ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
CHAPTER-2
WATER
INTRODUCTION
• A. SOURCES OF WATER
• Collection & Conveyance Of Raw Water From Source
• Intakes
• Types Of Intakes
• B. WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM
• Conveyance Of Water
• Design Of Pumps
• Design of Gravity And Rising Mains
• C. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
WATER

• Vital natural resources which forms basis of life.

• A chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O

• Found in 3 states liquid, solid and gases

• 97% earth surface covered by water

• Animals and plants have 60-65% water in their body

WATER CYCLE
➢ Water keeps on cycling endlessly through environment “Hydrological cycle”
➢ evaporation or transpiration
➢ precipitation
➢ condensation
➢ runoff
SELECTION OF SITE FOR WATER SOURCE

➢ Location

➢ Elevation of intake point

➢ Quantity of water

➢ Quality of water
Basic terms in water

➢ Potable water- treated or disinfected drinking water

➢ Palatable water- at a desirable temp. i.e. free from objectionable tastes, odor,

color and turbidity

➢ Contaminated water- pathogenic bacteria

➢ Polluted water- undesirable substances

Water-borne Diseases

• Diseases caused by ingestion of water contaminated by human or

animal excrement, which contain pathogenic microorganisms.

• Include cholera,

• typhoid,

• amoebic and bacillary dysentery and

• other diarrheal diseases

Control & Prevention

Global

Governments

Communities

Individuals
General Guidelines
➢ Properly treatment of water before drinking.

➢ Water should be properly disinfected.

➢ Chlorine commonly used for disinfection.

➢ Some household methods used for control of water borne disease like
boiling of water, reverse osmosis, uses of chlorine tablets.

➢ Proper disposal and treatment of domestic and medical waste helps in

controlling the disease.

➢ Water line should be frequently tested, checked and inspected, so to detect

any leakage, or possible source of contamination
Water Quantity Estimation
• The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water
supply scheme has to be designed requires following data:

• Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)

• Population to be served.

▪ Quantity = Per capita demand x Population

Water Consumption Rate
• Very difficult to assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since
there are many variable factors affecting water consumption.

• There are various types of water demands in a city.

1. Domestic water demand

2. Industrial demand

3. Institution and commercial demand

4. Demand for public use

5. Fire demand

6. Loses and wastes

DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
• Water required in houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc.
• Depends upon habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the
people.
• Domestic consumption of water in India is about 135 litres/day/capita.
The details of the domestic consumption are
a) Drinking ------ 5 litres
b) Cooking ------ 5 litres
c) Bathing ------ 55 litres
d) Clothes washing ------20 litres
e) Utensils washing ------10 litres
f) House washing ------ 10 litres
--------------------------
135 litres/day/capita
 Industrial demand
• The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries,
which are existing in the city.
• The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries,
Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use.
• The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the
total demand of the city.
Institution and commercial demand
• Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centres including
office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centres, health centres,
schools, temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc comes under this
category.
Demand for public use
▪ Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing
and sprinkling on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks,
gardens, public fountains etc. comes under public demand.
▪ To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total
consumption is made designing the water works for a city.
▪ The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as

Sl.No. Purpose Water Requirements

1 Public parks 1.4 litres/m2/day
2 Street washing 1.0-1.5 litres/m2/day
3 Sewer cleaning 4.5 litres/head/day
FIRE DEMAND
▪ During the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing
it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water
work to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water
mains for this purpose.
▪ The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally calculated by
using different empirical formulae.
▪ For Indian conditions Kuchling’s formula gives satisfactory results.
Q=3182 √p
▪ Where ‘Q’ is quantity of water required in litres/min
▪ ‘P’ is population of town or city in thousands
Loses and wastes

• Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty
valves and fittings.

• Losses due to, continuous wastage of water.

• Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections.

