TEAM UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

FCP 4124: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

JANUARY, 2023

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 1

COURSE TITLE : INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
COURSE CODE : FCP 4124
LEVEL : YEAR 1 SEMESTER 1
CREDIT UNITS : 4
PREREQUISITES : NONE

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The focus of the course is on problem analysis and the development of algorithms and computer programs
in a modern high-level language. Prerequisites: There are no formal prerequisites, but some familiarity with
computers in general is assumed of all students.

Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of the course, students should be able to:
1. Develop their logical abilities.
2. Describe concepts of computer programming language.
3. Develop the algorithms for solving Engineering problems.
4. Develop skills to write, compile and debug programs with C compiler.
5. Describe constants, variables and data types
Syllabus Topic Content Hour Weeks
s
1. Number Introduction and type of Number system, 3 1
System Conversion between number system,
Arithmetic operations on number system,
Signed and unsigned number system
Software, Computer Languages and
Computer Program.
2. Introduction Features of C language, structure of C 3 2
to ‘C’ Program, Flow Charts and Algorithms
Programming Types of errors, debugging,
tracing/stepwise execution of program,
watching variables values in memory.

3. Constants, Character Set, C tokens, Keywords and 3 3

Variables and Identifiers, Constants, Variables, Data
data Types types, Declaration of Variables,
Assigning values to variables, typedef,

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 2

 and Defining symbolic constants.
4. Operators Introduction to Operators and its types, 3 4
and Expression Evaluation of expressions, Precedence of
arithmetic operators, Type conversions in
expressions, Operator precedence and
associatively.

5. Management Introduction, reading a character, writing 3 5

Input and a character, formatted input, formatted
Output output.
Operators
6. Control Decision Making & branching: Decision 3 6
structure in C making with If &If Else statements, If
Else statements (Nested …. Ladder), The
Switch & go to statements, The turnery (?
:) Operator Looping: The while
statement, The break statement & The
Do... While loop, The FOR loop, Jump
within loops – Programs
7. Array Introduction, One-dimensional arrays, 3 7
Two-dimensional arrays, arrays, Concept
of Multidimensional arrays.
8. String String , string storage , Built-in-string 3 8
functions
9. User-Defined Concepts of user defined functions, 3 9
Functions prototypes, definition of function,
parameters, parameter passing, calling a
function, recursive function, Macros, Pre-
processing.
10. Structure Introduction, Structure definition, 3 10
and Unions declaring and initializing Structure
variables, Accessing Structure members,
Copying & Comparison of structures,
Arrays of structures, Arrays within
structures, Structures within Structures,
Structures and functions, Unions

11. Pointers Basics of pointers, pointer to pointer, 3 11

pointer and array, Pointer to array, array
of pointers, functions returning a pointer

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 3

 12. Dynamic Introduction to Dynamic memory 3 12
memory allocation, malloc(), calloc(), free(),
allocation realloc()
13. File Introduction to file management and its 3 13
Management in functions
C
14. Review End of course evaluation and Review 6 14-15

Study
Materials
 Textbooks, magazines, and journal publications
 PowerPoint presentations
 Online resources

Continuous Assignments/Seminars/Presentations/Quizzes/Surprise Tests

Evaluation (Summative/MCQ)
Assessment  Formative Assessment and practical projects 65%
 Summative Assessment/End of Semester Examination 35%
Total 100%
Reading List Textbook(s)
1. Programming in ANSI C (TextBook) E. Balaguruswamy; Tata McGraw-
Hill
2. C Programming: Test Your Skills Ashok Kamthane
3. Computer Fundamentals. P.K.Sinha and PritiSinha; BPB Publications; 4th
Edition
4. Star C Programming (TextBook); STAR Certification; C Certification Exam
5. Programming with C. Byron Gottfried; Tata McGraw Hill Education
6. C The Complete Reference. Herbert Schildt

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 4

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

UNIT 1. NUMBER SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use. The
original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1963. They
wanted to enable students in non-scientific fields to use computers.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 5

What is Computer Programming?

Computer Programming is a step by step process of designing and developing various sets of computer
programs to accomplish a specific computing outcome. The process comprises several tasks like analysis,
coding, algorithm generation, checking accuracy and resource consumption of algorithms, etc.

The purpose of computer programming is to find a sequence of instructions that solve a specific problem on
a computer.

Computer Programming is very easy if it is appropriately managed. There are many computer
programming languages available so finalizing the right programming language is not an easy task.

Basic of programming
English is the most popular and well-known Human Language. The English language has its own set of
grammar rules, which has to be followed to write in the English language correctly.

Likewise, any other Human Languages (German, Spanish, Russian, etc.) are made of several elements like
nouns, adjective, adverbs, propositions, and conjunctions, etc. So, just like English, Spanish or other human
languages, programming languages are also made of different elements.

Just like human languages, programming languages also follow grammar called syntax. There are certain
basic program code elements which are common for all the programming languages.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 6

Most important basic elements for programming languages are:

Programming Environment
1. Data Types
2. Variables
3. Keywords
4. Logical and Arithmetical Operators
5. If else conditions
6. Loops
7. Numbers, Characters and Arrays
8. Functions
9. Input and Output Operations

Applications of computer programming languages

Web and Internet Development, Scientific and Numeric applications, Desktop GUIs, Business
Python
applications. It is widely used in AI and Machine Learning space.
Java Mostly used for developing Android apps, web apps, and Big data.
R Data Science projects, Statistical computing, Machine learning
JavaScript usage include web/mobile app development, game development, and desktop app
Javascript
development.
Swift is a specially designed language which works with Apple’s Cocoa and Cocoa Touch
Swift
frameworks to create all types of iOS apps.
C++ C++ is widely used in Game Development, Advance Computations, and Graphics Compilers
C# Widely used in Enterprise Cross-Applications Development, Web Applications
PHP Web Development, Content Management Systems, eCommerce Applications
SQL Used in Any Database
Go Console utilities, GUI applications, and web applications

How to choose a programming language?

