DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA

COURSE MATERIAL

FOR

Course Code & Title: MATH311/ MATHEMATICAL MODELING

Programme Title: BSc. COMPUTER SCIENCE.

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the use of the Courseware of the National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN) as the primary resource. Internal reviewers in the Ahmadu Bello University
have also been duly listed.

2
 COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018 Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, Nigeria

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

First published 2018 in Nigeria.

ISBN:

Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria.

Tel: +234

E-mail:

3
COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Editor
Prof. M.I Sule

Course Materials Development Overseer

Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria

Subject Matter Expert

Muhammad Abubakar Alhassan

Subject Matter Reviewer

Mohammed A. Alhassan

Language Reviewer
Ene Ojokojo

Instructional Designers/Graphics
Nasiru Tanko / Ibrahim Otukoya

Proposed Course Coordinator

Emmanuel Ekoja

ODL Expert
Dr. Abdulkarim Muhammad

4
 CONTENTS
Title Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Acknowledgement Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Copyright Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Course Writers/Development Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Table of Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
COURSE STUDY GUIDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
i. Course Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
ii. Course Introduction and Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
iii. Course Prerequisites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
iv. Course Learning Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
v. Course Aim/Objectives and Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
vi. Activities to Meet Course Aim/Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
vii. Time (To complete Syllabus/Course). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
viii. Grading Criteria and Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ix. OER Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
xi. Course Structure and Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
xii. STUDY MODULES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
MODULE 1: Basic Concept of Mathematical modelling. . . . . . . .17
Study Session 1: Methodology of model building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Study Session 2: Identification and Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
MODULE 2: Solutions and Interpretations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Study Session 1: Solution of problems and Cause-effect diagrams. . .71

5
 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
i. COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code: MATH311
Course Title: Mathematical Modelling
Credit Units: 3 Credit Units
Year of Study: 300 Level
Semester: First Semester

ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

Introduction:
You are welcome to MATH 311, this is a 3 credit unit year three first semester course. I
will be your guide in the span of this course, you should feel free to ask questions when
in a form of difficulties relating this course, and my door is always open.
This course Mathematical Modelling, is meant to teach us how to transfer scientific,
physical and mechanical problems into mathematical formulation using parameters to
represent events. The examples given are drawn from contents you are already familiar
with e.g. motion of a simple pendulum, ratio active decay is illustrated with the help of
real world problems by beginning with a non-trivial word problem. Problems are
described in terms of words and about the world around us. The different approaches to
modelling a particular problem shall be discussed.

Description:
The status of this course is two units. It is packed into two Modules i.e. Module 1 and
Module 2 respectively. Module 1 is grouped into two study sessions, while module 2 has

6
only one study session. Therefore, the course can be summarized as having 2 modules
and 3 study sessions in all.
This Course Guide gives a brief summary of the contents of the course material:
methodology of the model building, identification of a model, solution of problems,
course-effect diagrams, equation types, algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential,
differential integral and functional equations.

iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are
expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills
5. MATH 201

iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

i. Course Textbooks
You will be provided with the following materials; Course guide Study
modules. In addition, the course comes with a list of recommended text books,
which though are not compulsory for you to acquire or indeed need, but are
necessary as supplements to the course material.
“Course Code: Course Tittle, National Open University of Nigeria, 2009 at
www.nou.edu,ng
Mathematical Modelling from School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by Kirk Patrick.

7
Quantitative Analysis in Management by C.N. Lomoba.

v. COURSE OUTCOMES
After you are done studying this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify different types of modelling.
2. Convert a worked problem into its equivalent mathematical formulation
3. Identify many of the formulae already familiar with as the
mathematical models of the real situation.

vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship,
laboratory or studio work (whichever is applicable)
5. Course assignments (individual and group)
6. Forum discussion participation
7. Tutorials (optional)
8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).

vii. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours
weekly for the Course (study, assignments & Forum discussions).

8
 viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE
Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%

C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44

D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)

9
 Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource, deployment, and
assessment).

IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open software.
SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other organisation
like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan Academy to Curriki where
teachers and parents can find educational materials for children or learn about Creative
Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched the School of Open that offers courses
on the meaning, application, and impact of "openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines exist. Some
examples include:
 OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges and
rankings of college degree programmes
 Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an academic
and general audience

10
 OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school through
to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school resources are
aligned to the Common Core State Standards
 Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly search
engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other universities with
subject and description listings
 Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard,
Princeton, and Yale
 JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher education and
is involved in many open resources and open projects including digitising British
newspapers from 1620-1900!

Other sources for open education resources

Universities
 The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
 OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
 Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
 African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects in
English, French, and Portuguese
 https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses

11
 Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of bloggers
who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including on open source
and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)
1) Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes directories
on open source and open educational resources
2) K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
3) Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
4) Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
5) Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade, or
subject (why re-invent the wheel?)

12
 X. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER

PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination

N.B: - Semester Examinations 1st/2nd Week January

- All Sessions commence Mid-February
- 1 Week break between Semesters and 4 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)

13
 XI. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE
Course Structure
WEEK MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study

Session.
Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: Methodology 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
of Model building 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Week 1-3 http://bit.ly/34exsb4 , http://bit.ly/2t3dzqA ,
http://bit.ly/2YF9vbV , http://bit.ly/2sloHi5 ,
http://bit.ly/2EbMN1q , http://bit.ly/2YC2E33 ,
http://bit.ly/2rA159u )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
STUDY 9. Any out of Class Activity
MODULE 1
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study
Session.
Study Session 2 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Week 4-6 Title: Identification 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
and Formulation 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
http://bit.ly/2se23bI , http://bit.ly/2rDaZHp ,
http://bit.ly/34exsb4 , http://bit.ly/38squT7 ,
http://bit.ly/2RJiU0y )
5. View referred OER (address/site)
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study
STUDY Study Session 1 Session.
MODULE 2 Title: Solution of 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Week 7-12 problems and Cause- 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
effect diagrams 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
http://bit.ly/2RHGFGd , http://bit.ly/2qGXgyW ,
http://bit.ly/2RGVokN , http://bit.ly/2YDm4o5 ,
http://bit.ly/2PzYPan )
5. View referred OER (address/site )
6. View referred Animation (Address/Site)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
9. Any out of Class Activity

14
 Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online) &
CONSOLIDATION WEEK

Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

15
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Course Outline
MODULE 1: Basic Concept of Mathematical modelling
Study Session 1: Methodology of model building
Study Session 2: Identification and Formulation

MODULE 2: Solutions and Interpretations

Study Session 1: Solution of problems and Cause-effect diagrams

16
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

xii. STUDY MODULES

MODULE 1: Basic Concept of Mathematical modelling
Contents:
Study Session 1: Methodology of model building
Study Session 2: Identification and Formulation

STUDY SESSION 1
Methodology of the Model Building
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Mathematical Modelling – What and Why?
2.2 Types of Modelling
2.3- Limitations of a Mathematical Models
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answer
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study module 1 of this course, in this session, I shall introduce
you to basic concepts of mathematical modelling.
In the introduction, we indicated the need for mathematical modelling i.e., the use of
mathematics to solve our real-life problems. Our main aim is to develop the process
of mathematical modelling in which a physical system or a real-life problem is

17
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

translated into a mathematical problem. The examples given are taken from contexts
you are already familiar with e.g., motion of a simple pendulum, ratio active decay,
population growth etc.,
The need for modelling is illustrated with the help of real-life problems by beginning
with a non-trivial life problem a problem described in terms of words, about the
world around us. The different approaches to modelling a particular problem will be
discussed.
Simple exercises based on real life problems are inserted at various places so that you
can convert the life problems into abstract form by selecting a particular type of
modelling. At the end of the study session we have given an appendix where we have
discussed the method of dimensional analysis. In case you are not familiar with the
method, this would help you in understanding various examples wherever we have
used it for modelling various physical situations.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you are done studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Define mathematical modelling and explain its importance.
2. Identify different types of modelling.
3. Convert a life problem into its equivalent mathematical formulation.
4. Identify many of the formulas you are already familiar with as the mathematical
models of the situation.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Mathematical Modelling – What and Why?
Our real-life problems arise from different disciplines-sociology, chemistry, biology,
physics, management, finance etc. At some point of time, while studying
mathematics, you must have attempted solving the following problems:
i) Finding the height of a tower.

18
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

ii) Estimating the yield of wheat in Nigeria in a particular harvest year.

iii) Estimating the population of Nigeria in the year 2001 A.D.
iv) Find the effect of a 30% reduction in income tax rate on the economy.
It is possible that you might have solved some of these problems with the help of
mathematics and mathematical modelling without actually knowing what
mathematical modelling is. How do we treat the foregoing problems?
For (i) we try to express the height of the tower in terms of some distances and angles
which can be measured from the ground.
For (ii) we try to find the area under wheat cultivation and find the average yield per
acre by cutting and weighing crops from some representative fields.
For (iii) we extrapolate population data available from previous censuses and develop
a model expressing the population as a function of time (years). In simple words, we
can say that we examine the previous data and try to calculate what is likely to
happen in the future.
For (iv) we examine the effects of similar cuts in the past or develop a mathematical
model giving relation between income-tax cuts, purchasing power in hands of
individuals, its effects on productivity and inflation etc.
Examples of some more real life problems that may be amenable to a mathematical
treatment and are of interest to people are as follows:
i) How do the eye muscles move the eyeball around in its socket? ii) Forecast a
monsoon with precision a month in advance iii) How and why do different parts of
the personality of a person compete for control over him/her? iv) Suppose the tenth
refrigerator produced in a factory took half as long as the first. What is the progress
rate of production?
The choice of approach to a real life problem depends on how the results are to be
used. If the aim is to get knowledge for knowledge‟s sake, then practical applications
is of no importance. A present day engineer/industrialist will not undertake any
strenuous task without a well-defined purpose. Anyone who likes to invest on the

19
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

industrial production of a product would like to make calculations either to avoid the
unrealistically high cost of real scale experiments or to estimate some future situation.
It is in this context a mathematical model of a life problem gains enormous
significance.
You should understand that the concept of mathematical modelling is not a new one.
The Chinese, the ancient Egyptians, Indians, Babylonians and Greeks indulged in
understanding and predicting the natural phenomena through their knowledge of
mathematics. The architects, artisans and craftsmen based many of their works of art
on geometric principles.

2.1.1 Modelling Process

A natural question which could arise is “What is mathematical modelling?”
Mathematical modelling consists of simplifying real life problems and representing
them as mathematical problems (mathematical model), solving the mathematical
problems and interpreting these solutions in the language of the real life. In other
words, you can divide the modelling process into three main steps: formulation,
finding solution and interpretation or evaluation.
A) Formulation: Formulation can, in turn, be divided into three steps
i) Stating the Question: Understanding natural phenomena involves describing
them. An accurate description answers such questions as: How long? How
fast? How loud? etc. But the questions you start with should not be vague or
too complicated. In problem drawn from the real life this should be done by
describing the context of the problem and then stating the problem within this
context.
ii) Identifying Relevant Factors: Decide which quantities and relationships that
are important or unimportant for your question and also which can be
neglected. The unimportant quantities are those that have very little or no

20
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

effect on the process. For example, in studying the motion of a falling body, its
colour is usually of little interest.
iii) Mathematical Description: Each important quantity should be represented by
a suitable mathematical entity e.g. a variable, a function, a geometric figure etc.
Each relationship should be represented by an equation, inequality, or other
suitable mathematical assumption.
B) Finding the Solution: The mathematical formulation rarely gives us answer
directly. We usually have to do some operations and findings. This may involve a
calculation, solving an equation, proving a theorem etc.

START

FORMULATION

SOLUTION

EVALUATION

NO YES
SATISFIED STOP

Fig. 1.1.1: The mathematical formulation

C) Evaluation: Since a model is a simplified representation of a real problem, by its
very nature, has built-in assumptions and approximations. Obviously, the most
important question is to decide whether our model is a good one or not i.e., when the
obtained results are interpreted physically whether or not the model gives reasonable
answers. If a model is not accurate enough, you should try to identify the sources of
the shortcomings. It may happen that you need a new formulation, new mathematical
manipulation and hence a new evaluation. Thus, mathematical modelling can be a
cycle of the three modelling shown in the flowchart of fig. 1.1.1.

21
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Before going further into the details of modelling, it is best we consider some of the
mathematical models or representations you are already familiar with.
i) Any interval of time can be modelled by an algebraic variable t, 0 < t<∞. The
numerical values of t must be obtained from the reading s of suitable clocks-a
starting time t1 and the current time t2 so that t = t2 – t1.
ii) A distance is modelled by a positive algebraic variable, say „d‟ (0 ≤ d <∞).
This distance „d‟ between two points is assigned a numerical value based on
the measurement using a rigid measuring rod (e.g., a metric rule).
iii) The modelling of space is more interesting and has led to the development of
many different axioms and theorems in geometry which in turn have played a
larger role in the application of mathematics (or more precisely in civil
engineering) to the construction of buildings, dams etc. To start with, space
can be thought of as a collection of points. This basic model can be
supplemented by further ideas such as direction and distance. We can further
supplement these by different results e.g.
(a) There is a unique circle passing through three distinct noncollinear points.
(b) The medians of a triangle are concurrent.
You are familiar with the representation of the points of space using coordinate
system e.g., the Cartesian system (x, y, z). This representation introduces you
automatically to the important features of space: (i) its three dimensionalities, (ii) its
infiniteness (if x, y, z is allowed to take all real values) (iii) its continuity in the three
directions.
Various axioms and geometrical proofs you are familiar with follow from these basic
models of distance and space.
Example 1: How would you model speed and velocity?
Solution: From their definition, speed/velocity is the rate of change of distance
travelled. Since speed is a scalar, we model it as L/T, where L is the distance
travelled and T is the time required to travel (Refer Appendix). While modelling

22
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

velocity, the direction too should be specified and hence, the model for velocity is v =
L/T where the vector notation is used additionally. Using Calculus, the model can be
further improved by writing the elementary distance as ds = (dx, dy, dz), so that v=

Note that the bold letters represent vectors.

2.1.2 Branch of Modelling

As you know, every branch of knowledge has two aspects, one of which is theoretical
involving mathematical, statistical and computer-based methods and the other of
which is empirical based on experiments and observations likewise, mathematical
models are basically of two kinds.
A) Empirical models.
B) Theoretical models.
A) Empirical models are based on experimentally founded hypotheses. They lead to
the construction of an underlying theoretical framework. In other words, they
more often lead to „laws of nature‟ which represent a fundamental characteristic of
nature. Such models are formulated by giants of mathematics like Newton,
Einstein etc. Typical examples are: the theory of gravitation by Sir Isaac Newton,
Electromagnetic waves by Maxwell, theory of relativity by Einstein, planetary
motion by Kepler, wave equation by Schrödinger etc.

Only those hypotheses that have withstood large amounts of fact that the proposed
model agrees well with a small amount of data does not suffice since the
agreement could be just coincidental. It should be tested against a large amount of
data before accepting it as a law. This aspect should be clear from the fact that
nearly half a century elapsed between the works of Galileo and Newton.