• While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15%

of total quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and
wastage of water.
PER CAPITA DEMAND
▪ If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per
year and ‘p’ is population of town, then per capita demand will be
Q
▪ Per capita demand = --------------- litres/day
P x 365
▪ For an average Indian town, the requirement of water in various uses is as under-
Domestic purpose -------- 135 litres/c/d
Industrial use -------- 40 litres/c/d
Public use -------- 25 litres/c/d
Fire Demand -------- 15 litres/c/d
Losses, & thefts -------- 55 litres/c/d
--------------------------
Total : 270 litres/capita/day
Factors affecting per capita demand
▪ Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared
to that for smaller towns .
▪ Presence of industries-
▪ Climatic conditions-
▪ Habits of people and their economic status-
▪ Pressure in the distribution system-
▪ Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption
will increase .
▪ Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services;
and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
▪ Cost of water-
▪ Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different
ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly
rate.
VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
▪ Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are
generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
▪ Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays
and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
▪ Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in
the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the
requirement is negligible.
▪ Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied
during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.
Selection(location) of water treatment plant
• Intake from upstream side of River
• At elevated height from town if possible, for gravity conveyance and
higher than HFL
• The treatment plant should be located near the town to which water is
to be supplied.
• The treatment plant should be near to the source of supply.
• Treatment plant should be located away from any source of pollution
• The plant should be easily accessible for the persons connected with
operation and maintenance work
• The treatment plant should be so located that there should be enough
space all around for future expansion.
• The treatment layout should be compact so that less space.
Design Periods
Water supply project are designed to serve over a specified period of time
(serviceability) after completion of the project. This time period is called
design period - 30-35 years
Recommended by GOI (Government of India)
• Storage by Dam – Design period 50 years
• Electric motors and pumps – 15 years
• Water treatment unit – 15 years
• Infiltration works – 30 years
• Pump house – 30 years
• Pipe connection to the several treatment – 30 years
• Raw water & clear water conveying units – 30 years
• Distribution system- 30 years
Population Forecasting Methods
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. The master plan method
8. Ratio method
9. Logistic curve method
Arithmetic Increase method

• This method is based on the assumption that the population is

increasing at a constant rate.
• The rate of change of population with time is constant. The
population after ‘n’ decades can be determined by the formula
Pn = P + n.C where
▪ P → population at present
▪ n → No. of decades
▪ c → dP/dt = C i.e. rate of change of population with respect to
time is constant.
Geometric Increase method
▪ This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in
population from decade to decade remains constant.
▪ In this method the average percentage of growth of last few decades is
determined.
▪ The population at the end of ‘n’ decades is calculated by-
Pn = P {1+ IG/100}n
where
IG → geometric mean (%)
P → population at present
C → average percentage of growth of ‘n’ decades
Incremental Increase method
▪ This method is improvement over the above two methods.
▪ The average increase in the population is determined by the
arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for each future decade.
▪ Hence, population after nth decade is
Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y
Where,
Pn = Population after nth decade
X = Average increase
Y = Incremental increase
Graphical Increase method
• In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to
a suitable scale on graph.
• The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population.
• This extension should be done carefully and it requires proper experience
and judgment.
• The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing
with population curve of some other similar cities having the similar
growth condition.
Comparative Graphical Method