Computer programming is a set of written instructions that the computer follows. These instructions can be
written in various languages. Each programming languages have their unique ways of organizing the
commands which are called syntax.

Multiple programming languages can help you solve the same programming problem. However, you need
to select a language that you feel is relevant to perform your task. If you decide that a language does not
suit your business requirement, you can always move on to a new language. Your skill in the chosen
language will also be a deciding factor. Expected software system response time, a number of simultaneous
users, security, maintains, compatibility with web, mobile, devices are few other factors to consider while
choosing a language

7 BENEFITS OF LEARNING TO CODE

1) Coding can help you understand technology.
2) It can enhance problem-solving skills.
3) Coding can be applied to data visualisation.
4) Coding can complement creativity.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 7

 5) Coding is a universal language.
6) Coders are part of a community.
7) Coding can improve career prospects.

DETAILS OF THE ABOVE;

Coding skills are highly sought-after by employers in a variety of industries, not just technology, and
possessing these skills can help you on your way to a successful career path. Read on to find out more
about the benefits of learning to code and the different programming languages that you can boost your job
prospects.

1. Coding can help you understand technology

Technology is everywhere in the modern world and continues to develop at an astonishing rate. Coding
already plays a key part in this technological evolution and will become increasingly important in light of
new robotics and automated technologies. Learning to code will give you the tools you need to go on and
be part of shaping the future. This could include roles in RPA, building automated systems for global banks
or healthcare organisations, or even helping to improve the tech in self-driving cars - this is just scratching
the surface!

2. It can enhance problem-solving skills

Coding can help you improve your logical thinking skills by allowing you to see problems from a new
perspective. Complex coding projects are made up of smaller tasks and by breaking down the problem and
adopting a methodological way of thinking, you can tackle any challenge. This can be applied to any
scenario in both your personal and professional life.

3. Coding can be applied to data visualisation

Working with coding languages, such as SQL and Python can provide excellent practice for data analysis
and visualisation. These skills are beneficial for designing complex data dashboards and reports, which are
vital for making data more accessible and easy to understand. In addition, coding is a skill that can be
applied to various roles for data purposes, even outside of the technology industry.

Take marketing, for instance: you can use data skills you have learnt from coding to understand
performance data or customer trends and use this to inform your marketing strategy.

4. Coding can complement creativity

Another benefit of learning to code is that it can help you showcase your creativity online. For example,
with coding knowledge, you can create online blogs or complex websites and customise them to make your
own rather than using pre-existing templates. This can be a great way to help you stand out when designing
your online portfolio or for creating a strong visual identity for your brand as an aspiring business owner.

Coding can also open up many opportunities for you in more creative fields, such as graphic design, web or
app development. Alternatively, coding can be beneficial for non-tech roles if you are a writer and you

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 8

need to make edits to a blog layout or create an email newsletter or survey, you can use HTML or CSS to
do so. The possibilities are endless.

5. Coding is a universal language

Much like mathematics, code is a universal language; it is the same across the world and does not need to
be translated. When transferring jobs or moving to another country, language barriers can sometimes get in
the way. However, since coding languages are the same globally, it is a skill you can carry with you to any
country. Learning how to code can make you a highly employable individual and give you the ability to
thrive in any environment.

6. Coders are part of a community

As a coding enthusiast, there are benefits in joining a programming or coding community. It is an
opportunity to share knowledge, advice, and skills with like-minded people. At FDM, we host
regular hackathons, events where our consultants can work as a team and code. Some of our hackathons
have included working together to program a robot, as well as designing a game from scratch.

7. Coding can improve career prospects

Coding is an in-demand skill across industries and offers excellent earning potential with a wide variety of
career choices, such as RPA, Software Development and Technical Operations. Computer Programming
also offers vast opportunities for career progression into managerial and senior positions, allowing you to
keep learning on the job and expand your skillset.

NUMBER SYSTEM

The Number System includes any of the numerous sets of symbols and the rules for using them to denote
numbers, which are used to state how many objects are there in a given set. Thus, the idea of “oneness” can
be denoted by the Roman numeral I, by the Greek letter alpha α which was the first letter used as a
numeral, by the Hebrew letter aleph which is the first letter used as a numeral, or by the modern number 1,
which is nothing but Hindu-Arabic in origin.

Number System Definition

Number system is a mathematical presentation of numbers of a given set. For further discussion, let us
understand number systems.

Most likely, the beginning system of the inscribed symbol in ancient Mesopotamia was a system of
symbols for numbers. The present number systems are place-value systems. That is, the value of these
numbers depends upon the position or place of the numbers in the representation; for example, the 3 in 30
and 300 represents 3 ten’s and 3 hundred, respectively. In the ancient systems, such as the Egyptian
civilization, Roman, Hebrew, and Greek Number systems, did not have a positional characteristic, and it
was a very complicated arithmetical calculation. Other systems though, including the Babylonian, one
version each of the Chinese and Indian, as well as the Mayan system, did use the principle of place value.