23
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

B) Theoretical models are inspired by the formulations or guidelines provided by the

modelling schemes. The objective is to apply the basic laws or ideas in small
ways and to particular cases. We shall discuss these formulations in greater detail
in study session 2.
For us to illustrate the foregoing discussion, we refer to the problem of the simple
pendulum with which you are all very familiar. This pendulum is simply a mass
attached to one end of a string whose other end is fixed at a point. The mass is
constrained to move in the plane of the paper, and we have chosen the (x, y)
coordinates system so that the origin coincides with the lowest point of the pendulum
swing. The symbol „m‟ is used to denote the mass of the pendulum and „ ‟
symbolizes the length of the pendulum.
Our objective is to describe the motion of the pendulum using a theoretical model.
The starting point of such a theoretical model will be an empirical law-Newton‟s law
– The net force on a particle causes that particle to be accelerated is direct
proportion to its mass. Our theoretical model, based on Newton‟s law, has to
account for the force acting on the mass and relate them to the coordinates (x, y) and
their time rates of change. Thus, the model of force follows from the Newton‟s law:
F = ma where F is the force, m is the mass and a is the acceleration. Did you notice
the difference here? In the model obtained here acceleration followed from its
definition whereas force was based on an empirical law-Newton‟s in this case.
We shall not go into further details of the formulation at this stage. We shall take this
up in study session 2, but those of you who are familiar with the simple harmonic
motion know that the theoretical model is given by differential equation. Before we
go further, how about you trying these exercises?
We can do experiments either with scaled physical models i.e., we can do
experiments in the laboratory on a smaller scale simulating all the conditions of the
real problem in a corresponding scale, or with the real life directly. But these may be
highly risky as they may involve corrosive or explosive materials difficult to obtain in

24
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

large quantities etc. a mathematical model is very inexpensive and we know how to
represent a real problem in terms of appropriate equations and to solve them.
Moreover, in many situations like finding the mass of the earth or predicting the
Nigerian population in the year 2500 A.D., mathematical modelling is the only
recourse.
The mathematical approach has a number of advantages which can be illustrated by
considering the following specific examples:
i) What is the corrosive effect of the discharge of the Kaduna Refinery on the
mosaic of Arewa House?
For safety and cost reasons it would be undesirable to carry out the experiments on
the Arewa House itself without first knowing the outcome. A scaled physical model
could be used to obtain the desired information, but this would require facilities and
will not be cost effective. What do we do then? For this kind of study, a mathematical
approach is preferred.
ii) What will be the growth in the number of tourists to a historic city like Kaduna
over the next five years?
Information of this nature is frequently needed for planning purposes e.g., building
more hotels or arranging tourists attractions etc. There is really no scientific
alternative to a mathematical treatment for problems of this kind. There are more
situations like these where mathematical treatment of the problem becomes
necessary. Can you think of any?

In-text Question: Why is it necessary to formulate a mathematical model?

ANSWER: Formulation of mathematical models is of vital important. Quantitative result from

mathematical models can easily be compared with observable data to identify a model strengths and
weakness that will allow one to estimate the behaviour of the system

25
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

2.2 Types of Modelling

According to the nature of the model we can classify mathematical models into the
following four types:
i) Linear or Non-Linear
According to the resulting equations which may be algebraic, differential or
difference, being linear or non-linear, models are classified as linear or non-linear.
For instance, consider the equation

(1)

when we take negative sign on the right hand side of Equation (1) i.e.,

, then equation models the radioactive decay. Where we assume that the rate of
decay of a radioactive atom is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present and λ > 0 is a decay constant. For a positive sign on the right hand side
Equation (1) represent linear models being linear differential equation.
You know from your knowledge of MATH 202 that it is very easy to handle this
equation. Its solution can be written as
N=N0 (2)
Where N0 in the case of decay denotes the original number of radioactive atoms at t =
0. This model, though very simple, agrees excellently with experimental results. In
the case of population growth would be the initial population.
We are not as lucky always. Most of the real life problems are not amenable to such
simple mathematical treatment. Many a time, the resulting equation is non-linear or
highly non-linear but still you are able to solve it. Without going into the details here,
you are given an example of the population growth model, better than the one given
by Eqn. (1),

26
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

(3)
where N is the size of the population and λ and B are the constants of proportionality.
This is a non-linear model but it is still easy to find the solution as

(4)
Where is an arbitrary constant. There are numerous experimental growth data,
say, that of bacteria with which the model agrees extremely well with. Why we call
this model better would become clear to you when we discuss the biological models
in details in section 3.
ii) Static or Dynamic
In static systems, time does not play any part, and hence the variables and
relationships describing the system are time-independent. In contrast, in dynamic
systems, time plays a very important role with the variables and/or relationships
describing the system changing with time. Consider for instance a fluid flowing
through a rigid diverging tube (see fig. 1.1.2)
A2
A1
v1
v2

P1
P2
Fig. 1.1.2: Instance of fluid flowing through a rigid diverging tube

Note: the point in a fluid flow at which the flow is directed radially outwards
symmetrically in all directions is a source. The fluid enters the system at this point.
The point at which the fluid leaves the system is a sink. The flow is directed radially
in-wards at this point in a symmetrical manner.

27
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Let the velocity of the fluid be V1 at the point P1 at which the area of cross-section of
the tube is A1. Let V2 be the velocity at the point P2 at which the area of cross-section
of the tube is A2. The principle of conservation of mass states that the rate of flow in
at P1 is equal to the rate of flow out at P2 since the tube is rigid and no at P1 extra fluid
is produced inside or nothing is taken out. In other words, there are no sources or
sinks inside or surrounding the tube.
Now, the rate of mass entering the tube at P1 = area x velocity = A1V1 rate of mass
leaving the tube at P2 = A2V2.
Conservation law can be written therefore in the form of an equation.
A1V1 = A2V2 (5)
(Rate of mass entering the tube at P1 = Rate of mass leaving the tube at P2).
Eqn. (5) is the conservation equation corresponding to the steady state i.e., all
variables are independent of time. Such a system is a static system.
In the dynamic formulations, the equations describing the model involve derivatives
of the dependent variables with respect to time.
Most of the real life problems e.g., the population growth (Eqn. (3)), the bacterial
growth, simple harmonic oscillator, rocket launch are time dependent and come under
the category of dynamic systems.
iii) Discrete or Continuous
Mathematical model may be discrete or continuous as the variables involved are
discrete or continuous. In a discrete model, the dependent variable assumes a range
of values and is characterized by discrete values of the independent variable e.g.,
suppose a population of cells divides synchronously, with each member producing a
daughter cell. Let us now define the number of cells in each generation with a
subscript, that is M1, M2, . . ., Mn are respectively the number of cells in the first,
second, …. nth generations. The number of generations, the independent variable, is
the discrete variable here. A simple equation relating successive generations is the
difference equation

28
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Mn+1 = aMn, a>0 (6)

If, initially, there are M0 cells, after n generations the population will be
Mn+1 = aMn = a(aMn-1) = a(aMn-2) = . . . = an+1 M0 (7)
If |a| > 1, Mn increases over successive generations If |a| < 1, Mn decreases over
successive generation and if a = 1, Mn is constant.
Most of the discrete models result in difference equation similar to Eqn. (6). We shall
talk about these equations in more detail in section 4.
You should note that models based on continuous variables are continuous models.
The problem of radioactive decay is best described by treating the time element as
being continuous with the variable of the system description i.e., number N of
radioactive atoms present. (Refer Eqn. (1)). Most of the continuous models result in
differential equations ordinary or partial, the derivatives being instantaneous rates of
change.
Continuous models appear to be easier to handle than the discrete models due to the
development of calculus and differential equations. However, continuous models are
simpler only when analytical solutions are available, otherwise you have to
approximate a continuous model also by a discrete model so that these can be handled
numerically.
iv) Deterministic or Stochastic
A system is said to be deterministic if the values assumed by the variables (for a
static system) or the changes to the variable (for a dynamic system) are predictable
with certainly. Consider for instance, a well known examples are the position and
velocity of the bob of the pendulum. Since the laws of classical dynamics describe
the motion fairly accurately the changes in position and velocity can be predicted
with a high degree of certainty. Hence, in this case we can view the system as being
deterministic.
If the values assumed by the variables or the changes to the variables are not
predictable with certainty, then uncertainty is a significant feature of the system.

29
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Such systems are called either probabilistic or stochastic system. For instance, if
you drop a rubber ball from a given height and measures the height of the bounce
with sufficient accuracy it will be found that if the same process is repeated many
times, the height of bounces is not the same every time. Even if all the maintained,
the results show lot of variability. In such cases, the system must be viewed as a
stochastic system.
Very often, when you go to a big shop what strikes you is the long queue in front of
the cash desk. The question “Why can‟t this popular shop have more than one cash
counter?” what comes to you mind.? How many counters the shop needs will depend
on the number of customers and their arrival rate, their departure rate, service time,
peak periods etc. if the arrival rate is same as departure rate the queue length will
remain the same. If the departure rate is more than the arrival rate, the queue will
disappear after some time.
If the departure rate is less than the arrival rate, then the queue will grow indefinitely
and it is this situation that requires more cash counters. Here in this situation, the
arrival time, departure time and the service time of a customer are not deterministic.
They follow certain probability distributions with mean rate of arrival, departure and
service time. Arrival and departure times satisfy Poisson distribution whereas service
time obeys exponential distributions. Models based on fitting these probability
distributions to the arrival, arrive every five minutes (given time interval) then from

Poisson z 2 distribution e-z, ze-z, e-z etc. give the probability that 0, 1, 2 etc people will

join the queue within that time. We shall not go into the details of these models here.
We shall take up such models in study session 14, when we discuss probabilistic
models.
Every real system must be considered to be subject to randomness of one type or
another, all of which are ignored in the formulation of a deterministic model. Hence,
deterministic models generally present few mathematical difficulties but can only be
considered to describe system behaviour in some average sense. Stochastic models

30
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

are required wherever it is necessary to explicitly account for the randomness of

underlying events.
Most of the discrete and stochastic models lead to difference/algebraic equations
whereas linear/nonlinear, static/dynamic and continuous models require the
knowledge of algebraic/differential equations. With the advent of fast computers, it
should be possible (wherever analytic solutions are not available) to solve these
equations numerically. Apart from these, the success of mathematical modelling will
also depend on the skills you have in algebra, calculus, geometry, trigonometry,
transcendental equations, integral equations, integro-differential equations etc.
As we discussed earlier, the type of model will more or less decide the type of
mathematics required to deal with the resulting equations.
Let us consider the following example.

Example 2: Which type of modelling will you use for the launching of a
rocket/satellite for meteorological purposes?
Solution:
Modelling used will be dynamic, continuous and deterministic.
It is dynamic and continuous because the flight velocity will continuously depend on
time. It is deterministic because equations describing the flight can be set up based
on established laws and the path of the satellite/rocket can be predicted with certainty.

2.3 Limitations of a Mathematical Model

Mathematical modelling is a multi-stage activity requiring a variety of concepts and
techniques. Utmost caution is required in framing proper models for otherwise an
absurd model will lead to an absurd solution. If the basic formulation is wrong, no
amount of sophistication in the treatment of resulting equations can lead to a right
answer. It is important to remember that the model is only a simplification of the real

31
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

life problem and that the two are not the same. In fact, lack of distinction between
models and reality has often slowed down the progress in modelling. It is paradoxical
that some models which were very successful initially in understanding the problem,
have become stumbling-blocks to progress. The reason is we get used to a model and
continue to use it even after it is discredited. For instance, consider the solar system.
Till 16th century, it was believed that earth was the centre of the universe and all the
other planets and sun moved around the earth. Because of this theory the model used
to study the solar systems were circular paths with earth as the centre. It was called a
Geocentric model. This model was successful in explaining night, day, seasons etc.
But there were many observations, the model could not explain.
Later in 16th century Copernicus proposed another theory called Heliocentric theory
which describes that the sun is the centre of the universe, and that all planets moved
around the sun in elliptical paths. So, in this case the models used is an elliptical path
with sun as the centre. This model successfully explained most of the problems
connected with solar system, but people simply refused to accept this model, initially.
One of the reasons for this is that the geocentric model put the earth as the centre of
the universe and people were unwilling to discard such a favourite notion.
The model is only as good as the assumptions made while constructing it and any
extrapolation which violates the assumptions may be dangerous.
Consider for instance, Eqn. (1) viz.,

it does not give good results when used for modelling the population growth. This is

because, the solution N(t) = N0 of the equation , gives N(t) → ∞ for t →

∞. This means population grows exponentially without any bound. Whereas, solution

N(t) = N0 of the equations gives N(t) → 0 as t → ∞ , implying

that population is ultimately driven to extinction.

32
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Both these outcomes are extreme and are not found to occur in the nature. In this
sense, the model has severe limitations. Thus, there is a need to modify this model.

In-text Question: What is the relevant of mathematical modelling in real life.

ANSWER: Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology,
chemistry) and engineering disciplines (such as computer engineering, electrical engineering) as
well as in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology). A model may help to explain a system
and to study the effect of different component and to make predictions about behaviour.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1 How would you model acceleration of a particle?

2 How would you model momentum and work?

(Hint: momentum = mass x velocity, work = force x distance)

3 What is the objective of modelling a simple pendulum? What are the important

factors you need here before you apply the Newton‟s laws of motion?
4 Give two situations where mathematical treatment of problem is necessary to get

the required solution.

5 State the type of modelling you will use for the following problems.

Also give reasons in support of your answer.

i) Estimating the world population in the year 2005.
ii) Finding the concentration levels of pollution in the River Niger due to
discharge of waste.
iii) Certain diseases like Heamophilia (Non-stop bleeding due to inadequate
clotting agents) are genetically transmitted only by the females. Predicting the
spread of this disease in successive generations, given the fraction of males and
females suffering from it at a particular point of time.
iv) Reducing the costs in large hospitals is to optimize the allocation of resources
(beds, doctors, nurses) to types of activities (orthopaedics, intensive care units,

33
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

surgery etc.). helping the hospital administrators reduce the cost of operating
hospitals.
v) Annual plant produces seeds at the end of summer. A fraction of these seeds
survives the winter, and some of these germinate at the beginning of the season
(say May), giving rise to the new generation of plants. The process depends on
the age of the seeds understanding this process.