• In this method the census populations of cities already developed under similar
conditions are plotted.
• The curve of past population of the city under consideration is plotted on the
same graph.
• The curve is extended carefully by comparing with the population curve of
some similar cities having the similar condition of growth. (Year v/s Population )
• The advantage of this method is that the future population can be predicted
from the present population even in the absence of some of the past census
report.
Mater Plan Method
• The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard
manner, but are planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan.
• The master plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city.
• According to the master plan the city is divided into various zones such as
residence, commerce and industry.
• The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan.
• From this population density, total water demand and wastewater generation for
that zone can be worked out. So by this method it is very easy to access
precisely the design population.
Ratio Method
• In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last
four to five decades is obtained from the census records.
• The ratios of the local population to national population are then worked out
for these decades.
• A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and extended up to the
design period to extrapolate the ratio corresponding to future design year.
• This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national population at the end of
the design period, so as to obtain the required city's future population.
• 0.00163 , 0.00159
Drawbacks:
• Depends on accuracy of national population estimate.
• Does not consider the abnormal or special conditions which can lead to
population shifts from one city to another.
Logistic Curve Method
• This method is used when the growth
rate of population due to births, deaths
and migrations takes place under
normal situation and it is not subjected
to any extraordinary changes like
epidemic, war, earth quake or any
natural disaster etc.
• If the population of a city is plotted with
respect to time, the curve so obtained
under normal condition will look like S-
shaped curve and is known as logistic
curve.
Intake Structure
• In any water supply project the first step is to select the source of water from
which water is drawn.
• The device Installed for the purpose of drawing water from the source of water
are called Intakes
• The basic function of intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water
from the source and then to discharge this water in to the withdrawal conduit,
through which it reaches the water treatment plant.
• It is constructed at the entrance of the withdrawal conduit and thereby
protecting it from being damaged/clogged by ice, debris.
Selecting Location Of Intake Structure
1. Site should be near the treatment plant to reduce conveyance cost.
2. Site should be near the source.
3. Never be located in the vicinity of waste water disposal point.
4. Never be located near the navigation channels so as to reduce chances of
pollution due to waste discharge from ships.
5. Located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
period of the year.
6. Should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get flooded.
7. In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves.
Types of Intakes
1. According to position of Intake
a) Submerged Intake
b) Exposed Intake
2. According to presence of water in the tower
a) Wet Intake
b) Dry Intake
3. According to type of source
a) River Intake
b) Canal Intake
c) Reservoir Intake
d) Lake Intake
Submerged Intake
Exposed Intake
Dry Intake
Wet Intake
River Intake
River Intake
• A River Intake is located on the upstream side of the city to get
comparatively better quality of water.
• Located sufficiently inside the river so that necessary demand of water can
be met in all the seasons.
• The intake tower permits the entry of water through several entry ports
located at various levels to cope with fluctuations in the water levels during
different seasons.
• This are called as penstocks.
• The penstocks are covered with suitable design screens to prevent entry of
floating impurities.
Reservoir Intake
Reservoir Intake

• When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year, a dam is
constructed across the river to store the water in the reservoir so formed.
• Dam can be earthen or gravity dam
• Reservoir Intakes essentially consists of an Intake tower constructed on the
slope of earthen dam or body of gravity dam
• Intake pipes are fixed at different levels, so as to draw water near the surface in
all variations of water levels.
Canal Intake
Canal Intake
• In case of a small town a nearby Irrigation Canal can be used as the source of water.
• The Intake Well is generally located in the bank of the Canal.
• Since water level is more or less constant there is no need of providing inlets at
different depth.
• It essentially consist of concrete or masonry intake chamber or well.
• Since the flow area in the canal is obstructed by the construction of Intake well, the flow
velocity in the canal decreases.
• So the canal should be lined on the Upstream & Downstream side of the intake to
prevent erosion of sides and bed of channel
Lake Intake
Lake Intake
• Lake Intake are mostly submerged intake.
• These Intakes are constructed in the bed of lake below the low water level so as
to draw water even in dry season.
• It mainly consist of a pipe laid in the bed of the lake.
• One end of the pipe which is in middle of the lake is fitted with bell mouth
opening covered with a mesh and protected timber or concrete crib.
• The water enters in the pipe through the bell mouth opening and flows under
gravity to the bank where it is collected in a sump well and then pumped to
the treatment plant for necessary treatment.
Conveyance of water
• Water is drawn from the sources by Intakes.
• The next step is to carry water to the treatment plant which is located usually
within city limits.
• Therefore after collection, the water is conveyed to the city mainly by mean of
conduits using pumps.
• If the source is at higher elevation than the treatment plant, the water can flow
under gravitational force.
• For, flat or low lying areas the conveyance of water pumps can be done
through open channel, tunnels, aqueduct or pipe line.
Conveyance of water