Type of Number system, Conversion between number system, Arithmetic operations on number system,
Signed and unsigned number system Software, Computer Languages and Computer Program.
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 9
Type of Number system

When we type any letter or word, the computer translates them into numbers since computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand only a few symbols called digits and these symbols
describe different values depending on the position they hold in the number. In general, the binary number
system is used in computers. However, the octal, decimal and hexadecimal systems are also used
sometimes.

Number System and its Types

The number system is simply a system to represent or express numbers. There are various types of number
systems and the most commonly used ones are decimal number system, binary number system, octal
number system, and hexadecimal number system.

The number system helps to represent numbers in a small symbol set. Computers, in general, use binary
numbers 0 and 1 to keep the calculations simple and to keep the amount of necessary circuitry less, which
results in the least amount of space, energy consumption and cost.

The base 1 number system is called the unary numeral system and is the simplest numeral system to
represent natural numbers.

equivalent binary number for the decimal number 43

To find the equivalent binary number, we need to divide 43 by 2, until we get 0 as the result. Therefore,
(43)10 = 1010112
How to convert 308 into a decimal number?
308 = (3 × 81) + (0 × 80) = 24

5 types of number system?

At present, there are four types of number system; these are:
1) Binary system.
2) Decimal system.
3) Octal System.
4) Hexadecimal system.

Number Systems Through the Ages

The development of numbers grew in different directions and has dissimilar versions. Some of the different
versions of number systems were developed in Egypt, Babylon, Rome and some other versions are called
Hindu-Arabic, Mayans, and the modern American number systems. It is believed that mathematical
evolution had begun before the counting systems of numbers started.

Let us discuss the different divisions under the number system.

 Unary Numeral System

The simplest number system of numerals is the unary numeral system, in which each and every natural
number is represented by an equivalent number of symbols. They are denoted by /, for instance, then the
number seven would be represented by /////// such that we must write seven /.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 10

Tally marks represent one such system which is still in regular use. But, the urinary system can only be
used for numbers which are of a smaller size with a small value, although this plays a related role in
theoretical computer science. Do you know Elias gamma coding, which is generally used in data
compression, denotes arbitrary-sized numbers by using unary to indicate the length of binary numbers?

For example, if / stands for one, * for ten and - for 100, then the number 304 can be compactly represented
as --- //// and the number 123 as - ** /// without any need for zero and this is called sign-value notation.

 Binary Numeral System

A binary number is used in the system of mathematics, and the world of science. In this system, the
numbers are expressed in the form of a base-2 system or binary numerical system, which uses only two
numbers that are 0's (zeros) and 1's (ones). The positional representation is done with a radix of 2 in the
base-2 system.

In computers, the main system of numbers is based on the positional system in base 2 which is a binary
numeral system, with two digits of binary, 0's and 1's. Positional systems received by grouping binary
digits by three, which is the octal numeral system or four which is the hexadecimal numeral system, are
commonly used. For very large numbers, bases 232 or 264, you can group the binary digits by 32 or 64,
which is the portion of the machine word.

Number system represents a valuable set of numbers that consists of natural numbers, integers, real
numbers, irrational numbers, rational numbers and so on.

 Natural Numbers
The natural (or counting) numbers are from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, etc. Natural numbers are infinite
numbers. The set of natural numbers, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8...}, is denoted by N in short form.

whole numbers start from 0 and include the natural numbers.

The addition of any 2 natural numbers is also a natural number (for instance, 4 + 5000 = 5004), and the
product of any two natural numbers is also a natural number (4 × 3500 = 14000). The subtraction and
division of any two or more natural numbers is not equal to natural numbers, though.

 Integers
Integers are natural numbers consisting of the set of real numbers, their additive inverses and zero.

{..., -9, -8, -7, -6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...}

The set of integers is denoted by J or Z in short form. These integer values can be represented on the
number line. These numbers can be a whole number or decimal numbers. You can represent -6.5 on a
number, 6 on a number line.
The addition, product, and difference between any two integers is also an integer. But this is not true for
division.

 Rational Numbers
Rational numbers are figures which can be formulated as a ratio between two integers. For instance, the
fractions 13 and −11118 are both rational numbers. Rational numbers include all the integers since any
integer is denoted by z.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 11

All decimals which terminate are rational numbers (since 8.27 can be written as 827/100.) Decimals which
are a recurrent pattern in nature after some point are also called a rational number.

 Irrational Numbers
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a proportion (or fraction). The irrational number
does not end or repeats in a decimal form. The ancient Greek mathematician discovered that not all integers
are rational numbers; there are equations that cannot be solved using ratios of integers.

The square root of 2 is about 1.414, because 1.4142=1.999396, which is almost equal to 2. You will never
get the exact number by squaring the fraction (or terminating decimal numbers). The square root of 2 is an
irrational number, meaning its decimal equivalent goes on forever, with no repetitive pattern

The golden ratio is another famous irrational number, a number which has great importance in biology:

1 + 5√2 = 1.61803398874989…

π(pi), the proportion of the perimeter of a circle to its diameter:

π = 3.14159265358979…

and e, the most significant number in calculus:

e = 2.71828182845904…

 Real Numbers
Real numbers are the set of numbers containing all the irrational numbers and all the rational numbers.
They consist of “all the numbers” on the number scale. Real numbers are infinite numbers just as there are
infinitely many numbers in each of the other sets of numbers. But, the infinity of the real numbers is a
bigger infinity.

 Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are the set {a+bi | real numbers are a and b}, where the imaginary unit is i, -1

Complex numbers include the set of real numbers, which includes the set of both rational and irrational
numbers. The real numbers, in the complex system, are denoted in the form a + 0i = a. a real number.

This set is always denoted by C in the short form. The set of complex numbers is significant because for
any polynomial p(x) with real number coefficients, all the solutions of p(x) = 0 will be in C.

Important Number Systems

At present, there are four types of number system; these are:
1) Binary system
2) Decimal system
3) Octal System
4) Hexadecimal system

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 12

Number System Conversions

Binary System Conversions

1) Binary to Octal
2) Binary to Decimal
3) Binary to Hexadecimal

Binary to Octal
Example: 1100011

Octal means 8

Starting from the least significant bit, we will make a group of three bits First pair = 011
Second group = 100
Third group = 001

Now, we know that 011 = 3, 100 = 4, and 001 = 1, so the equivalent octal number system will be (143)8.

Binary to Decimal
Example: 1101001

Starting from the least significant bit from 20, then 21, till the nth most significant bit, i.e., 2ⁿ.
1 = 2⁰ = 1
1 = 2³.1 = 8
0 = 2⁴ .0= 0
1 = 2⁵ = 32
1 = 2⁶ = 64

Now, adding all these:

= 1 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 32 + 64 = (105)10

Binary to Hexadecimal
Example: 101010001

We know that hexadecimal means 16, so we will start from the least significant bit and make groups of 4
bits:
First pair = 0001 = 1
Second pair = 0101 = 5
Third pair = 0001 = 1

So, the hexadecimal equivalent will be (151)16.

Decimal System Conversions

1) Decimal to Binary
2) Decimal to Octal
3) Decimal to Hexadecimal

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 13

Decimal to Binary
Example: (131)10

Divide 131 by 2 and continue till you get the quotient as 0.

1. Divide 131 by 2, we get the quotient as 65 and remainder as 1
2. Divide 65 by 2, we get 32, remainder as 1
3. Divide 32 by 2, we get 16, and remainder as 0
4. Divide 16 by 2,we get 8 and remainder as 0
5. Divide 8 by 2, we get 4, and remainder as 0
6. Divide 4 by 2, then 2 by 2, and finally divide 1 by 2,with the quotient as 0, we get the remainder as
1

Starting from LSB to MSB, write the binary system so formed:

(10000011)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

Example: (425)10

Divide 425 by 8 till you get the quotient as 0.

1. Dividing 425 by 8, we get the quotient as 53, and the remainder as 1
2. Divide 53 by 8, we get the quotient as 6, and the remainder as 5
3. Divide 6 by 8 by taking the quotient as 0, we get the remainder as 6

So, the octal equivalent of (425)10 is (651)8.

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Example: (650)10
1. Divide 650 by 16, we get the quotient as 40 and the remainder as 10 or A
2. Divide 40 by 16, we get the quotient as 2 and the remainder as 8
3. Divide 2 by taking the quotient as 0, we get the remainder as 2

So, the hexadecimal equivalent of (650)10 is (28A)16.

Octal System Conversions

Example: (79)8 to ()10

= 7 Χ 8¹ + 9 Χ 8⁰= 56 + 9 = 65

So, the decimal equivalent of (79))8 is (65)10.

First 20 Binary number system conversions to Decimal, Octal, and Hexadecimal systems:

Number System Chart

Binary Decimal Octal HexaDecimal

00000 0 000 00

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 14

00001 1 001 01

00010 2 002 02

00011 3 003 03

00100 4 004 04

00101 5 005 05

00110 6 006 06

00111 7 007 07

01000 8 008 08

01001 9 009 09

01010 10 010 0A

1011 11 011 0B

01100 12 012 0C

01101 13 013 0D

01110 14 014 0E

01111 15 015 0F

10000 16 016 10

10001 17 017 11

10010 18 018 12

10011 19 019 13

10100 20 020 14

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 15

Number System in Computer
In computers, the technique of presenting the work is the numbers system. Computers use the decimal
number system the most, while the information converted from higher-level to the lower one is in the form
of bits, i.e., 0’s and 1’s, which is actually the binary system.

Conclusion
The most commonly used Number system is the decimal positional number system, the decimal referring to
the use of 10 numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 to construct all the required numbers. This discovery was
made by the Indians. There are other two common number systems which are used in computers and
computing science. They are the binary system, and these are denoted by 0's and 1's, and the hexadecimal
system, which has 16 symbols (We can understand by the term Hex which is 16) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
A, B, C, D, E, F.