The successful use of dynamic models is based on the understanding of three closely
related concepts – dimensionality, units and scaling. Natural laws, when properly
written in mathematical form are equally valid whatever system of scientific unit is
used to express them. To say that the universal laws should be independent of the
system of units is another way of saying that they should be dimensionally consistent.
One should not equate trains with match boxes, nor can one add cabbages to kings. If
you ran 25 kilometres and earned 20 naira, would it be right to say that you ran as
much as you earned? No, because the equation.
N. 20 = 20 kilometres (1)
does not make sense. Distance is measured in kilometres and no amount of naira can
ever equal a kilometre. Technically speaking, we say that distance has the dimension
of length i.e.,
(2)
[distance] = L

while income has the dimension of value, or

(3)
[income] = V
so, it is dimensionally inconsistent to write Eqn. (1). However, if you were paid N1
for every kilometre you ran, it would be absolutely right to say that
N 20 = 20km x (N1 per k.m.) (4)

34
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

This equation is dimensionally correct, because [naira per kilometre] = V/L. Thus,
the right hand side of Eqn. (4) has the dimensions of L x V/ L = V, agreeing with the
left hand side.
Units are either Fundamental (or primary) or derived (or secondary). The nature of
the fundamental units is somewhat arbitrary. They are independent of one another. If
certain of the measurable properties of physical quantities are chosen as fundamental,
then the units of measurement of all the remaining quantities can be expressed in
terms of these fundamental quantities. Hence the latter units are called derived units.
We can express all the mechanical quantities in terms of units of mass m, length 1,
and time t. But when we consider problems involving heat, we have to introduce a
new fundamental unit namely the absolute temperature θ. This is necessary as the
thermometric scale is independent of the definitions of mechanical units. Modelling
in Sociology or Economics needs an additional dimension, namely the value of a
product or income. Thus, mass m, length 1, time t, absolute temperature θ and the
value V are the five fundamental units. All the physical quantities can be expressed
in terms of these fundamental units. We shall denote the dimensions of these
fundamental units of mass, length, time, temperature and value by [M], [L], [T], [θ],
[V] respectively.
Formulation of the dimensional formulas: Dimensional formulas for velocity,
acceleration, force, work-done, pressure, power etc. can be obtained from their
definitions directly.
Velocity = time rate of displacement
= distance/time
= [LT-1]
Acceleration = time rate of change of velocity = velocity/time
= [LT-2]
Force = mass x acceleration
= [MLT-2]

35
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Work = Force x displacement = [ML2T-2]

Pressure = force acting on unit area
= [M L-1T-2]
Power = time rate of doing work = work/time = [ML2T-3]
We may not always be able to write the dimensional formula for a quantity from its
definition. Sometimes, we have to use a relation involving the quantity under
consideration and some other quantities whose dimensional formulas are known.
For example, to fix up the dimensional formula for elastic modulus, we can use the
Hook‟s law, according to which
final length− Initial length
Tension = Elastic Modulus x
Intial length
From this, it is clear that elastic modulus has the same dimensional formula as the
tension i.e. force/unit area. Thus [elastic modulus] = [M L-1T-2]
Dimensions of a quantity: The exponent of the power of any particular quantity in
the dimensional formula of a quantity is called the “dimension” of that quantity in
that fundamental quantity. For example, the acceleration has dimension zero in mass,
dimension 1 in length and dimension -2 in time.
The importance of knowing the dimensions of each variable is that there are certain
rules which specify how dimensional entities can be related to each other. To be
valid, any equation which states a general or theoretical relationship between two or
more variables must follow these rules for dimensional correctness.
i) Quantities added or subtracted must have the same dimensions.
ii) Quantity equal to each other must have the same dimensions.
iii) Any quantity may be multiplied or divided by any other quantity without regard to
dimensions. However, the resulting product or quotient must have appropriate
dimensions so that the above rules are not violated.

36
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

iv) The dimensions of an entity are entirely independent of its magnitude. Hence dx
must have the same dimension as x, even though the differential dx is
infinitesimally small.
For example, consider the equation for a radioactive decay where the quantity
disappearing at a given time t is proportional to the quantity
Q(t), present at that time, i.e.,

= KQ (5)

with solution
Q = Q0e-kt (6)

Where Q0 is the amount present at time t = 0. k is a proportionality constant. Does k

have any dimensions?
Assuming that Q(t) is expressed as a mass, and letting [k] stand for the dimensions of
k, the dimensional equation corresponding to Eqn. (5) is
[MT-1] = [k][M] (7)
which leads to
[k] = [T-1] (8)
meaning that k must have the dimension of reciprocal time, i.e., k must be a rate – a
rate constant.

Magnitude of Units
We have not used any numerical magnitudes of the fundamental units in the above
discussion related to dimensional analysis. After a quantity‟s dimensionality has
been settled, the number that determines its actual value will still depend upon the
units in which those basic dimensions are measured. For example, velocity has the
dimensions of length per units of time. Thus, if length is measured in kilometre and

37
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

time in hours then a car travelling at 50 km/h., will travel at nearly 14 metre per
second.
Two frequent choices for the basic dimensions of mass, length and time are
kilogramme, metre and second (System Internationale, SI) and gram, centimetre and
second (CGS system).
In the SI system, the units of length, ass and time are primary/fundamental. But the
unit of force is a derived one: it is the Newton (N) which is defined as the force which
when acting on a mass of 1 kg. Produces an acceleration of 1m/s2 i.e., IN = 1 kg m/s2.
Similarly, the derived unit of work is the Joule (J) which is defined as the work done
by a force of 1 N in moving a distance of 1m in the direction of the force.
i.e., 1J = 1Nm = 1kg m2/s2 (9)
The derived unit of power is the watt (W) which is defined as the rate of doing work
= 1J/s.

4.0 Conclusion/ Summary

In this study session we did cover the following points.
1) Mathematical model is a translation of a real life word problem into a
mathematical description.
2) Performing experiments to understand and solve real-life problems may be
risky and expensive. Also, at times, it may not be feasible at all to perform
experiments. Mathematical Modelling is the only recourse in such situations.
It is very inexpensive if we can represent a real problem in terms of appropriate
equations and solve them.
3) The process of mathematical modelling involves three main steps- for
formulation, finding solution and interpretation and evaluation.
4) Mathematical models may be classified into linear/nonlinear static/dynamics,
discrete/continuous and deterministic/stochastic.

38
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

5) Mathematical modelling requires basic knowledge of algebra, geometry,

calculus, difference, differential and integral equations. Different types of
Modelling require one or other of these at the formulation stage or at the time
of finding solution.
6) One has to be cautious about mathematical Modelling: Lot of simplifications
are made while translating a real life problem into mathematical language. One
should be aware of it at every stage.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1) What are the steps to consider in formulation of mathematical model?
Answer: the formulation process of mathematical model involves three steps
these are- stating the question, identifying relevant functions and mathematical
description.
2) State the three steps involve in mathematical model process.
Answer: The process of mathematical modelling involves three main steps- for
formulation, finding solution and interpretation and evaluation.

6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

a. Visit U-tube http://bit.ly/34exsb4 , http://bit.ly/2t3dzqA , http://bit.ly/2YF9vbV ,
http://bit.ly/2sloHi5 , http://bit.ly/2EbMN1q , http://bit.ly/2YC2E33 ,
http://bit.ly/2rA159u Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on and critique it in the discussion forum.
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Methodology of Model building; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

39
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

7.0 References/Further Readings

“Course Code: Course Tittle, National Open University of Nigeria, 2009 at
www.noun.edu,ng
Mathematical Modelling from School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by Kirk Patrick.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by C.N. Lomoba.

40
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

STUDY SESSION 2
Identifying and Formulating A Model
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Identifying the Essentials of a Problem
2.2 - Mathematical Formulation
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answer
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to another study session, in the previous session you were introduce
to the concept of mathematical modelling. We discussed the necessity and advantages
of studying a real life problem through mathematical modelling.
This time around we shall take on four problems. From mechanics, biology and
economics and tried to relate them to the new concept of mathematical modelling.
You might be familiar with some of these problems during your Ordinary levels.

We shall proceed with the next step in modelling- i.e., given a real life problem, how
do you convert it to model abstraction leading to a mathematical equation? We shall
herein discuss, through some simple examples, how to
i) identify the problem with all its complexities
ii) identify the essential characteristics of the problems which have to be
incorporated into the model

41
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

iii) simplify the model by neglecting features which are of secondary or lesser
importance
iv) write the basic equations based on the basic laws of nature or intuitive logic,
which retain the essential characteristics of the model.
As in study session 1, we shall deal with examples you are already familiar with so
that your attention is focused more on the modelling aspect.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you are done studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain a real life problem and register all the complexities involved in the
problem.
2. Distinguish the essential characteristics of the problem from the nonessential
ones.
3. Look for mathematical equations based on laws of nature or intuitive logic for
the problem

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Identifying the Essentials of a Problem
Primarily, mathematical modelling utilizes analogy to help you understand the
behaviour of complex systems. For example, the phrase “cool as cucumber”
introduces a conceptual model of „cool‟ into our minds. Similarly, we often make use
of familiar things or situations to understand or explain new or unfamiliar situations.
The word ROSE and the picture of the rose flower are both models of smelling in
reality. They may not be precise representations of the rose flower

42
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Fig. 1.2.1: Picture of a rose flower

but they do communicate and bring the idea of the flower to your mind (see fig.1.2.1).
Children model adulthood by playing mothers and fathers; medical students practise
injections using oranges. Each of these activities involves some idealisation of
reality. No medical student confuses an orange with a human organ. He is aware that
his training under that simulated condition (i.e. a model) is to prepare him for the
understanding of the real situation.
Thus, modelling is an activity which is fundamental to the scientific method.

Fig. 1.2.2: Model of a business and biologist view of a mango tree

43
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Models rarely replicate a system. Also, they are not a unique representation and so
can mean different things to different people. Consider how a business man and
biologist view a mango tree. (see fig. 1.2.2)
Their conceptual views of the same object are rather different since they are both
heavily influenced by their own environment, background and objectives. The same
is true when we come to the mathematical modelling of any system or process.
Thus, there is no hard and fast approach to developing a model. But, you need to
broadly follow the following steps in the beginning:
i) Establish a Main Purpose for the model. Real situations are quite complex.

If one wishes to develop a model which will explain and account for all aspects
of a phenomenon, such a model will most likely be difficult to develop, very
complex and unmanageable. On the other hand, a model with limited purpose
will be easy to handle and still many important conclusions related to the main
purpose can be drawn. Thus, before developing a model we must be clear
about the purpose of doing it.
For example, in the case of a problem concerned with simple pendulum, what
is our main purpose? It is to find the period of oscillation of the pendulum.
ii) Observe the Real Life Situation and understand what is going on. These

observations may be direct, as with using one of our senses or indirect, in

which case we may use elaborate scientific equipment. This step allows you to
gather data and inform yourself well about the problem. You then analyse the
observations and known facts about the system or phenomenon being modelled
and identify possible elements (observations, measurements, ideas) related to
the purpose. This step is crucial to the developments of a realistic model since
you will get an idea of what to expect. For example, before we venture on a
mathematical model to describe the movement of the pendulum, we conduct
some simple experiments to see how a pendulum behaves. We take two
wooden balls of two different masses and conduct the experiment with each of

44
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

them attached in turn to two strings of different lengths. We measure the

period of oscillation. We make the observation that there is no appreciable
variation of the period with mass, but there is a clear dependence result which
will have to be used to validate any mathematical model for a simple
pendulum.
iii) Sift the Essentials from the Non-Essentials of the problem. The degree of

detail needed to describe a system appropriately depends on various factors. If

all the details are included in the description, it can become unmanageable and
hence of limited use. On the other hand, if significant details are omitted, the
description is incomplete and, once again, of limited use in carrying out the
study. We need to find a sensible compromise. We explain this to you through
the following example:
To study the rate of growth of world population, a realistic study is one which
differentiates the population by (i) age, (ii) gender and (iii) geographic location.
This study will be definitely superior but more complex. The model developed
would involve more dependent variables and hence more number of differential
equations to be solved as compared to the model where all the different groups
are lumped together.

The Search for Essentials of the Problem is related to the main purpose of the
model. We may be dealing with the same system but the objective of our study
related to the system may be different in each study. For example, consider
modelling the blood flow in the circulatory system. The blood cells are of a diameter
approximately 10-6 cms and hence their individual motion or rotation may not
contribute much to the fluid mechanics of blood flows in large arteries whose
diameter range from 1 mm to 1 cm. But in small capillaries of diameter 1 micro
metre, the cell sizes are comparable to the area of cross-section of the important. In
other words, a mathematical model trying to depict the flow of blood in large arteries

45
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

can assume blood to be homogeneous whereas a model of blood in capillaries has to

emphasize the individual cell motion. We shall discuss the modelling of blood flows
in detail in section 3.
Let us see if you can search for the essentials and two non-essentials each of the
following problems.
Let us now see that given a real life problem how to relate it to a mathematical
formulation, keeping our objectives in mind.
In-text Question: what are the approach in developing a model?

Answer: There is no hard and fast approach to developing a model. But, you need to broadly follow
the following steps in the beginning: Establishing the main purpose for the model, observe the real
life situation and understand what is going on, and sift the essentials from the non-essentials of the
problem.

2.2 Mathematical Formulation

If you could remember, in study session 1, we did discussed different types of
modelling. In this section, we concentrate on one of the most important aspects of
mathematical modelling viz, relating the real life problem to a suitable abstract
mathematical formulation. In order to carry out this step, we need a good
understanding of the various mathematical formulations available. You also need to
develop the skill to select the most appropriate formulation. This is very important,
for often, one can choose more than one type of formulation. What is most
appropriate can be identified from how much detail we want to find out about the
problem or the facilities we have to study a problem. If we have a limited purpose,
say, we want to have a rough idea about the problem, then, a simple model will
suffice. i.e., the limitations and approximations are acceptable for our purpose. If the
problem has to be studied in depth, an appropriate model would be the one with finer
details. Let us illustrate this point through the following examples.
Example1: Let us consider the problem of finding the period of oscillation of a
simple pendulum. We shall consider here two formulas:

46
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Formulation 1: First we make a preliminary model based on dimensional analysis

(see Appendix of study session 1 for the details about dimensional analysis) to
understand the oscillation of a simple pendulum. Let us see if we can make
something of the dependence of the period on the length of the pendulum. We need
to consider the variables, the period T0, the string length, and the gravitational
constant g, since it is obviously gravity that makes the pendulum swing.

Remark: g, is in fact, the gravitational acceleration of the surface of the earth. The
value of g depends upon the precise location of its measurement, but it is nearly
constant. Dimension of g = [LT-2] and its value in the SI unit is 9.8m/s2.
We start with
T0 = T0( , g) (1)
i.e., T0 is a function of and g.
It is clear that if we leave out some important quantities, we shall be in error.
Similarly, if we have included some quantities, which are, in reality, irrelevant to the
problem we will not only make the problem unnecessarily complicated but also will
arrive at an unreal answer. Very clear understanding of the problem can only help us
in making a correct choice of these quantities.
Since T0 has the dimension of time, the right hand side should also have the same
dimension. Since the length dimension appears in a linear fashion in both and g, it
follows that
T0 = T0( /g) (2)
2
You may wonder why is it /g and not + g or + g2 etc. in Eqn. (2)?

This is because [T0] = time and [g] = . Now if we want that length

should not appear on right hand side also, then and g should appear as the ratio .

