem in a unique direction:
(a) A historical account, remote or recent.
(b) A survey of previous study or related studies.
(c) An analysis of previous studies or related subjects.
(d) Preliminary survey.
4. Description of the general nature of the problem.
(a) Type.
(b) Source.
(c) Procedure.
5. Statement of limitations of the technique employed.
6. Recognitions of assumptions and Implications.
7. Importance-value or significance of the study of education.
8. Definition of terms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROBLEM
Although selecting a research problem is one of the most difficult steps for a student in a
research process, it is unfortunately one for which the least guidance can be given.
A problem statement must have the following characteristics:
1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question form.
3. It should be possible to collect data or answer the questions asked.
4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position.
Research Methodology 4

SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The selection of a suitable problem is not an easy task. It is a serious responsibility to commit
oneself to a problem. It will be inevitably required much time and energy and which is so
academically significant.
Research is way of gathering dependable and useful information. The process of research
consists of seven steps. These includes: problem, hypothesis, research designs, measurements,
data collection, data interpretation and reporting the results. Certain criteria have been found
helpful for the selection of the problem.
Here are some tips to select and formulate a research problem.
1. A research problem cannot be borrowed; a researcher has to find his ownproblem;
a guide can only help in choosing a broad subject or topic. Theproblem should
be sufficiently original.
2. The problem should be novel, significant and useful to practitioners; the utility
of the expected findings should be judged.
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4. The selection of superficial and obvious problems as well as overdone and
controversial subjects should be avoided.
5 Problems should suit our interest, competence and ability.
6. The availability of the required data and co-operation of people concerned
should be checked.
7. A lot of time writing and note taking to understand the problem should be
taken.
8. To obtain definitive ideas, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor
in the University who is already engaged in research.
9. Identifying gaps through literature surveys throw up new problems.
10. Writing should be started at the very beginning in order to encourage critical
thinking, to understand sources better and to draft more effectively.
11. Interactions should be made with experts and practitioners.
12. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher,
the costs involved, and the time factor are also be considered in selecting a
problem.
Research Methodology 5

In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself
the following questions:
❖ Why have I decided to do some research?
❖ What personal characteristics do I have which might help me to complete my
research?
❖ What skills and experience do I have which might help me in my research?
❖ The five ‘Ws’: What is my research?; Why do I want to do this research?; Who
are my research participants?; Where am I going to do the research?; When am
I going to do the research?
❖ You must take time to think about your research as this will save you problems
later.
❖ When you’re thinking about your research, keep asking yourself questions
❖ Sum up your research project in one sentence
❖ Discuss your sentence with your tutor or boss and revise if there is any
confusion.
(13) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.
If the subject for research is selected properly, the research will not be aboring
drudgery; and it will be love’s labour. In fact, zest for work is a must.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TOPICS

1. Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it throughout the research
process.
2. Researchable – can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
3. Significant – contributes to the improvement and understanding of educational
theory and practice.
4. Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level of research skills, needed
resources, and time restrictions.
5. Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants.

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

“Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved”.

This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously to discriminate relevant data from the
Research Methodology 6

irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem helps the researcher to be on thetrack.
An ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Some questions crop up in the mind of the researcher.
i. What data are to be collected?
ii. What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
iii. What relations are to be explored?
iv. What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
The answers of all these questions are possible only when the research problem has been
well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a step of the highest importance. In
fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It isonly on careful
detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design andcan smoothly
carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study.
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally oneafter
the other:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition
A brief description of all these points will be helpful
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
i. The researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning.
ii. In case of social research, the researcher has to do some field observation. He
may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or known as pilot survey.
iii. The researcher can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert.
iv. The guide puts forth the problem up to the researcher to narrow it down and
phrase the problem in operational terms.
v. The problem may contain various ambiguities. They must be resolved by cool
thinking and rethinking over the problem.
Research Methodology 7

2. Understanding the nature of the problem

For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, the researcher should
i. Know its origin and nature clearly.
ii. Discuss with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problems.
iii. know about the environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood.
3. Surveying the available literature
The researcher must be surveyed the all available literature concerning the problem. The
researcher must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials.
“Knowing what data are available, it helps to narrow the problem and the technique that might
be used.” This will help a researcher to know about certain gaps in the theories applicable to the
problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different
studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of
knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems
are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as
also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even
new lines of approach to the present problem.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
Discussion concerning a problem produces an useful information. Various new ideas can
be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in
a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice
and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of
attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be
confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with
the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions,
etc.
5. Rephrasing the research problem
Research Methodology 8

Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environmenthas
been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literaturehas
been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational termsis not
a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms
as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working
hypotheses. In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed
while defining a research problem:
a Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in thestatement
of the problem, should be clearly defined.
b. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problemshould
be clearly stated.
c. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria
for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
d. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also
be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
e. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
Research Methodology 9

Questions
1. Write any five definitions of “Research”.
2. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.

3. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.

4. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.

5. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey.

6. Write short notes on:

(1) Design of the research project;
(2) Ex- post facto research;
(3) Motivation in research;
(4) Objectives of research;
(5) Criteria of good research;
(7) Research and scientific method.

7. “Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems for the researchers”. State
the problems that are usually faced by such researchers.

8. “A research scholar has to work as a judge and derive the truth and not as a leader who is only
eager to prove his case in favour of his plaintiff.” Discuss the statement pointing out the
objectives of research.

9. “Creative management, whether in public administration or private industry, depends on

methods of inquiry that maintain objectivity, clarity, accuracy and consistency”. Discuss this
statement and examine the significance of research”.

10. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation.” Do you agree
with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.

11. It is often said that there is not a proper link between some of the activities under way in the
world of academics and in most business in our country. Account for this state of affairs and
give suggestions for improvement.

12. Define the term ‘Research’, Enumerate the characteristics of research. Give a comprehensive
definition of research.

13. Define the term ‘Research’. Describe the specific features of Research,

14. Enumerate the main objectives of research and explain them in detail.

15. Describe the various classification of research, Differentiate between fundamental research
and action research. Elaborate your answer with examples.

16. Describe the steps of research. Enumerate the objectives of action research.

16. Plan an action research project and describe the various steps which are followed in completing
the project.