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The similar ___________of symbols may represent different symbols in various numeral systems (Ans:
sequence)

2. ___________________________ developed by the Hindus in India, slowly radiated to other surrounding

countries due to their commercial and military activities with India.
(Ans: The numerical system and the concept of zero)

3. The main system of numerals is based on ____________________in base 2 with two digits of binary, 0
and 1. (Ans: the positional system)

State True or False and Correct the Statements:

1. The natural numbers start from 0 to infinite numbers( ) (Ans: false)

2. The complex numbers include the set of real numbers, that is, which includes the set of both rational and
irrational numbers. () (Ans: true )

3. The real numbers are the set of numbers containing all of the irrational numbers ( ) (Ans: false)

4. The integers are the natural numbers consisting of the set of real numbers, their additive inverses and
zero. ( ) (Ans: true)

5. The quaternions were discovered by William. Rowan Hamilton( ) (Ans: true)

Tick the Correct Answers

1. Unary Numeral System is Denoted by_________________
a. 0,1
b. \
c. ()
d. /

(Ans: d. /)

2. Real Number Includes _________________________

a. Only rational numbers

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 16

b. Only irrational numbers
c. Both the rational and irrational numbers
d. None of the above

(Ans: c. both the rational and irrational numbers)

3. The Natural (or counting) Numbers are from_________________

a. 0,1
b. 0, 1, 2, 3 ,4……………..
c. 1, 2, 3, 4………..
d. ….-2, -1, 0 , 1, 2 ,3……..

(Ans: c.1, 2, 3, 4………..)

4. The Complex Numbers are the Set {a + bi | __________________are a and b},

a. The rational numbers
b. The irrational numbers
c. The real numbers
d. The integer numbers

(Ans: c. the real numbers).

5. Which Number System Cannot be Written as a Proportion?

a. Rational numbers
b. Irrational number
c. Real numbers
d. Integers numbers

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON NUMBER SYSTEM

Arithmetic is an elementary part of mathematics that consists of the study of the properties of the traditional
operations on numbers addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and extraction of
roots

Arithmetic operations is a branch of mathematics, that involves the study of numbers, operation of numbers
that are useful in all the other branches of mathematics. It basically comprises operations such as Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division.

Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed in various radix
bases. These arithmetic operations may also use r's complement and (r-1)'s complement representation

A number system is a set of symbols used to represent values derived from a common base or radix. In a
number, the value of each digit can be determined using digit, position of the digit in the number, and the
base of the number system. The base is defined as the total number of digits are available in the number
system. This is known as positional number system.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 17

 Number System Base Digit Used

Binary 2 0, 1

Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed in various radix
bases. These arithmetic operations may also use r’s complement and (r-1)’s complement representation.

These representation techniques hold basic laws for various arithmetic operations:

(i) Unique Existence Law: The sum and product of any two numbers exist uniquely. Where 0 is the
identity element for additions and 1 is the identity element for multiplication.

(ii) Associative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are associative.

(iii) Commutative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are commutative.

(iv) Distributive Law:Multiplication of binary numbers is distributive over two or more terms in addition.
Now, arithmetic operations for various number systems are explained as following below.

The arithmetic operators perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and modulus
operations.
Addition + Adds one operand to the other
Subtraction - Subtracts the second operand from the first

Multiplication * Multiplies one operand by the other

Division / Divides the first operand by the second

Modulo % Divides the first INTEGER operand by the second, and returns the
remainder

Exponentiation ** Lets you refer to a number in terms of a base value and an exponent
Operand Type
Operands for the arithmetic operators can be integers or real numbers.

Arithmetic Operators with Sets

The plus (+) and minus (-) operators are valid operators for sets. The plus operator is the equivalent of
the SetUnion and SetAddMember functions; it performs the union of two sets:
SuperSet = SubSetA + SubSetB

SuperSet contains all members of both subsets with no duplicates. If either of the subsets is a single
member, then the plus operator is the equivalent of the SetAddMember function.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 18

The minus operator is the equivalent of the SetExclude and SetRemoveMember functions; it performs the
exclusion of two sets, either of which could be a single member:
SubSet = SuperSetA - SuperSetB

SubSet is the set containing all members of SuperSetA that are not also contained in SuperSetB.

Note: The exclusion of set B from set A is equivalent to: SetIntersection (A, SetComplement (B)).
The following examples should make the behavior of set exclusion operations more clear:
Operation Resulting set
Red - [COLORS]{Green, Blue} Red

Red - [COLORS]{Red, Green, empty set

Blue}

[COLORS]{Red, Green, Blue} - {Green, Blue}

Red

In the third example above, the specification of a single member as the right operand works like
the SetRemove function to remove that member from the left operand set.

Arithmetic Operations of Binary Numbers:

In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, i.e., 0 and 1. Represented by any
device that only 2 operating states or possible conditions. Generally, it is expressed by subscript 2 or binary
(B).

Binary arithmetic is essential part of various digital systems. You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide
binary numbers using various methods. These operations are much easier than decimal number arithmetic
operations because binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1.

Binary additions and subtractions are performed as same in decimal additions and subtractions. When we perform
binary additions, there will have two outputs: Sum (S) and Carry (C) . There are four rules for binary addition. These
are given as following below,
Input A Input B Sum (S)A+B Carry (C)

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1
There are four rules for binary subtraction. These are given as following below,
Input A Input B Subtract (S)A-B Borrow (B)

0 0 0 0

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 19

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0
Borrow 1 is required from next higher order bit to subtract 1 from 0. So, result became 0.

There are four rules for binary multiplication. These are given as following below,
Input A Input B Multiply (M)AxB

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
Whenever at least one input is 0, then multiplication is always 0.

There are four part in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and remainder. These are given as following rules for
binary division,
Input A Input B Divide (D)A/B

0 0 Not defined

0 1 0

1 0 Not defined

1 1 1
Whenever divisor is 0, then result is always not defined.