Also, since [T0] = time, and [ ] = (time)2, it follows that

T0(g/ )1/2 = A, (3)

47
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Where A is a constant to be determined.

We use the experimental values to determine this constant A. In Table-I we have
given the results obtained from experiments with two different masses, 230 gms and
385 gms respectively, attached in turn to two strings of lengths equal to 275 cm and
225 cm. The results are for small oscillations of the four pendulums obtained by
permuting the two masses with the two strings.

Table – 1.2.1: Period obtained experimentally for four different pendulums

Mass (gms) Length (cms) Time (secs)
385 275 3.371
230 275 3.352
225 3.042

For = 275 cm, one measured valued of the period is 3.371 sc. With g = 9.8m/sec 2 or
980 cm/sec2, we can use data in Eqn. (3) to find the constant A

i.e., A= (3.371) √ = 6.35 (4)

which is approximately . If we assume, from this similarly that the period of the
pendulum is in fact given by

T0 = 2 π √ ⁄ (5)

Then you can calculate periods for strings of lengths used in the experiment. Thus,
you have in a way established a formula. Let us calculate the period using this
formula (with π = ). The values are given in Table – 1.2.2.

48
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Table – 1.2.2: Periods obtained theoretically using Eqn. (5) for two different
pendulums.

225 cm 275 cm
T 3.04 sec 3.36 sec

The agreement with the measured values given in Table 1.2.2 is quite good. In fact
the difference between measured and calculated value (for both the masses) is less
than 1.5%. thus, dimensional analysis gives us a fairly good insight into the
pendulum behaviour. However, there is much more to know about the pendulum, so
we need to develop some more detailed analytical model. Let us now try to do that in
Formulation 2.
Formulation 2: Formulation 1 was helpful in finding the period of oscillation of a
simple pendulum. But, what if we want to know more about the pendulum, for
instance, the tension in its string? We find that Formulation 1 is not enough. Hence,
we need to formulate a model which will improve our understanding of the problem
beyond Eqn. (5)
In the present formulation, we take recourse to the Newton‟s laws of motion. Here
since we are concentrating on the tension in the string we shall assume that the string
has so little mass of its own that it can be neglected in the model. We shall also
assume that the air offers little resistance. Then the only forces acting on the mass are
the tension T in the string and the gravitational force mg. the tension in the string
must act along the line of the string, while the gravitational force acts vertically
downward along the y-axis where we have assumed that the y-axis is roughly
perpendicular to the earth‟s surface (see Fig. 1.2.3).

49
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

y
x

(x, y)

mg
O
Fig. 1.2.3: y-axis is roughly perpendicular to the earth’s surface
Newton‟s second law tells us that the net force on a particle cause that particle to
be accelerated in direct proportion to its mass. Here the forces acting on the
particle are its weight mg and the tension. T. if f denotes the total force acting on the
system then we would write

Fx = m , ∑ Fy = m (6)
where ∑ Fx , ∑ Fy are net forces acting on the mass in directions parallel to the x and

y axes and the terms and are the components of the acceleration of the mass
parallel to the axes.
What is the component of T acting in the x-direction? It is – T sin θ . (Note that the
negative sign is because T acts upwards and the resolved components falls in the
negative x-direction).
What is the components of T acting in the y-direction? It is T cos θ - mg.
It then follows that
∑ Fx = - T sin θ (7)
∑ Fy = T cos θ – mg (8)
also, note that
x= sin θ and y = (1 - cos θ) (9)
Combining Eqns. (6), (7) and (8) we can obtain the following pair of differential
equations:

50
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

(10)
m = - T sin θ

m = T cos θ - mg (11)

Eqns. (10) and (11) can be solved to obtain the values of x, y by eliminating T. We
shall solve them in study session 3 once solved, this formulation helps us not only to
find the period of oscillation and the tension in the string but also the position vector
of the bob at different time „t‟.
If you now compare the two formulations, you will find that the Formulation 1 based
on dimensional analysis is quick and gives you a first guess about the nature of the
solution or the main purpose of your study. But Formulation 2, though more length,
gives you a deeper insight into the problem. Thus, the choice of a formulation
depends on how far you want to go, how much details you want to gather in hand.
Given two or more different adequate models, the question that arises is the
following. Is one of them better than the rest in some sense? There can be two
factors that can be used to rank different models to indicate the best.
i) A model M1 is preferred to a model M2 if M1 has fewer parameters. Thus
models can be ranked in terms of the number of parameters in the model.
Estimation of the parameters and design of experiments are not only costly but
also very tedious and hence to be avoided.
ii) If a model response is highly sensitive to the parameters of the model, then the
model is of limited use for prediction purposes, as small errors in parameters
will result in large errors in the model response. Thus, the models can be
ranked in terms of the sensitivity of the response to changes in parameter
values.
Note Ecology is the study of the interrelation between living organism and their
environment.

51
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

As we are get more aware of our environment, the pollution caused by the industries,
the need to conserve our forest and to maintain an ecological balance. In this context,
understanding the role played by the plants and trees around us on the earth as well as
those in the lakes, rivers or the seas becomes relevant.
We now take up in Example 2 the modelling of a problem related to ecology.
We discuss simple formulations to understand the distribution of phytoplanktons.
Phytoplanktons, as you may know, are microscopic plants, which, under certain
conditions exhibit directed motion (metres per day) along gradients of light, density
or chemical concentration. They are the basis of marine food cycle supporting life
from shrimps and cod to blue whales and lastly man. They also contribute to the
global changes in atmospheric carbon. Thus, understanding the plankton population is
of major importance in predicting future fish harvests and in assessing the possible
consequences of global warming.

Example 2: Observations about the phytoplanktons reveal that their populations

spatial pattern is often patchy i.e., the organism is distributed in a patchy manner in
space. The mechanism which maintains this patchiness is still not very well
understood. Though there may be various reasons (wind, velocity of water,
temperature, salinity, nutrient distribution, consumption by the fishes etc.), two
mechanisms seem to play important roles: (i) Diffusion of the phytoplanktons due to
turbulence in surrounding media and (ii) random movement of the organisms. In fact,
aggregates can give rise to a more uniform distribution.
Note: Turbulence is a type of random motion consisting of many whirls, moving in an
irregular fashion.

Diffusion is a phenomenon by which the particle group as a whole spreads according

to the irregular motion of each particle.
Let us now see how we can formulate this ecological problem:

52
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Formulation 1: Consider a water mass within which phytoplankton grows and

diffusion takes place. We may assume that this water mass is surrounded by water in
which plankton cannot survive. (see Fig. 1.2.4). Since a part of the population is
continuously lost to the surroundings owing to diffusion, the plankton patch would
cease to exist unless reproduction within it counterbalances this loss.

Now, the loss of organisms due to diffusion takes place through the boundary of the
patch; hence its rate is proportional to the surface area of the patch. On the other
hand, reproduction takes place locally within the patch, and hence its state is
proportional to its volume.
We know that for a sphere of radius r
The surface area of a sphere = 4 π r2

(12)

The volume inside a sphere = π r3 .

Note:

Fig. 1.2.4: Region of water mass

Therefore, ration of surface area to the volume of a sphere is ∝ .

This means that a larger sphere carries less surface area relative to its volume than a
smaller sphere. As the volume of water mass decreases, (i.e. r becomes smaller and
smaller), diffusion plays an important role, and eventually a limit is reached beyond

53
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

which reproduction can no longer compensate for the loss due to diffusion. We want
to estimate the critical increase of plankton population.

Let D be the diffusivity, α be the rate of growth and L the size of the water mass. It is
obvious that the critical size Lc can be determined by the two parameters Dd and α
i.e. Lc = f(D, α) (13)
dimensionally
D = [L2 T-1] (14)
(You can assume this now but will be obvious to you when we do formulation 2).
Also you know, α = [T-1], Lc = [L] (15)
Dimensional analysis leads us to

Lc = A* + (16)

Where A is a non-dimensional constant.

Thus, you have arrived at a formula which gives us the critical size in terms of the
diffusivity as well as the rate of growth. The constant A is not known. But, you
know by now, as we discussed in the case of the simple pendulum (study session 1),
the dimensional analysis leads to formulas with a constant left undetermined. The
constant A has to be determined by making observations or conducting experiments.
The data collected should be estimated. (Recall how we estimated the constant in the
expression for period of oscillation of the pendulum as 2π). You will see in study
session 3, when we solve the equations obtained in Formulation -2 this constant A
actually turns out to be π.

Formulation 2: In this formulation, we go for a little more detailed method for

estimating Lc. This method is based on the equations describing the diffusion of a
substance in a medium in which it diffuses is given by

54
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

* + * + (17)

where D is the diffusivity and C is the concentration of the substance, (x, y; z)

corresponds to the Cartesian coordinates and „t‟ is the time. The derivation of this
equation based on Fick‟s law will be given in section 2 and 3. For the present
discussion, it is enough for you to know that this equation is based on the principle of
conservation of mass. The left hand of the equation represents the rate of change of
concentration while the right hand side represents the change of flux due to diffusion.
Let us now check the dimension in Eqn. (17)
Note: Flux is the amount of transport of matter in the (x, y, z) direction across a unit
normal area in a unit time.

The L.H.S. is dimension .

R.H.S. is of dimension [D] ⇒ [D] = , fact we assumed in Eqn

(14).
Now, let us now formulate the model for dinging the critical length Lc using the
diffusion equation.
We shall construct a simple one-dimensional model. Let the phytoplankton be limited
to grow only in a one-dimensional region say along the x-axis, and let the region of
bloom be limited to (O, L) as shown in fig. 1.2.5.

X
0 L
Fig. 1.2.5: the region of bloom be limited to (O, L)
The diffusion equation of the organism concentration C, is then given by

(18)

55
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

This is the one dimensional diffusion equation (refer Eqn. (17) with constant
diffusivity D. The last term α C is added to the equation because, there is an
additional production in the region, α being the growth rate.
Our aim here is to find the solution of Eqn. (18) that vanishes at x = 0 and x = L and
corresponds to a given initial concentration C(x, 0) = f(x). We shall do so in Unit 3.
But, what is interesting to note here is that this formulation is more detailed than
formulation 1 in the sense that we can find not only the critical length Lc of the water
mass but also the distribution of the concentration of the phytoplanktons at different
times and different points x in the region 0 ≤ x ≤ L. Thus, this formulation allows us
to get more details about the population.
Let us now imagine that the interchange between internal growth and loss at the
boundary has been going on for a long time and now a steady state has reached i.e., C
does not explicitly depend on t. What will happen then? Can you formulate the
problem in that situation? You may try to do that.
There is a lot of scope for improving Formulation 2. for example,
i) You can relax the assumption of a one dimensional model and consider a three
dimensional model. But, you must realize that this will make the equations
more difficult to solve. Still, for getting better insight into the problems more
difficult to solve. Still, for getting better insight into the problem, you should
not mind the complications on the mathematical analysis. Even if you cannot
solve equations analytically using existing techniques, you may try to solve
them numerically.
ii) We have, so far, not discussed the movement of the water mass. The patchiness
of the phytoplankton growth is very often wind driven and hence the velocity
of the movement of the water mass can also be included in refining the model.
This refinement will also call for more mathematical difficulties since you will
have more equations to solve. You will have to solve for the three velocity
components of the water mass and use them to solve the modified diffusion

56
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

equations which include terms corresponding to the contribution of the velocity

of the water mass. So, in this formulation, you may have to solve four
differential equations (three for the three velocity components plus one
diffusion equation).
Thus, more the accuracy you require the more the model closely represents the real
problem, the formulation results in solving more complicated equations. But that
does not mean that a model is a good one only if it results in solving complicated
equations. Formulations (1) and (2), are simplified models, they preserve the essential
features of the problem and give the critical size by the balance of diffusion rate and
growth rate. Thus, what is important is preserving the essential features of the
problem. We shall now illustrate through an example, how simplifying a model
without the inclusion of the essentials can lead to wrong results.
Let us think about modelling the following problem:
Example 3: A raindrop, beginning at rest, falls from a cloud 705.6 m above the
ground. How long does it take to reach the ground?

Formulation 1: We first model the raindrop as a freely falling body. For freely
falling bodies you know that the distance x travelled by a particle in a time duration
„t‟ is given by,

x = ut + (19)

Where u is the initial velocity and g = 980 cm/sec2.

Since u = 0 in our present problem, we get,
70560 = 490 t2
therefore, t2 = 144 or, t = 12 seconds (20)
However, if you actually perform the experiment, you would discover two things
which contradict the model.

57
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

i) the weight of the raindrop makes an important difference in the time it takes to
fall.

ii) the fastest time (for the largest raindrop) is about 40 seconds. Nearly three and
a half times more than the one predicted by our simple model based on the
theory of falling bodies.
Where is the snag? Before applying any theorem or a rule it is important to remember
the conditions or restrictions on which the theorem or the formula rests. In the case
of the foregoing analysis, we have tried to use a formula which is only valid if the
object is subjected only to the force of gravity. On the contrary, in the case of the
raindrops, the force of gravity is opposed by a significant amount of air drag – a
blessing indeed for otherwise we might be killed by falling raindrops. You can test it
with a golf ball. Air drag is present because of the greater density of the golf ball and
the shorter distance of fall.
Since our finding that the raindrop takes 12 seconds does not tally with the
experimentally observed findings, there arises a need to improve the model by
understanding the essentials of the problem – air drag in this case – and including it in
the formulation. We now consider another formulation of this problem.

Formulation 2: Stoke‟s law states that for spherical droplets falling in motionless air
and having a diameter D < 0.762 cm, the acceleration due to gravity is opposed by an
amount proportional to the velocity of the raindrop, specifically by an amount equal

to (0.329 x ) . Thus, we can write the equation for the rain drop as,

-
(21)

This is a simple ordinary differential equation which can be easily solved but we shall
not do that here. What you must notice here is the improvement we have introduced

58
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

into the Formulation of the model. Incidentally, this formulation goes beyond the
objectives of Formulation 1. We can predict from this model the existence of a
terminal velocity –i.e., the velocity which is an upper round to how fast the body can
go at any time during its fall.
To make this statement clearer we explain as follows:

When the acceleration is zero, we get the value of , i.e., the

velocity as

(22)
If the droplet ever achieves this velocity, then the acceleration rate of change of
velocity is zero. In such a situation the body continues with the same velocity and we
are able to predict the terminal velocity.

Vterm = cm/sec. (23)

Actually, although we shall not prove it, in practice, a droplet falling according to
Eqn. (19) never quite reaches its terminal velocity but gets closer and closer, to it.
Unless its fall is interrupted by hitting the ground, the velocity eventually becomes so
close to vterm that, for practical purposes we consider it equal to vterm.
Furthermore, clouds are sufficiently high and a water droplet gets close to its terminal
velocity quickly enough that it is not a bad assumption to suppose that the droplet
travels at its terminal velocity for its whole trip.
Formulation 2 was an improvement over formulation 1 in that it introduced a very
essential item – the air drag – into the model. But this formulation too has its
limitations. It was based on Stoke‟s law valid for very small droplets.
We therefore consider yet another formulation.