1. Open channel,

2. Aqueduct,

3. Tunnels,

4. Flumes

5. Pipe line.
Open channels
• These are occasionally used to convey the water from the source to the
treatment plant.
• These can be easily and cheaply constructed by cutting in high grounds and
banking in low grounds.
• The channels should be lined properly to prevent the seepage and
contamination of water.
• As water flows only due to gravitational forces, a uniform longitudinal slope is
given.
• The hydraulic gradient line in channels should not exceed the permissible limit
otherwise scouring will start at the bed and water will become dirty.
• In channel flow there is always loss of water by seepage and evaporation,
Open channel
2. Aqueduct
• Aqueducts is also a kind of open channel flow/ gravity flow
• It is name given to the closed conduit constructed with masonry and used for
conveying water from source to the treatment plant or point of distribution.
• Aqueduct may be constructed with bricks, stones or reinforced cement concrete.
• In olden days rectangular aqueduct were used, but now a days horse-shoe or
circular section are used
Aqueduct
3. Tunnels
• This is also a gravity tunnel, in which water flows under gravitational forces.
• But sometimes water flows under pressure and in such cases these are called
pressure tunnels.
• Grade tunnels are mostly constructed in horse-shoe cross-section, but
pressure tunnel have circular cross-section.
• In pressure tunnels the depth of water is generally such that the weight of
overlying material (earth) will be sufficient to check the water bursting
pressure.
• Tunnels should be water tight and there should be no loss of water.
Tunnels
4. Flumes

• These are open Channels supported

above the ground over columns/
trestles etc.
• Flumes are usually used for conveying
water across valleys and minor low
lying areas or over drains and other
obstruction coming in the way.
• Flumes may be constructed with
R.C.C, wood or metal.
• The common section are rectangular
and circular.
5. Pipes
• Now a days pressure pipes are mostly used at every places and they have
eliminated the use of channels, aqueducts and tunnels.
• In the town pipes of various diameter, having many connections and branches
are used for distribution system.
• These are circular conduits, in which water/liquid flows under pressure.
• These are made of various materials like cast Iron, wrought Iron, steel,
cement Concrete, asbestos, cement, timber, etc.
• Water pipe lines follow the profile of the ground and the location which is
most economical.
• Different valves like gate valve, scour valve, air relief valves are used along
with pipes.
• To prevent the bursting of pipes due to water hammer, surge tanks or stand
pipes are provided at the end of pipes.
Pipes
Type of Water Supply
a. Continuous
• In this system, there is continuous water supply (for 24 hours).
• This is possible where adequate quantity of water is available.
• However, losses of water will be more in case of any leakage.

b. Intermittent
• In such system, supply of water is either done in whole village/town for
fixed hours or supply of water is divided into zones and each zone is
supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or as per specified day.
• In such system, pipelines are likely to rust faster due to wetting and
drying. However, maintenance can be easily done during no-supply
hours.
Methods of water distribution

❖ For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at

various points.

❖ Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area and other local
conditions the water may be forced into distribution system by following
ways –

1. Gravity system

2. Pumping system

3. Combined gravity and pumping system

Layouts of Distribution Network
❖ The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as
such their layouts generally follow the layouts of roads.

❖ There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of which
either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place.

1. Dead End System

2. Radial System

3. Grid Iron System

4. Ring System
1. Dead End system

• It is suitable for old towns and cities

having no definite pattern of roads.

• There is one main supply pipe and

number of sub-main pipes at right

angles, which divides into laterals.

Radial system
❖ The area is divided into different
zones.

❖ The water is pumped into the

distribution reservoir kept in the
middle of each zone.

❖ The supply pipes are laid radially

ending towards the periphery.
Grid Iron System

1. It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout,

where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

Water is kept in good circulation due to the

absence of dead ends.

In the cases of a breakdown in some section,

water is available from some other direction.
Ring System

❖ The supply main is laid all along the

peripheral roads and sub mains branch
out from the mains.

❖ This system also follows the grid iron

system with the flow pattern similar in
character to that of dead end system.

❖ So, determination of the size of pipes is

easy.
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