Arithmetic Operations of Octal Numbers:

It has base of 8 digits ranging from 0 to 7 (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Generally, it is expressed by subscript 8
or octal (o).
Arithmetic operations of octal numbers are also performed same as decimal arithmetic operations. The addition
table for octal numbers is given as below:
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11

3 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 20

4 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13

5 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14

6 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15

7 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
With the help of above table, we can perform additions of octal numbers.

Similarly, we can perform subtraction of octal numbers same as decimal number sutractions. But you can
only take borrow of a number 7, which is maximum digit allowed in octal number systems.

In the multiplication of octal numbers, if the product is less than radix of octal (i.e, 8), then we take it as
the result, else divide it by radix of octal (i.e., 8) and take the remainder as the LSB (least significant bit).
The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant digit.

Similarly, division of octal numbers can be performed by following the rules of division of decimal
numbers but maximum allowed digit will be 7.

Arithmetic Operations of Hexadecimal Numbers:

It has base of 16 digits ranging from 0 to F (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and A, B, C, D, E, F). A, B, C, D,
E, F are equivalent single digits of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively. Generally, it is expressed by
subscript 16 or Hexa (H) or (h).

Arithmetic operations of hexadecimal numbers can be performed using addition table for hexadecimal numbers
which is given as below:
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12

4 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13

5 5 7 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14

6 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15

7 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

8 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

9 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 21

A A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

B B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A

C C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B

D D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C

E E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D

F F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E
With the help of above table, we can perform additions of hexadecimal numbers.

Subtraction of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by using complement methods or simple as decimal
sutractions. The rule of simple hexadecimal subtraction is the digit borrowed from the immediate higher
place is counted as 16.

In the multiplication of hexadecimal numbers, if the product is less than radix of hexadecimal (i.e, 16), then
we take it as the result, else divide it by radix of hexadecimal (i.e., 16) and take the remainder as the LSB
(least significant bit). The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant digit. Using these rules, you can
make a table for hexadecimal multiplications.

Similarly, division of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by following the rules of division of decimal
numbers but maximum allowed digit will be F(=15 in decimal).

Arithmetic Operations of Decimal Numbers:

Arithmetic operations of decimal numbers are very popular and much easier. These operations are also
performed as same in other number systems.

BASIC MATHS SYMBOLS

1) + plus sign / addition sign.
2) minus sign / subtraction sign.
3) × times sign / multiplication sign.
4) ÷ OR / division sign.
5) = equals sign.
6) < less than.
7) greater than.
8) ≠ NOT equal to.

These basic mathematical operations (+, -, ×, and ÷) we use in our everyday life. Whether we need to
calculate the annual budget or distribute something equally to a number of people, for every such aspect of
our life, we use arithmetic operations.
Let us understand each of the basic arithmetic operations in detail.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 22

Basic Arithmetic Operations
The four basic arithmetic operations in Maths, for all real numbers, are:
1) Addition (Finding the Sum; ‘+’)
2) Subtraction (Finding the difference; ‘-’)
3) Multiplication (Finding the product; ‘×’ )
4) Division (Finding the quotient; ‘÷’)
Let us discuss all these four basic arithmetic operations with rules and examples in detail.

Addition Definition
The addition is a mathematical process of adding things together. The addition process is denoted
by ‘+’ sign. It involves combining two or more numbers into a single term. In addition process, the order
does not matter. It means that the addition process is commutative. It can involve any type of number
whether it be a real or complex number, fraction, or decimals.

Example: 4.13 + 3.87 = 8

The addition of more than two numbers, values or terms is also known as a summation of terms and can
involve n number of values.

Addition Rules
The following are the addition rules for integers:
Addition of two positive integers is a positive integer
Addition of two negative integers is a negative integer
While adding positive and negative integers, subtract the integers and use the sign of the largest integer
number

Subtraction Definition
The subtraction operation gives the difference between two numbers. Subtraction is denoted by ‘-‘ sign. It
is almost similar to addition but is the conjugate of the second term. It is the inverse process of addition.
The addition of the term with the negative term is known as subtraction. This process is mostly used to find
how many are left when some things are taken away.

Example: 15 – 7
The term can also be re-written as 15 + (-7)
Adding terms we have, 8.

Subtraction Rules
The following are the subtraction rules for integers:
I. If both the signs of the integers are positive, the answer will be the positive integer
II. If both the signs of the integers are negative, the answer will be the negative integer
III. If the signs of the integers are different, subtract the values, and take the sign from the largest
integer value.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 23

Multiplication Definition
Multiplication is known as repeated addition. It is denoted by ‘×’ or ‘*’. It also combines with two or more
values to result in a single value. The multiplication process involves multiplicand, multiplier. The result of
the multiplication of multiplicand and the multiplier is called the product

Example: 2 × 3 = 6
Here, “2” is the multiplier, “3” is the multiplicand, and the result “6” is called the product.
The product of two numbers says ‘a’ and ‘b’ results in a single value term ‘ab,‘ where a and b are the
factors of the final value obtained.

Multiplication Rules
The following are the multiplication rules for the integers.
The product of two positive integers is a positive integer
The product of two negative integers is a positive integer
The product of positive and negative integer is a negative integer

Division Definition
The division is usually denoted by ‘÷‘ and is the inverse of multiplication. It constitutes two terms dividend
and divisor, where the dividend is divided by the divisor to give a single term value. When the dividend is
greater than the divisor, the result obtained is greater than 1, or else it would be less than 1.