59
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Formulation 3: In formulation 3 we shall use the fact that for spherical raindrops
falling in still air and having diameter D > 0.12 cm, the acceleration due to gravity is
opposed by an amount proportional to the square of its velocity, specifically an

amount equal to ( ) ( ) . Thus, the equation corresponding to this formulation

is given by:

- * +

(24)

This model too can give the terminal velocity which can be obtained as before by

setting = 0 and solving for . The result is

Vterm =√ cm/sec . (25)

So far, models considered in Examples 1-3 were all continuous models leading to
differential equations but you know from study session 1, this is not the case always.
Models may be discrete as well. To illustrate this, we shall now take up an example
from economics, in particular from market equilibrium analysis which leads to a
discrete model resulting in difference equations.
Before we go into the formulation of the model, I shall familiarize you with the
terminologies like demand, supply, equilibrium price, stability of equilibrium etc,
associated with the market behaviour. We shall talk about them in detail in study
session 11 of section 4 when we discuss modelling in economics.
Economists often divide goods into two categories: commodities and manufactured
items. Commodities are the primary products of the earth, such as oil, corn, lumber

60
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

and so on. In both of these categories there are year-to-year fluctuations in prices of
manufactured goods which usually follow fairly smooth trends whereas the prices of
commodities often fluctuate up and down sharply.
Where do these fluctuations come from? Economists look for the answer in the
concepts of supply and demand.

The supply of a commodity in a given time period is simply the amount available for
sale in that period. But how does the supply come to exist in exactly that amount? A
fundamental fact about commodities is that one must plan far in advance for their
production. To get more wheat in the autumn, you must plant more in the spring.
Therefore, in the period between planting and harvesting, there is little that can be
done to affect the supply. This is called the Production lag.

The demand for a commodity is the amount that will be bought at a given price.
When the price goes up, demand goes down, and vice versa. Further, the response of
demand to price changes is immediate, there is no lag.
The market forces which determine the price and the quantity sold can be regarded as
manifesting themselves through the aggregate demand (D(p)) and supply functions
(S(p)) where p denotes price of the commodity. In general, Pi stands for the price of
the commodity Qi and qi denotes the quantity of the commodity Qi. Demand
function of the commodity Qi is qi = Di (pi) and the supply function of the
commodity Qi is qi = Si (Pi). But here we shall confine our discussion to a single
commodity Q. Now for any commodity Q the quantity demanded must equal the
quantity supplied at the equilibrium, price pe such that
Note: D(p) – S(p) = 0 for some p = pe (see Fig. 1.2.6).

61
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

S(p)

Fig. 1.2.6: Showing equilibrium price

There is no guarantee that the equilibrium price will be established if the market is not
in equilibrium when the contracting begins. Changes in consumer preference and
innovations both tend to disturb an established equilibrium situation. The change
defines a new equilibrium, but there is again no guarantee that is will be attained. In
general, a disturbance denotes a situation in which the actual price is different from
the equilibrium price. An equilibrium is stable if a disturbance results in a return
to equilibrium and unstable if it does not. A disturbance usually creates an
adjustment process in the market. For instance, if the actual price is less than the
equilibrium price, the adjustment may consist of some buyers raising their bids for the
commodity.
Static Analysis investigates at a particular time the adjustment process and considers
only the nature of the change, i.e., whether it is towards or away from, equilibrium.
Define E(p) = D(p) – S(p) as the excess demand at price p. the Walrasian stability
condition is based on the assumption that buyers tend to raise their bids if excess
demand is positive and sellers tend to lower their prices, if it is negative. Assuming
this, a market is stable (static) if a price rise diminishes excess demand, i.e. if

= E' (p) = D' (p) − S' (p) < 0

62
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

In this case, nothing is said about the time path of the adjustment one might not
expect instantaneous adjustments in the present model. If the initial price is not equal
to the equilibrium price, it changes, and reconstructing takes place. If the new price
is still different from the equilibrium price, it is again forced to change. The dynamic
nature of the reconstructing may be formalized in a model in which reconstructing
takes place during periods of fixed length; say one hour, with the auctioneer
announcing the new price at the beginning of each period. The analysis of dynamic
stability investigates the course of price over time, i.e., from period to period.
Equilibrium is stable in the dynamic sense if the price converges to (or approaches)
the equilibrium price over time and it is unstable if the price change is away from the
equilibrium.
Example 4: Let us now see how we can formulate the dynamic stability of market
equilibrium.
Formulation 1: Suppose the demand function Dt for the periods t are given as
follows:
Dt = apt + b (26)
St = Apt + B (27)
Where a, b, A and B are all consonants
Then the equilibrium price pe determined by setting Dt – St = 0 for pt = pe is given by

Pe = (28)

The assumption that a positive excess demand tends to raise price can be modelled in
many different ways. A commonly used mathematical model is given by
Pt –pt -1 = kE(pt-1) (29)
Where pt is the price in period t and k is a positive constant. It means that a positive
excess demand E(pt-1) includes buyers to bid a price pt = pt-1 + kE(pt-1) > pt – 1 in the
following period.
The excess demand of period (t – 1) is then given by
D(pt – 1) – S(pt – 1) = E(pt – 1) = (a – A)pt – 1 + (b – B) (30)

63
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Substituting from Equ. (30) in Eqn. (29) we have,

Pt – pt – 1 = k[(a – A)pt – 1 + (b – B)]
Or,
Pt = [1 + k(a – A)]pt – 1 + k(b – B) (31)
This is a first order difference equation describing the time path of price on the basis
of the behaviour assumption contained in Eqn. (29). We shall give the method of
solving Eqn. (31) in study session 11 when we discuss it in detail. But if you are
familiar with difference equations it will not be difficult for you to verify that given
the initial condition p = p0 when t = 0, it s solution is given by
Pt = (p0 – pe) [1 + k(a – A)]t + pe (32)

Where Pe = is the equilibrium price.

The price level converges to pe without oscillations if

-1 < 1 + k(a – A) < 1
more of this will be discussed in study session 11, section 4
Remark: If we assume that the adjustment takes place continuously, then Eqn. (29) is
replaced by

= kE(p)

and Eqn. (31) takes the form = k(a – A)p + k(b – B) with solution

p(t) = (p0 – pe)ek(a – A)t + pe where p0 is the initial price at t = 0

The equilibrium price is dynamically stable,
that is, p → pe as t → ∞ , if (a – A) < 1
as we have already mentioned production takes time. The adjustment may not be
instantaneous, but may become perceptible in the market only after a period of time.
Agricultural commodities often provide good examples of lagged supply.

64
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Production plans are made after the harvest. The output corresponding to these
production plans appears in the market a year later. We thus give another formulation
of the dynamic stability but with lagged adjustment this time.

Formulation 2: Let the demand and supply functions be as given below.

Dt = apt + b (33)
St = Apt – 1 + B (34)
(Note that the supply function is a linear function of pt – 1)
The market is in dynamic equilibrium if the price remains unchanged from period to
period i.e. if pt = pt – 1. from Eqn. (33) and (34) we get the unique equilibrium price Pe

The quantity demanded in any period depends upon the price in that period, but the
quantity supplied depends upon the price in the previous period. It is assumed that
the quantity supplied in period t is always equal to the quantity demanded in that
period i.e. Dt – St = 0 This gives

Pt = pt− 1+

(35)
Eqn. (35) is a difference equation and its solution is given by

Pt = (p0 – pe) ( ) + pe where pt = p0 at t = 0. the market is dynamically

stable if pt → ∞. This is possible if ( ) < 1 (since → 0 as t → ∞).

Geometrically, this happens if the slope ( ) of the demand curve has smaller

absolute value than slope ( ) of the supply curve, i.e., | | | |

. Pictorially, the stable

65
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

equilibrium and the unstable equilibrium are as shown in Fig. 7 (a) and 7 (b)
respectively.

p
p
po
S(p)
po

D(p)
D(p)
S(p)
q0 q q0 q

(a) Stable equilibrium (b) Unstable equilibrium

Fig. 1.2.7: Stable and Unstable equilibrium

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1) Identify the essentials and two non-essentials in each of the followings:
(a) Traffic flow in Kaduna depends critically on the traffic control scheme. If the
scheme is poor, long lines can result at one or more intersections increasing the
time to travel across the city. The problem is to evolve a scheme which
minimises the expected time to travel across the city.
(b) Proper flow of blood is essential to transmit oxygen and other nutrients to
various parts of the body in humans as well as in all other animals to various
parts of the body in humans as well as in all other animals. Any constriction in
the blood vessel or any change in the characteristics of blood vessels can
change the flow and cause damages ranging from minor discomfort to sudden
death. The problem is to find the relationship between blood flow and
physiological characteristics of blood vessel.
(c) Suppose you own an automobile industry. You require a set of standard bolts.
For this purpose, you float a tender. In response to the tender you receive

66
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

quotations from ten different vendors. The problem which you face is to choose
one of those ten vendors whose quotation maximizes your profit.
2) As in (E1), propose at least two real life problems and list the essentials and
non-essentials in the problems.
3) Consider the free fall of a body in a vacuum. The fall must be related to the
gravitational acceleration g and the height h from which the body is released.
Use dimensional analysis to show that the velocity V of the falling body is
determined by the dimensional equations V/ gh = constant.
4) A string of length is connected to a fixed point at one end and to a stick of mass
m at the other. The stick is whirling in a circle at constant velocity v. Use
dimensional analysis to show that the force in the string is determined from the
dimensionless equation

= constant.

5) The volume rate of flow Q of a fluid through a tube is thought to ∆p depends

on the pressure drop per unit length , the diameter d, and the viscosity µ.
Show that only one dimensionless equation can be formed, from which it

follows that Q = (constant) * +

* +

[Hint: Dimension of viscosity µ is ]

6) Formulate Example -2 in the case of a steady state i.e., when C does not
explicitly depend on the time t. What type of equation you obtain in this case.

67
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

7) Find the terminal velocity of a drizzle drop with diameter D = 0.01 cm

Compare it to the terminal velocity of a fog droplet with one third of that
diameter.
8) For a rain drop of diameter D = 0.24 cm, find the terminal velocity. Also find
how long it takes to reach the ground if it starts its descent in a cloud 4000
metre high.
9) Discuss the static stability and dynamic stability for the following demand and
supply functions where we assume k = 6 for the latter case.
Dt = - 0.5pt + 100
St = - 0.1pt + 50
10) Discuss the following market which is characterized by lagged supply
response.
Dt = 40 – 10 pt
St = 2 + 9pt –1

4.0 Conclusion/Summary
In this study session we have covered the following:
1. Real-life problem may be analysed to sift the most essential characteristics of the
problem from details of minor importance. Examples of simple pendulum, rate of
growth of world population or blood flow in the circulatory system are discussed
to make you think what is of foremost importance in the problem that needs to be
included in the model.
2. Once the essential characteristics of the model are listed according to their
priority, there can be more than one way to approach the problem. In other words,
the conversion of the real life problem into a mathematical description in terms of
the equations can be done in different ways. The particular familiar examples- (i)
Motion of a simple pendulum, (ii) Growth of phytoplankton population were
formulated in two different ways through (a) dimensional analysis and (b)

68
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

deterministic method. The former served for developing a preliminary model

whereas the latter could take you farther in understanding/explaining the
observations. Two formulations of dynamic stability of market equilibrium are
also considered, one with lagged supply and one without it.
3. You can get erroneous results if you miss some essential characteristic of the
model. This is shown through an example of the falling of a rain drop.
4. It is important that you should have a clear objective in mind when you deal with a
real-life problem. If you want to have a rough idea of the problem, a crude model
which does not take into account all the details of the problem (but certainly the
essentials) will suffice. But if the objective is to understand the problem with all
the minutest details, a thorough model which incorporates most of the parameters
has to be formulated. It must be borne in mind that if more parameters are
introduced in the problem it involves more cost (calculations using computers) and
effort to solve the resulting mathematical equations.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1) state the important steps involve in mathematical model approach.
Answer: The important steps involve in mathematical approach are establishing a
main purpose for the model, observing the real life situation and understanding what
is going on, and sift the essential from the non-essential of the problem.

2) List two ways/methods to convert real life problem into mathematical equations.
Answer: (i) Dimension Analysis
(ii)Deterministic Methods

69
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

a. Visit U-tube http://bit.ly/2se23bI , http://bit.ly/2rDaZHp , http://bit.ly/34exsb4 ,
http://bit.ly/38squT7 , http://bit.ly/2RJiU0y Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on and critique it in the discussion forum.
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Identification and Formulation; In 2
paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

7.0 References/Further Readings

“Course Code: Course Tittle, National Open University of Nigeria, 2009 at
www.nou.edu,ng
Mathematical Modelling from School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by Kirk Patrick.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by C.N. Lomoba

70
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

STUDY MODULE 2
MODULE 2: Solutions and Interpretations
Contents:
Study session 1: Solution of problems and course-effect diagrams

STUDY SESSION 1
Solution of Problems Course-Effect Diagrams, Equation Types, Algebraic,
Ordinary Differential, Partial Differential, Difference Integral and Functional
Equations
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Solution of Formulated Problems
2.1.1 Motion of a Simple Pendulum (Ordinary
differential Equations) Non-Linear Model (Integral and Functional
Equation)
2.1.2 Phytoplankton Growth (Partial Differential Equation)
2.2 Interpretation of the Solution
5.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings
Introduction
In the two previous study sessions, I introduced you to some of the aspects of
mathematical modelling. Study session 1, was prepared to help you to understand

71
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

definitions in mathematics, physics and biology with which you may already be
familiar. But these very familiar concepts were presented to you as a part of
mathematical modelling.
In module 1 study session 1, we have discussed different types of modelling. In study
session 2 of module 1, we dealt in detail with the first important stage of
mathematical modelling, viz., identifying essential characteristics of the problem at
hand, bringing out the most important features of the problem and formulating
mathematical representations are algebraic / differential / difference equations and
their combinations.
In study session 2 you have seen that some equations are easy to handle with such
that we can deduce the relevant information from the equation, directly as in the case
Formulation 1 in Example 1. In the other cases we need to go further and solve these
equations depending upon what type of equations they are. Here we shall discuss the
second important stage of modelling, viz. solving the formulated equations and the
interpretation of the solutions. We shall solve some of the problems formulated in
study session 2. We have given some of them as an exercise for you to try. In Sec
2.1 we have mainly discussed two problems – one related to motion of a simple
pendulum, and the other related to the growth of phytoplankton.
You will find that the different techniques you have learnt in differential equations
will be extremely useful in solving these problems.
A model is complete only when we interpret the mathematical solution of the model.
In Sec. 2.2 we shall discuss this aspect of mathematical modelling namely
interpreting/evaluating the solution. We shall explain how we interpret the solutions
obtained for the problem of simple pendulum and that of phytoplankton. You will
see that the interpretation helps us to gauge how effective the model is. In this
section we shall also talk briefly about limitation/shortcoming of a model.
You may notice that in this study session we have used only the techniques in
differential equations to obtain a solution because the resulting equations were

72
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

differential equations. But this is not the case always. In the later blocks you will see
that there are other techniques like techniques in probability and linear algebra which
are used in obtaining a solution.
Do try the exercises given in this study session sincerely. This will help you to gauge
whether you have followed concepts and the techniques we have explained.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

After you are done studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Use the techniques in differential equations for solving a formulated problem

resulting in differential equations

2. Interpret the solution obtained in the context of the real situations.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Solutions of Formulated Problems
We learnt in study 2 that we can choose more than one type of formulation for the
same problem. The choice of a mathematical model to be developed must depend on
the purpose for which the model is required. In Sec. 2.3 Example 1 of study session 2
we saw that if the purpose of studying the movement of a simple pendulum is to find
its period of oscillation, a quick solution based on dimensional analysis will serve our
purpose. But if the objective of the study is to have a deeper insight into the problem,
we have to use a different model.
In this case a model based on Newton‟s law by resolving the forces acting on the bob
of the pendulum will serve the purpose. Similarly, we have shown in Example 2 of
Sec. 2.3 of study session 2 that if we want to have a cursory knowledge about marine
ecology, a simple model based on dimensional analysis will suffice. With that we
can easily have a rough estimate of the critical length or water mass required for the
phytoplankton population to increase. But if we want to get more details, a model
based on a system of differential equation would be required.