Example: 4 ÷ 2 = 2
Here, “4” is the dividend, “2” is the divisor, and the result “2” is called the quotient.
Read: Multiplication and Division of Integers

Division Rules
The following are the division rules for integers:
The division of two positive integers is a positive integer
The division of two negative numbers is a positive integer
The division of integers with different signs results in the negative integer.

Mathematical Operations
The basic mathematical operations are the four arithmetic operations that we have already learned in the
above sections.
Addition and subtraction are inverse operations of each other. It means if the addition of two numbers gives
the third number, then subtraction of an added number from the third number will result in the original
number.

Example:
4 + 7 = 11
Now, if we subtract 7 from 11, we get;

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 24

11 – 7 = 4
Thus, we got the original number.
Similarly, multiplication and division are also inverse operations.
If 4 x 5 = 20
Then,
20/5 = 4
Thus, we can see, these mathematical operations are related to each other. Also, these operations are the
simplest form of mathematical calculations, which can be easily understood by everyone.

Basic Arithmetic Properties

The basic arithmetic properties for real numbers are:
1) Commutative property
2) Associative property
3) Distributive property

Commutative Property
This property is applicable only for two arithmetic operations, i.e., addition and multiplication.
Suppose A and B are two numbers, then, according to commutative property;
A+B = B+A Example: 1 + 2 = 2 + 1

AxB=BxA Example: 1 x 2 = 2 x 1
Thus, the order of numbers in addition and multiplication does not change the result.

Associative Property
Like commutative property, the associative property is also applicable to addition and multiplication.
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C Example: 1 + (2+3) = (1+2)+3

Ax(BxC) = (AxB)xC Example: 1 x (2 x 3) = (1 x 2) x 3

Thus, if we change the grouping of numbers, the result does not change.

Distributive Property
According to the distributive property, if A, B and C are any three real numbers, then,
A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C
Example: 2 x (3 + 4) = (2 x 3) + (2 x 4)
2x7=6+8
14 = 14
Hence, proved.

Solved Examples
Q.1: Add 23 and 40 and then subtract 20 from the sum.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 25

Solution: On adding 23 and 40, we get;
Sum = 23 + 40 = 63
Now subtracting 20 from the sum, we get;
63 – 20 = 43

Q.2: Solve: 20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20.

Solution: Given, 20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20
It is clear that 20 is added to itself five times, thus, we can write;
5 times of 20 = 5 x 20 = 100
If we add them directly, the answer remains the same.

Q.3: Find the value of (6 x 4) ÷ 12 + 72 ÷ 8 – 9.

Solution: Given,

⇒ (24 ÷ 12) + (72 ÷ 8) – 9 [BODMAS rule]

(6 x 4) ÷ 12 + 72 ÷ 8 – 9

⇒2+9–9
⇒ 11 – 9
⇒2
To learn more about numbers and different Maths-related concepts, visit BYJU’S- The Learning App.

Frequently Asked Questions on Arithmetic Operations

What are the four basic arithmetic operations?

The four basic arithmetic operations in Maths are:
1) Addition
2) Subtraction
3) Multiplication
4) Division

Are integers closed under division operation?

No, the integers are not closed under the division operation. But the set of integers are closed for the
arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction and multiplication.

What are the rules for adding integers?

The rules for adding integers are:
The addition of two positive integers results in positive-sum
The addition of two negative integers results in negative-sum
The addition of positive and negative integers takes the sign of the largest integer value and subtract the
given integers

What are the symbols of four basic operations in Mathematics?

The four basic operations with symbols are:

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 26

 1) Addition → ‘+’
2) Subtraction → ‘ -’
3) Multiplication → ‘×’
4) Division → ‘÷’

What does the four arithmetic operations represents?

Additions represents the sum of two values.
Subtraction is the difference between two values
Multiplication is the product of two numbers
Division is the method of dividing one number by another.

What are the 8 operators?

Broadly, there are eight types of operators in C and C++. They are:
1) Increment and decrement operators.
2) Bitwise operators.
3) Assignment operators.
4) Logical operators.
5) Relational operators.
6) Special operators.
7) Conditional operators.
8) Arithmetic Operators.

SIGNED AND UNSIGNED NUMBER SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Our number system ranges from minus infinity to plus infinity, with zero in the middle. However,
programming has two types of numbers: signed and unsigned. The potential to employ negative numbers is
the primary difference between a signed and an unsigned number.

Unsigned numbers can only have values that are equal to or greater than zero. On the other hand, signed
numbers have a more natural range that covers negative and positive numbers.

Variables such as integers can be represent in two ways, i.e., signed and unsigned. Signed numbers use sign
flag or can be distinguish between negative values and positive values. Whereas unsigned numbers stored
only positive numbers but not negative numbers.

Number representation techniques like: Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal number representation
techniques can represent numbers in both signed and unsigned ways. Binary Number System is one the
type of Number Representation techniques. It is most popular and used in digital systems.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 27

Binary system is used for representing binary quantities which can be represented by any device that has
only two operating states or possible conditions. For example, a switch has only two states: open or close.

In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, i.e., 0 and 1. Represented by any
device that only 2 operating states or possible conditions. Binary numbers are indicated by the addition of
either an 0b prefix or an 2 suffix.

The requirement to express numeric values with limited resources drove the creation of signed vs. unsigned
numbers. When utilizing 8 bits, there are only 256 possible combinations. Any value between 0 and 255 is
considered an unsigned number.