73
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

We discuss in this section the solutions of the deeper problems formulated in study
session 2.
We shall first consider the second formulation related to the movement of simple
pendulum.

2.1.1 Motion of a Simple Pendulum (Ordinary Differential Equations)

In the last two study session we discussed the problem of finding the period of
oscillation, tension in the string and the position of the bob at any time of a simple
pendulum. There we formulated the problem using Newton‟s law (Example 1,
formulation 2, study session 2). We shall now discuss how we find the solution.
In the last unit we saw that the formulation resulted in two differential equations (see
Eqn. (8) and Eqn. (9) of study session 2), which we give below:

m = - T sin θ (1)

m =Tcosθ-mg (2)

where the tension T and the amplitude θ are not known.

Our objective here, is to find the position of the pendulum and the tension in the
string at any time. This is possible if you know either the position (x, y) of the bob at
that instant or the angle θ the string makes with the vertical at that instant (see Fig. 1)
y

A x
θ
cos θ
sin θ
(x, y)
(1 - cos θ )

mg

74
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Fig. 2.1.1: position (x, y) of the bob at that instant or the angle θ the string makes with
the vertical at that instant

You know that x, y and θ are connected by the relation. x = sin θ , y

= (1 – cos θ ),
being the length of the pendulum. Let us try to solve θ by eliminating the terms x
and y.

to eliminate the terms m and m from Eqn. (1) and Eqn. (2), we apply the
chain rule

By repeated application of the chain rule, we get

= cosθ sinθ* + (3)

= sinθ sinθ* + (4)

so (1) and (2) become

m cos θ [ * + ] (5)

m sinθ [ * + ] (6)

Have we improved the situation? Eqn. (5) and (6) still look quite formidable! What if
we multiply (5) by cos θ and (6) by sin θ and add the two equation? Well, we get

m (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = -mg sin θ (7)

75
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

or

i.e., m + mg sin θ = 0 (8)

Thus, we have found the equation, in terms of θ alone as a function of t.

We try to find a similar formula for the tension T also. For this, we multiply (5) by
sin θ, (6) by cos θ and then take the difference. We then find that

[ * + ] (sin2θ + cos2θ) = mg cos θ, (9)

i.e., T = m * + + mg cos θ (10)

This is another equation of motion, in a direction along the string, from which the
tension can be calculated once θ (t) has been determined from Eqn. (8).
Now, have a close look at Eqn. (8) and (10). What type of differential equation are
they? You might have noticed that both (8) and (10) are

non-linear differential equation. (Note that sin θ - + …). From

your previous knowledge of differential equations you must have observed that it is
not easy to find the solutions of non-linear differential equations, in general.
One way of getting a quick solution is to make some approximations which will
change the non-linear equations to a linear one and then solving the resulting linear
equations by known methods. But while doing so, you should always see that these
approximations do not omit the essential details of the problem.
I will now show you how both of these equations (8) and (10) can be simplified if we
are ready to make an approximation i.e. the oscillations are small. With this
approximation you will see that the equations become linear and the solutions are
easy to obtain.

76
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

(A) Solution using Linear Model (D.E)

To begin with, let us assume that the oscillations are small which means that θ is
small. This will enable us to approximate sin θ by θ since as θ → 0, sin θ → θ. This
will certainly reduce the accuracy in our calculations. But the mathematics involved
gets much reduced. In fact, even for fairly large angles, i.e., angles whose magnitude
may be anywhere up to 30o, i.e., - 30o ≤ θ ≤ 30o, we can take
Sin θ ≈ θ
Cos θ ≈ 1
As you can expect, these approximations will introduce some errors. For example, let
θ = 15o. then from the table of sine you can find that sin 10 o = 0.25881. To compare
this with the given value of θ we have to find θ in radian measure. The radian
measure of θ = 15o is 0.26196. the error in this approximation is 0.26196 – 0.25881 =
0.00315.
Using the approximations, we write Eqn. (8) as
(11)

and Eqn. (10) as

T = mg [ * + ] (12)

We can further simplify Eqn. (12) by using the argument that when θ is

Small * + < 1 and hence the second term in the bracket is much smaller than the

first term. Therefore, we can neglect the second term. This would imply

T = mg (13)

77
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Isn‟t this an interesting result? Even for swings of the pendulum up to ± 30o, the
tension is a constant.
Let us now go back to Eqn. (11). For you recognize it? It is nothing but the classical
simple harmonic equation with which you were familiar even at high school.
Eqn. (11) is a simple second order ordinary differential equation with constant
coefficients. From your knowledge of ordinary differential equations, you know that

θ = A cos√ + B sin√ (14)

where A and B are arbitrary constants.

Now what are A and B? These constants will depend on the initial position of the bob
and the velocity with which it is started. Let us assume that
θ = θ0 at t = 0, where θ0 is some arbitrary angle (15-a)

at t = 0 (15-b)

Eqn.(15-a) would imply that at t = 0, the amplitude of motion of the pendulum is θ0.
Eqn.(15-b) implies that the initial speed of the pendulum is zero. Thus, conditions
Eqn.(15-a) and Eqn.(15-b) correspond to initially holding the pendulum at rest at any
arbitrary angle θ 0 and then letting it go.
When we put t = 0 and apply Eqn. (15-a) in Eqn. (14), we get A=θ0.

Then we obtain from Eqn. (14) and apply the condition when t = 0 to
get

- θ0 sin[√ ] √ + B cos[√ ] √ , when t = 0.

78
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

This implies that B = 0.

Therefore, the solution is given
by

θ = θ0 cos √
(16)
instead of Eqn. (15-a) and Eqn.(15-b), suppose we assume that
θ = 0, at t = 0

and = ω, at t = 0

This means that at t = 0, the initial amplitude of the motion is 0 i.e. the bob is at the
equilibrium position and the initial speed is ω. Now we have it as an exercise for you
to check that the solution in this case is given by

θ = ω√ sin[√ ] (17)

Thus, individually Eqn. (16) and Eqn. (17) is also a solution of Eqn.
(11), being the solutions of a linear differential equation.
Therefore,

θ = θ0 cos[√ ] + ω√ sin[√ ]

(18)

is the solution of (11) with the conditions?

θ = θ0, at t = 0 and

= ω, at t = 0

Can you guess what physical situation the solution will correspond to? This
corresponds to the pendulum being release with an initial velocity ω from a point

79
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

with angular distance θ 0. We shall discuss the interpretation of the solution in detail
in Sec. 3.3

In the foregoing discussion, you have seen that the approximations we introduced
enable us to have a linear model which corresponded to the simple harmonic
oscillation. But you must keep in mind that any simplification we introduced in the
model will cost you something-in this case there had to be a restriction on the range
of values of the amplitude i.e. |θ | ≤ 30o
Suppose you have a problem in which you cannot assume the oscillation to be small.
Then in that case the non-linear characteristic of Eqn. (8) and Eqn. (10) has to be
maintained which means that the resulting model will be a non-linear model. Next,
we shall discuss the solution in this case.

(B) Solution using non-linear model (Integral and Functional Equation)

We begin with rewriting Eqn. (8) after multiplying by . We get

* +

(19)
which we can also rewrite as

( [ ] )

This implies that

* + =a constant (20)

80
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

If the initial condition is such that the pendulum is started at rest from an arbitrary
angle θ 0, then at t = 0

θ(t) = θ0, =0

Therefore, if we put θ = θ0 and = 0 in Eqn. (20), we get that the constant is (- cos

θ0)

i.e., * + - cos θ0

Therefore,

* + * + (21)

(Using the identity cos θ = 1 – 2 sin ).

Substituting Eqn. (21) in eqn. (12) we get the value of the tension T in terms of θ. We
can check that the express for T is

T = mg [ * +] (22)

Also from Eqn. (21) we have

√
√

Eqn. (22) has to be integrated to find θ, the position of the pendulum as a function of
t. What would be the limits of integration?
The pendulum swinging from - θ0 to θ0 and back again. Suppose we denote as
T0 the period of the pendulum, during the period. A quarter period would be the time
interval say, from θ = θ 0 to θ = 0 (see Fig. 2).

Thus Eqn. (22) can be integrated as follows: of the total period.

81
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Fig. 2.1.2: The time taken to go from A to O is

√ ∫ ∫
√

Integrating the left-hand side, we get

T0 = √ ∫
√

Now we make sole change of variable. Put θ = - Ø. Then we

get

T0 = √ ∫
√

(23)

Let sin = sin sin ψ. Differentiating both sides, we get

cos dø = sin cos ψ dψ

Then

82
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

dø = dψ = dψ
√

Substituting for dø in the integral on the R.H.S. of Eqn. (23), we get

T0 = √ ∫
√ √

= √ ∫
√

= √ ∫
√

(24)

= √ ∫
√

As you may recognize it, the integral in the R.H.S. of Eqn. (24) is a definite integral
which gives you T0 as a function of θ 0 say f(θ 0). The integral is called an elliptic
integral. Tables are available to find the values of elliptic integrals. We have given
one such table in the appendix.
We shall now illustrate through an example, how we find T 0 for a and g, using the
table.

Example 1: Find T0 if θ 0 = 20o, given that = 20 cm and g = 980 cm/se

Solution: Substituting for θ 0 , and g in Eqn., (24) we get,

83
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

T0 = √ ∫ sec
√

You compare the integral on the R.H.S. with the integral given in the appendix, [look
at the column of 90o and row of 10o]. Then we get

∫ ≈ 1.58284 sec.
√

x 1.58284 sec.
≈ 1.00448 sec.

Let us now find the solution of the other problem we had mentioned at the beginning
of this section.

2.1.2 Phytoplankton Growth (Partial Differential Equation)

You may recall that in sec. 2.3 of study session 2, we discussed a problem from
ecology, namely the effect of growth of phytoplanktons on our environment. In study
session 2 we have seen two formulations of this problem. We have seen that
Formulation 2 resulted in a differential equation
(Eqn. (17), study session 2)

= +αC (25)

where C(x, t) is the organism concentration of the phytoplankton.

You know that Eqn. (25) is a one-dimensional partial differential equation and can be
solved using separation of variables. Let us assume.
C(x, t) = X(x) Y(t)
Then from Eqn. (25), we have

84
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

X(x) =D Y(dt) + α X(x) Y (t) dx

⇒D * +

the left-hand side of the above equation is purely function of Y and the right-hand
side is purely a function of X. so, we equal them to a constant, say K. The constant
has to be negative, otherwise the model will predict an exponential growth of
phytoplankton‟s which will not be realistic. Therefore, for convenience, we take K =
– λ2, where λ is a constant. You may again recall from your PDE course that, when
we take the constant as – λ2, then non-trivial solution exists. We now get, two
equations for determining X(x) and Y(t) as

= – λ2

D * + – λ2

the solution is given by.

X(x) = A cos x + B sin x, Y(t) = C1
(27)
Where C1, A and B are some constant to be determined [see MTE-08, Block 4]
Now we find the constant A, B and C1 by applying the boundary conditions
C(x, t) = 0 when x = 0 when x = 0 and x = L.
We have
C(x, t) = X(x) Y(t)
C(0, t) = X(0) Y(t), ∀t
C(L, t) = X(L) Y(t),∀

85
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

When we apply the boundary condition C(x, t) = 0 when x = 0. we get that

0 = C(0, t) = X(0) Y(t), ∀ t i.e. X(0) = 0.
Similarly by applying the boundary condition, C(x,t) = 0 when x = L, we get
0 = C(L, t) = X(L) Y(t), ∀ t
i.e. X(L) = 0
Hence we get that X(0) = X(L) = 0.
X(0) = 0 implies that
A=0
Next we have to find B and C1.
From Eqn. (27) we have
X(x) = B sin λ x, since A = 0
This together with the fact that X(L) = 0, implies that
B sin λ L = 0.
If B = 0, we a trivial solution i.e., C ≡ 0, in which we are not interested.
The other possibility is that sin λ L = 0 which implies that λ L = n π for nπ each
integer n and hence λ = This shows that, for each, n, we get a solution of the PDE
as

Zn = Bn sin x

Thus corresponding to each value λ n = , n = 0, 1, 2, …. We get a solution of the

PDE. Therefore, we get the most general solution of Eqn. (25), as

C(x, t) = ∑ Bn sin λ n x (28)

'

86
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Where λ n = and Bn = C1Bn. we now apply the boundary condition

C(x,0) = f(x) at t = 0, in Eqn. (28), which gives

f(x) = ∑ B'n sin λn X (29)

where B'n are constants to be determined. To determine B'n , we m xπ

multiply both sides of Eqn. (29) by sin , where m is an integer, and perform term
by term integration. Then we get

∫ (x) sin dx = ∑ ∫ n sin sin dx

=∑∫ n sin ny sin my dy where y =

Now, using the orthogonality condition, namely

∫ n sin n x sin m x d x =,

we get that
'
B'n = ∫ (x) sin dx (30)
You can notice that for given value of f(x), we can always evaluate the integral on the
right-hand side which gives the value of B'n. Thus, the resulting solution for C as
given by Eqn. (27) is

C(x, t) = ∑ B'n sin * + exp * +t (31)

Where B'n is defined by Eqn. (30)

We shall focus on the first term, i.e. the term corresponding to n = 1, of the series on
the right-hand side of Eqn. (31). The argument of the exponential function is time-

87
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

dependent, being given by * +t. If α < , the exponent becomes negative

and hence the exponential function approaches zero as t increases i.e. as time
progresses. The second and higher order terms in the population of phytoplankton
will then be unable to maintain itself against diffusion, and the patch disappear. On

the other hand, if α < , at least the first term will increase indefinitely with time.

Therefore, the critical size Lc, is determined from the condition

α< i.e.

Lc = π * + (32)

You may recall, at this stage, the expression for Lc we derived in study session 2
based on dimensional analysis. If is

Lc = A* +

(33)
Where A is a non-dimensional constant. After the present calculations, based on the
diffusion equation, we identify the constant of proportionality as π. Thus, a more
detailed model as the present one is more specific about the critical size, below which
no phytoplankton population is possible. This model also gives you the distribution of
plankton as a function of space and time i.e., C(x, t), (see Eqn. (31)).
This solution based on Formulation 2 in study session 2 is definitely more
informative than the solution using dimensional analysis based on Formulation 1.
But you must also realize that Formulation 1 was quick and served a, limited purpose
of getting preliminary information but the derivation involved more mathematical
tools, solving a second order partial differential equation in this case.

88
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

The discussion above tells us that each formulation of a model has some advantages
and disadvantages. In fact, we have to consider many other factors to evaluate the
effectiveness of a model. In the next section we shall talk about this in detail. Before
that why don‟t you try this exercise.
In-text Question: what are the techniques used in solving the formulated models?

Answer: the formulated models leads to linear equations, ordinary differential equations and
partial differential equations which can be solve using a suitable methods such as the method of
undetermined coefficient, variation of parameter method e.t.c. to obtain the exact or approximate
solution

In the next section we shall see what the significances of the solution obtained is, in
the context of the real-problem.

2.2 Interpretation of the Solution

As you have been reading throughout this section; a mathematical model is an
attempt to capture, in abstract form, the essential characteristics of an observed
phenomenon. We will accept a model if it explains all the facts that we would like it
to explain. Otherwise, we will reject it, or else, improve it, then test it again. In other
words, we measure the worth of a model by comparing the results obtained, with the
observed facts about the real problem. This process is called the validation of the
model.
This process of validating a model should be preceded by the process of
understanding the solutions of the mathematical model. In other words, the
mathematical expressions obtained as solution have to be analysed and the essential
facts which the solution represents have to be understood. This process is known as
“interpreting the solution of a model”.
You will see that in some cases, we can interpret the solution merely by looking at it.
But, in most cases, a graphical representation of the expression will be necessary and

89
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

the interpretation of the graphs will demand a thorough knowledge about the
problems being modelled. We shall illustrate these facts using an example.

Example 1: Interpret the solution obtained for different formulations of the model of
a simple pendulum.
Solution: We have already shown you in formulation 1 how the constant of
proportionality was derived as 2 π. This was done by relating our formula for period
of oscillation (Eqn. 3, study session 2) to the experiment results with pendulums of
different lengths and masses. After establishing the formula for the period of the
pendulum as

T0 = 2 π√ (34)

You can interpret your result in the following way:

i) The period is independent of the mass of the pendulum.
ii) It is directly proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum.
iii) It is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
So, in this case you could interpret the solution by directly looking at the expression
(34) in our Formulation 2 of the same problem, we could find the position of the
pendulum at any particular instant of time and it was also possible to estimate the
tension in the string [See Eqn. (16)]. Eqn. (16), being a cosine function which is
periodic clearly brings out the oscillatory nature of the pendulum. Here, we make use
of the graph of the cosine function to illustrate the behaviour of the pendulum. Fig.
2.1.3 gives the graph of the function. You can see the amplitude θ of the pendulum
oscillates between - θ o and + θ o. in the figure you can see that T0 is the period of the
pendulum after which the motion reproduces itself exactly.

90
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

θ0 T0

T 0/2 t = T0
t=0

Fig. 2.1.3 graph of the function

The solution corresponding to a different set of boundary conditions,

i.e., θ = 0 = ω at t = 0 was given by Eqn. (17), Sec. 3.2.1. In this case, the amplitude

is (ω √ ). The graph of this equation is given bellow. (See. Fig. 4)

ω √

t=0 T 0 T0
2

Fig. 2.1.4: graph of the equation

The solutions which are cosine/sine function imply that the oscillation of a pendulum
will carry on the fever and the traveling wave will travel to infinity without reduction
of its amplitude. This is where the interpretation of the results leads to all
contradiction – i.e., a result which contradicts the observations. All real oscillations
die out, unless forced to continue by additional external forces. This is because there
always are other forces present which damp the oscillations. These forces result from
frictional or viscous action and you may recall no provision was made in either of our
two formulations to include these damping forces. We shall be talking about the
damped simple harmonic motion and forced oscillations in Unit 4 of the next block.
Thus, interpretation of our results highlights the shortcomings of the model and leads
to other factors which will modify the model.
In a similar way, you can make observations regarding the problem in ecology also.

91
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Example 2: Discuss the solution obtained for the phytoplankton growth problem.
Solution: In formulation 1 given in Unit 2 we could find the constant „C‟ given by
Eqn. (13) of unit 2, if you have observational data about the planktons. Also, if you
know the diffusivity of the planktons and the rate of growth, you can also measure the
planktons patches in the area of interest and from there calculate the value of C.
(Incidentally, if it is worth knowing that the plankton patches in the open sea appear
to occur in the order of 10-100 km). Thus, we could interpret the solution by directly
looking at the expression.
Let us consider Formulation (2). Eqn. in study session 3 gives a solution of this

problem. There we have shown that if α < then the exponential function in Eqn.
(31) approaches zero as time increases.
(See the paragraph preceding Eqn. (31) of Sec. 3.2.2.) we also know that

Lc = . Therefore, the condition α < can be replaced by L < Lc. Therefore, you
get that for any L < Lc, no sustainable growth of Phytoplankton occurs. You can also
note from Eqn. (32) that as the growth α increases, the critical size Lc gets smaller;
whereas if the intensity of diffusion D increases, Lc also increases. Both the
conclusions are in keeping with what we expect.

Even this model leaves ample scope for modification. We have assumed in both the
formulations that the planktons cannot survive outside a particular region. Again, we
make no mention of the winded driven displacement of the planktons. Including
many more factors will enhance the model and take it closer to reality. But it should
be borne in mind that the sophistication in the model may bring, along with it, more
mathematical complexities.
As the two examples, we formulated and solved in detail, show, there is lot of room
for improvement of the model. The major limitation in Example 1 was the absence of

92
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

a term representing air resistance whereas in Example 2 it was the absence of details
surrounding the patch – the velocity of the steam etc.
Sometimes it may happen that when we interpret the solution to fit the real-life
situation, we find that there is vast difference between the theoretical model that has
been created (with all the assumption) and the real-life situation. In such a situation
as you have seen and will see, the model needs to be either scrapped or revised.

In-text Question: what are the relevant of interpreting the solutions of the formulated model?

Answer: The essential facts which the solution represents have to be understood through
interpretation which have great significance in the validation of the model.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group assignments)

1. Obtain the solution given in Eqn. (17) under the initial condition = ω, at θ =

0 at t = 0.
2. Show from hat the bob of the simple pendulum achieves its maximum angular
velocity at θ = 0. Why is this physically reasonable? Show that your results are
applicable to both linear and nonlinear problem.
3. Using the non-linear model of the pendulum, find the period of oscillation for θ
0 = 12 sec. and = 4.
4. How would you modify Formulation 2 in unit 2 by including an external force,
say, air resistance? Find the solution of the new model.
5. In the last study session, you must have formulated the model for the problem
in E6. Recall that the situation is that the interchange between the internal
growth and loss of phytoplanktons has been going on for a long time, and a
steady state has been reached (steady state means, the organism concentration
C does not depend on time t)
Find a solution of the mathematical formulation you obtained.

93
 MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

6. Interpret the solution you derived in E5.

4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we have discussed the following points:
The solutions of those problems formulated in study session 2 which resulted in
differential equations. We have discussed mainly two problems:
i) motion of a simple pendulum
ii) growth of phytoplankton.
The formulations of above two problems resulted in differential equation: a non-
linear ordinary differential equation in the case of simple pendulum and a one-
dimensional partial differential equation in the case of phytoplankton.
We have discussed the solutions in different parts.
i. The interpretation of the solutions obtained.
ii. The interpretation of a solution is very essential to assess the effectiveness of a
model. Though the models could explain many of the observed phenomena, there
were lots of scopes for improvement.
iii. In most situations, a better model involves more parameters and complications.
You will need more and more sophisticated mathematical tools as you go on
refining the model.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1) Find the solution to the Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)

(Hint: )
Answer:
Where and are constant to be determined.

2)what are the two conditions used in finding unknowns of a given ODE.
Answer: initial condition and boundary conditions.

94
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

a. Visit U-tube http://bit.ly/2RHGFGd , http://bit.ly/2qGXgyW ,
http://bit.ly/2RGVokN , http://bit.ly/2YDm4o5 , http://bit.ly/2PzYPan Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on and critique it in the discussion forum.
c. Take a walk and engage any 3 students on Solution of problems and Cause-effect
diagrams; In 2 paragraphs summarise their opinion of the discussed topic. etc.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Course Code: Course Tittle, National Open University of Nigeria, 2009 at
www.nou.edu,ng
Mathematical Modelling from School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Quantitative Analysis in Management by Kirk Patrick.

95
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

Glossary
Glossary

absolute value

a real number regardless of its sign

angle

the space between two lines or planes that intersect

arc

a continuous portion of a circle

asymptote

a straight line that is the limiting value of a curve

compose

form the substance of

composition

the way in which someone or something is put together

constant

a number representing a quantity with a fixed value

coordinate system

a system that uses coordinates to establish position

cosine

ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle

cube root

a number that when multiplied three times equals a given number

domain

a set of possible values of the independent variable

equation

a mathematical statement that two expressions are the same

exponent

notation of how many times to multiply a quantity by itself

exponential

involving a quantity being multiplied by itself

96
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

exponential decay

a decrease that follows an exponential function

expression

a group of symbols that make a mathematical statement

factor

an integer that can be exactly divided into another integer

factorization

breaking down an integer or polynomial into its divisors

Fibonacci sequence

a sequence of numbers in which each number equals the sum of the two preceding numbers

formula

a group of symbols that make a mathematical statement

function

a mathematical relation associating elements between sets

graph

a visual representation of the relations between quantities

growth

a process of becoming larger or longer or more numerous

input

a component of production, such as raw materials or labor

intercept

the point at which a line intersects a coordinate axis

interval

a set containing all points between two given endpoints

inverse function

a function obtained by expressing the dependent variable of one function as the independent variable of
another; f and g are inverse functions if f(x)=y and g(y)=x

invertible

having an additive or multiplicative inverse

linear

97
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

involving an equation whose terms are of the first degree

logarithm

the exponent required to produce a given number

logarithmic

of or relating to or using logarithms

maximum

the point on a curve where the tangent changes

midline

the median plane of the body (or some part of the body)

minimum

the point on a curve where the tangent changes

model

a hypothetical description of a complex entity or process

negative

less than zero

notation

a technical system of symbols to represent special things

output

production of a certain amount

parameter

a constant in the equation of a curve that can be varied

period

the interval to complete one cycle of a repeating phenomenon

periodic

happening or recurring at regular intervals

periodicity

the quality of recurring at regular intervals

polynomial

a mathematical function that is the sum of a number of terms

positive

98
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

greater than zero

quadrant

any of the four areas into which a plane is divided

quadratic

of or relating to the second power

radian

the unit of plane angle adopted under the Systeme International d'Unites; equal to the angle at the center of
a circle subtended by an arc equal in length to the radius (approximately 57.295 degrees)

range

set of values of a variable for which a function is defined

rate

a quantity considered as a proportion of another quantity

rational

capable of being expressed as a quotient of integers

recursive

characterized by repetition

sequence

serial arrangement in which things follow in logical order

sine

ratio of the length of the side opposite the given angle to the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle

square root

a number that when multiplied by itself equals a given number

subtend

be opposite to; of angles and sides, in geometry

symmetry

balance among the parts of something

table

a set of data arranged in rows and columns

tangent

99
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

ratio of the opposite and adjacent sides of a right triangle

translate

change the position of in space without rotation

trigonometric function

function of an angle expressed as a ratio of the length of the sides of right-angled triangle containing the
angle

zero

the mathematical symbol 0 denoting absence of quantity

100
 MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

INDEX

Ellipic integrals of the first kind F( ϕ | α) = ∫

TABLE
αϕ 0 5O 10O 15O 20O 25O 30O
0 0 0.08726646 0.17453293 0.26179939 0.34906 585 0.43633231 0.52359878
2 0 0.08726660 0.17453400 0.26180298 0.34907 428 0.43634 855 0.52362636
4 0 0.08726700 0.17453721 0.26181 374 0.34909 952 0.43639719 0.52370903
6 0 0.08726767 0.17454255 0.26183 163 0.34914 148 0.43647806 0.52384653
8 0 0.08726861 0.17454999 0.26185656 0.34919998 0.43659086 0.52403839
10 0 0.08726980 0.17455949 0.26188 842 0.34927 479 0.43673518 0.52428402

12 0 0.08727124 0.17457102 0.26192707 0.34936 558 0.43691 046 0.52458259

14 0 0.08727294 0.17458451 0.26197234 0.34947200 0.43711 606 0.52493314
16 0 0.08727487 0.17459991 0.26202 402 0.34959 358 0.43735 119 0.52533449
18 0 0.08727703 0.17461714 0.26208 189 0.34972 983 0.43761 496 0.52578529
20 0 0.08727941 0.17463611 0.26214568 0.34988016 0.43790 635 0.52628399
22 0 0.08728199 0.17465675 0.26221 511 0.35004 395 0.43822422 0.52682887
24 0 0.08728477 0.17467895 0.26228 985 0.35022 048 0.43856733 0.52741799
26 0 0.08728773 0.17470261 0.26236 958 0.35040901 0.43893 430 0.52804924
28 0 0.08729086 0.17472762 0.26245 392 0.35060 870 0.43932 364 0.52872029
30 0 0.08729413 0.17475386 0.26254 249 0.35081 868 0.43973 377 0.52942863
32 0 0.08729755 0.17478119 0.26263 487 0.35103 803 0.44016296 0.53017153
34 0 0.08730108 0.17480950 0.26273 064 0.35126576 0.44060 939 0.53094608
36 0 0.08730472 0.17483864 0.26282 934 0.35150083 0.44107 115 0.53174916
38 0 0.08730844 0.17486848 0.26293 052 0.35174218 0.44154622 0.53257745
40 0 0.08731222 0.17489887 0.26303 369 0.35198869 0.44203 247 0.53342745
42 0 0.08731606 0.17492967 0.26313836 0.35223 920 0.44252 769 0.53429546
44 0 0.08731992 0.17496073 0.26324 403 0.35249254 0.44302 960 0.53517761
46 0 0.08732379 0.17499189 0.26335 020 0.35274 748 0.44353 584 0.53606986
48 0 0.08732766 0.17502300 0.26345 633 0.35300280 0.44404 396 0.53696798
50 0 0.08733149 0.17505392 0.26356 191 0.35325 724 0.44455 151 0.53786765
52 0 0.08733528 0.17508445 0.26366 643 0.35350955 0.44505 593 0.53876438
54 0 0.08733901 0.17511455 0.26376 936 0.35375 845 0.44555 469 0.53965358
56 0 0.08734265 0.17514397 0.26387 020 0.35400 269 0.44604519 0.54053059
58 0 0.08734619 0.17517259 0.26396 842 0.35424 101 0.44652 487 0.54139069
60 0 0.08734962 0.17520029 0.26406 355 0.35447217 0.44699 117 0.54222911

101
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

62 0 0.08735291 0.17522691 0.26415 509 0.35469 497 0.44744 153 0.54304111

64 0 0.08735605 0.17525232 0.26424 258 0.35490 823 0.44787 348 0.54382197
66 0 0.08735902 0.17527640 0.26432 556 0.35511 081 0.44828 459 0.54456704
68 0 0.08736182 0.17529903 0.26440 362 0.35530 160 0.44867252 0.54527182
70 0 0.08736442 0.17532010 0.26447 634 0.35547958 0.44903 502 0.54593192
72 0 0.08736681 0.17533949 0.26454 334 0.35564377 0.44936 997 0.54654316
74 0 0.08736898 0.17535712 0.26460 428 0.35579 326 0.44967 539 0.54710162
76 0 0.08737092 0.17537289 0.26465 883 0.35592721 0.44994 944 0.54760364
78 0 0.08737262 0.17538672 0.26470671 0.35604 488 0.45019046 0.54804587
80 0 0.08737408 0.17539854 0.26474 766 0.35614560 0.45039 699 0.54842534
82 0 0.08737528 0.17540830 0.26478 147 0.35622 880 0.45056 775 0.54873947
84 0 0.08737622 0.17541594 0.26480 795 0.35629 402 0.45070 168 0.54898608
86 0 0.08737689 0.17542142 0.26482 697 0.35634 086 0.45079 795 0.54916348
88 0 0.08737730 0.17542473 0.26483 842 0.35636908 0.45085 595 0.54927042
90 0 0.08737744 0.17542583 0.26484 225 0.35637 850 0.45087533 0.54930614

αϕ 35O 40
O
45
O
50
O
60
O
65
O

0O 0.61086524 0.69813170 0.78539816 0.87266463 0.95993 109 1.04719755

2 0.61090819 0.69819436 0.78548509 0.87278045 0.96008 037 1.04738465
4 0.61103691 0.69838220 0.78574574 0.87312784 0.96052821 1.04794603
6 0.61125108 0.69869 484 0.78617974 0.87370649 0.96127450 1.04888194
8 0.61155010 0.69913161 0.78678644 0.87451593 0.96231911 1.05019278
10 0.61193318 0.69969159 0.78756494 0.87555 545 0.96366180 1.05187911
12 0.61239927 0.70037358 0.78851403 0.87682412 0.96530224 1.05394 160
14 0.61294707 0.70117608 0.78963221 0.87832076 0.96723998 1.05638099
16 0.61357504 0.70209730 0.79091768 0.88004389 0.96947438 1.05919813
IS 0.61428140 0.70313511 0.79236827 0.88199174 0.97200462 1.06239384
20 0.61506406 0.70428706 0.79398143 0.88416214 0.97482960 1.06596891
22 0.61592071 0.70555037 0.79575422 0.88655 254 0.97794790 1.06992405
24 0.61684871 0.70692183 0.79768324 0.88915992 0.98135773 1 .07425976
26 0.61784515 0.70839788 0.79976461 0.89198071 0.98505681 1.07897628

28 0.61890682 0.70997451 0.80199389 0.89501076 0.98904227 1.08407347

30 0.62003018 0.71164728 0.80436610 0.89824524 0.99331059 1.08955067
32 0.62121138 0.71341124 0.80687558 0,90167852 0.99785743 1.09540656
34 0.62244622 0.71526098 0.80951599 0.90530415 1.00267749 1.10163899

102
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

36 0.62373019 0.71719052 0.81228024 0.90911465 1.00776438 1.10824474

38 0.62505840 0.71919335 0.81516039 0.91310148 1.01311039 1.11521933
40 0.62642563 0.72126235 0.81814765 0.91725487 1.01870633 1.12255667
42 0.62782630 0.72338982 0.82123227 0.92156370 1.02454127 1.13024880
44 0.62925446 0.72556741 0.82440346 0.92601535 1.03060230 1.13828546
46 0.63070385 0.72778615 0.82764941 0.93.059558 1.03687427 1.14665369
48 0.63216783 0.73003640 0.83095712 0.93528 835 1.04333948 1.15533 731
50 0.63363946 0.73230789 0.83431247 0.94007568 1.04997735 1.16431637
52 0.63511149 0.73458 970 0.83770010 0.94493756 1.05676412 1.17356652
54 0.63657639 0.73687,028 0.84110344 0.94985177 1.06367248 1.18305833
56 0.63802636 0.73913751 0.84450468 0.95479381 1.07067128 1.19275650
58 0.63945343 0.74137870 0.84788483 0.95973682 1.07772516 1.20261907
60 0.64084 944 0.74358071 0.85122375 0.96465156 1.08479434 1.21259661
62 0.64220 613 0.74572998 0.85450024 0.96950647 1.09183436 1.22263139
64 0.64351 520 0.74781266 0.85769220 0.97426773 1.09879601 1.23265660
66 0.64476 839 0.74981 471 0.86077677 0.97889946 1.10562535 1.24259576
68 0.64595 751 0.75172208 0.86373057 0.98336406 1.11226392 1.25236238
70 0.64707 458 0.75352 078 0.86652 996 0.98762253 1.11864920 1.26185988
72 0.64811189 0.75519716 0.86915135 0.99163506 1.12471530 1.27098218
74 0.64906209 0.75673800 0.87157159 0.99536 166 1.13039401 1.27961482
76 0.64991829 0.75813076 0.87376830 0.99876 287 1.13561610 1.28763696

78 0.65067414 0.75936376 0.87572037 1.00180067 1.14031304 1.29492436

80 0.65132394 0.76042640 0.87740833 1.00443 942 1.14441892 1.30135321
82 0.65186270 0.76130931 0.87881481 1.00664678 1.14787262 1.30680495
84 0.65228621 0.76200457 0.87992495 1.00839470 1.15062010 1.31117166
86 0.65259 116 0.76250582 0.88072675 1.00966028 1.15261652 1.31436170
88 0.65277510 0.76280 846 0.88121143 1.01042658 1.15382828 1.31630510
90 0.65283 658 0.76290 965 0.88137359 1.01068319 1.15423455 1.31695790

ϕ
65o 70o 75o 80o 85o 90o
α

0O 1.13446401 1.22173048 1.30899694 1.39626340 1.48352986 1.57079633

2 1.13469294 1.22200477 1.30931 959 1.39663672 1.48395543 1.57127495
4 1.13537994 1.22282810 1.31028822 1.39775763 1.48523342 1.57271243
6 1.13652576 1.22420 180 1.31190491 1.39962909 1.48736769 1.57511 361
8 1.13813 158 1.22612810 1.31417314 1.40225598 1.49036470 1.57848658

103
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

10 1.14019906 1.22861 010 1.31709778 1.40564522 1.49423361 1.58284280

12 1.14273032 1.23165 180 1.32068514 1.40980577 1.49898627 1.58819721
14 1.14572789 1.23525808 1.32494296 1.41474871 1.50463742 1.59456834
16 1.14919471 1.23943470 1.32988047 1.42048728 1.51120474 1.60197853
18 1.15313409 1.24418827 1.33550840 1.42703700 1.51870904 1.61045415
20 1.15754967 1.24952627 1.3418390! 1.43441 578 1.52717445 1.62002590
22 1.16244535 1.25545700 1.34888616 1.44264399 1.53662865 1.63072910
24 1.16782525 1.26198957 1.35666531 1.45174466 1.54710309 1.64260414
26 1.17369362 1.26913385 1.36519359 1.46174360 1.55863334 1.65569693
28 1.18005472 1.27690045 1.37448981 1.47266958 1.57125942 1 .67005 943
30 1.18691 274 1.28530059 1.38457455 1.48455455 1.58502624 1.68575035
32 1.19427 162 1.29434605 1.39547013 1.49743384 1.59998406 1.70283594
34 1.20213489 1.30404906 1 .40720 064 1.51134644 1.61618906 1.72139083
36 1.21050542 1.31442210 1.41979 198 1.52633523 1.63370398 1.74149923
38 1.2193852 1.32547772 1.43327 179 1 .54244 734 1 .65259 894 1.76325618
40 1.22877499 1.33722824 1.44766938 1.55973441 1.67295226 1.78676913
42 1.23867392 1.34968545 1.46301565 1.57825301 1.69485 156 1.81215985
44 1.24907904 1.36286013 1.47934287 1.59806493 1.71839498 1.83956672
46 1.2599S475 1.37676 148 1.49668438 1.61923762 1.74369264 1.86914755
48 1.27138210 1.39139640 1.51507416 1.64184453 1.77086836 1.90108303
50 1.28325798 1.40676855 1.53454619 1.66596542 1.80006176 1.93558 110
52 1.29559414 1.42287717 1.55513354 1.69168665 1.83143068 1.97288227
54 1.30836604 1.43971 560 1.57686709 1.71910 125 1.86515414 2.01326657
56 1.32154 149 1.45726934 1.59977378 1.74830880 1.90143590 2.05706 232
5b 1.33507910 1.47551 372 1.62387409 1.77941482 1.94050873 2.10465766
60 1.34892643 1.49441 087 1.64917867 1.81252953 1.98263957 2.15651 565
62 1.36301803 1.51390609 1.67568359 1.84776547 2.02813 570 2.21319469
64 1.37727323 1.53392332 1.70336398 1.88523335 2.07735219 2.27537 643
66 1.39159384 1.55435972 1.73216516 1.92503509 2.13070051 2.34390 472
68 1.40586195 1.57507940 1.76199085 1 .96725 237 2.18865839 2.41984 165
70 1.41993796 1.59590624 1.79268736 2.01192798 2.25177995 2.50455 008
72 1.43365925 1.61661 644 1.82402292 2.05903 582 2.32070416 2.59981973
74 1.44684001 1.63693 134 1.85566 175 2.10843282 2.39615610 2.70806761

104
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

76 1.45927266 1.65651 218 1.88713308 2.15978295 2.47892 739 2.83267258

78 1.47073163 1.67495873 1.91779814 2.21243977 2.56980281 2.97856 895
80 1.48098006 1.69181 489 1 .94682 23 1 2.26527 326 2.66935 045 3.15338525
82 1.48977975 1.70658456 1.97316665 2.31643896 2.77736 748 3.36986 803
84 1.49690410 1.71876033 1.99562 118 2.36313736 2.89146664 3.65185597
86 1.50215336 1.72786543 2.01290452 2.40153358 3.00370926 4.05275817
88 1.50537033 1.73350464 2.02384 126 2.42718003 3.09448 898 4.74271727
90 1.50645424 1.73541 516 2.02758 942 2.43624 605 3.13130 133 ∞

105
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

SECTION SUMMARY
In this section; we have looked at the main stages involved in the mathematical
modelling of a real-life situation. These are:
1)Formulation of the mathematical equivalent.
2)Obtained a mathematical solution.
3)Interpreting the solution in terms of the situation and validating the solution.
In study session 1, you learnt the basic objectives of modelling and the different types
of modelling.
In study session 2, you were introduced to the formulation of our problems
i) A very familiar problem of motion of a simple pendulum
ii) An ecological problem – Growth of phytoplankton in a water mass.
iii) Time taken for a raindrop to fall from the clouds and reach the ground.
iv) A problem related to economics from market equilibrium

While going through these examples, you would have realized that while formulating
a model you need to:
i) Understand the essentials of the problem.
ii) Have the objectives (limited (limited or detailed) clear in your mind.
iii) Have the appropriate mathematical skills.
In Example 3, we also indicated how mindless simplification of the problem without
the inclusion of the essentials can lead to wrong results.
In study session 3 the first two examples of Study session 2 (the third and the fourth
examples were solved in Study session 2 itself) were analysed using the solutions of
the resulting differential equations.
After reading this unit, you should have realized that merely getting the solutions of
the formulated problem is not enough. You need to relate solution to the real-life
problem concerned by interpreting it appropriately to see if it reflects the observed
phenomena. You may need to modify the model by relaxing the assumptions or

106
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

including some important characteristic (for e.g., air resistance in the case of simple
pendulum model).
As we have stressed throughout this section; and as you will see in the unit that
follow, the modelling of any problem must go through these stages broadly. The
following flow chart given at the end may help to give you a quick overview of the
whole process.
Note that some of the options/steps given in the flow chart are not discussed in detail
in the examples discussed in this section; But we have given them here for the sake of
completeness. You would realize their importance when we discuss more models in
the latter blocks.
While formulating a model for any real life situation use this flowchart to see if you
have followed the procedure shown in it. You may do this by asking for instance, in
the case of simple pendulum these questions can be of the following type.
1)Did we make any assumptions? (Yes, we ignored the air resistance)
2)Could we find an analytic solution?
(Yes, when we linearlised. But No, when we retained the non-linearity. We had to
solve the elliptic integral numerically).
We have not discussed computer simulation in this block but we included that
possibility in the flow chart for completeness.
i) Could we validate the result using experimental values? (Yes, as far as the
period of the pendulum was concerned. The answer is NO if we are verifying
the instantaneous position of the pendulum. Our result showed that the
pendulum oscillated indefinitely whereas in reality, it comes to rest. This aspect
takes you back to model abstraction, you will have to include air resistance and
do the whole process again).
Interpretation of the results definitely allows you to understand the physics of the
problem in a better way. It is economical too, since after establishing the formula for
period of oscillation, you do not have to repeat the experiments for different lengths

107
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

of the pendulum any more. The comparison with experimental results helped to fix
the unknown parameter – the constant of proportionality in T0 α /g - as 2 π. After the
solutions are tested and validated, no more experiments will be necessary and you can
predict the values using the derived formulae.

108
MATH 311 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

FLOW CHART
REAL PROBLEM

IF POSSIBLE
RECONSIDER
MODEL ABSTRACTION
MODIFY

ASSUMPTIONS OR APPROXIMATIONS
TO BE INTRODUCED

FORMULATE MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS

AND FIND THEIR SOLUTIONS

ANALYTICAL NUMERICAL COMPUTER SIMULATION

VALIDATE THE RESULTS USING

EXPERIMENTAL VALUES

NO DO THE THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

RESULTS COMPARE WELL?

YES

UNDERSTAND THE ESTIMATE UNKNOWN PREDICT VALUES

PHYSICS OF THE PARAMETERS IN WHERE
THE SYSTEM EXPERIMENTAL
PROBLEM IN A RESULTS ARE NOT
BETTER WAY AVAILABLE

109