On the other hand, having a signed number means you've already lost a bit for representing the sign. With 7
bits, you can only have 128 permutations. Hence an 8-bit signed number's range is -128 to 127. Using
unsigned numbers was the way to go if you had limited resources, which was the case in the early days of
computers.

Unsigned integers range from 0 to 4,294,967,295 or around 4 billion in 32-bit integers. The signed version
ranges from –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647, or around -2 billion to +2 billion. The range is the same,
but the values are shifted on the number line.

Difference between Signed and Unsigned in MySQL

Signed value - Variables with signed numerals can store 0, positive, and negative numbers.

Unsigned value - Variables with unsigned numerals can store only 0 and positive numbers.

Table of the Range of Values Each Integer Type Can Store Refer
Min
Storage
Type Min signed value Max signed value unsigned Max unsigned value
(Bytes)
value
Tinyint 1 -128 127 0 255
Smallint 2 -32768 32767 0 65535
Mediumint 3 -8388608 8388607 0 16777215
Int 4 -2147483648 2147483647 0 4924967295
BIGINT 8 -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 0 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
Example

Representation of Binary Numbers:

Binary numbers can be represented in signed and unsigned way. Unsigned binary numbers do not have sign
bit, whereas signed binary numbers uses signed bit as well or these can be distinguishable between positive
and negative numbers. A signed binary is a specific data type of a signed variable.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 28

1. Unsigned Numbers:
Unsigned numbers don’t have any sign, these can contain only magnitude of the number. So, representation
of unsigned binary numbers are all positive numbers only. For example, representation of positive decimal
numbers are positive by default. We always assume that there is a positive sign symbol in front of every
number.

Representation of Unsigned Binary Numbers:

Since there is no sign bit in this unsigned binary number, so N bit binary number represent its magnitude
only. Zero (0) is also unsigned number. This representation has only one zero (0), which is always positive.
Every number in unsigned number representation has only one unique binary equivalent form, so this is
unambiguous representation technique. The range of unsigned binary number is from 0 to (2n-1).Example-
1: Represent decimal number 92 in unsigned binary number.

Simply convert it into Binary number, it contains only magnitude of the given number.= (92) 10
= (1x26+0x25+1x24+1x23+1x22+0x21+0x20)10
= (1011100)2
It’s 7 bit binary magnitude of the decimal number 92.

Example-2: Find range of 5 bit unsigned binary numbers. Also, find minimum and maximum value in this
range.

Since, range of unsigned binary number is from 0 to (2n-1). Therefore, range of 5 bit unsigned binary
number is from 0 to (25-1) which is equal from minimum value 0 (i.e., 00000) to maximum value 31 (i.e.,
11111).

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 29

2. Signed Numbers:
Signed numbers contain sign flag, this representation distinguish positive and negative numbers. This
technique contains both sign bit and magnitude of a number. For example, in representation of negative
decimal numbers, we need to put negative symbol in front of given decimal number.

Representation of Signed Binary Numbers:

There are three types of representations for signed binary numbers. Because of extra signed bit, binary
number zero has two representation, either positive (0) or negative (1), so ambiguous representation. But
2’s complementation representation is unambiguous representation because of there is no double
representation of number 0. These are: Sign-Magnitude form, 1’s complement form, and 2’s complement
form which are explained as following below.

2.(a) Sign-Magnitude form:

For n bit binary number, 1 bit is reserved for sign symbol. If the value of sign bit is 0, then the given
number will be positive, else if the value of sign bit is 1, then the given number will be negative.
Remaining (n-1) bits represent magnitude of the number.

Since magnitude of number zero (0) is always 0, so there can be two representation of number zero (0),
positive (+0) and negative (-0), which depends on value of sign bit. Hence these representations are
ambiguous generally because of two representation of number zero (0). Generally sign bit is a most
significant bit (MSB) of representation. The range of Sign-Magnitude form is from (2(n-1)-1) to (2(n-1)-1).

For example, range of 6 bit Sign-Magnitude form binary number is from (25-1) to (25-1) which is equal
from minimum value -31 (i.e., 1 11111) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111). And zero (0) has two
representation, -0 (i.e., 1 00000) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).

2.(b) 1’s complement form:

Since, 1’s complement of a number is obtained by inverting each bit of given number. So, we represent
positive numbers in binary form and negative numbers in 1’s complement form. There is extra bit for sign
representation. If value of sign bit is 0, then number is positive and you can directly represent it in simple
binary form, but if value of sign bit 1, then number is negative and you have to take 1’s complement of
given binary number.

You can get negative number by 1’s complement of a positive number and positive number by using 1’s
complement of a negative number. Therefore, in this representation, zero (0) can have two representation,
that’s why 1’s complement form is also ambiguous form. The range of 1’s complement form is from (2(n-1)-
1) to (2(n-1)-1) .

For example, range of 6 bit 1’s complement form binary number is from (25-1) to (25-1) which is equal
from minimum value -31 (i.e., 1 00000) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111). And zero (0) has two
representation, -0 (i.e., 1 11111) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 30

2.(c) 2’s complement form:
Since, 2’s complement of a number is obtained by inverting each bit of given number plus 1 to least
significant bit (LSB). So, we represent positive numbers in binary form and negative numbers in 2’s
complement form. There is extra bit for sign representation. If value of sign bit is 0, then number is positive
and you can directly represent it in simple binary form, but if value of sign bit 1, then number is negative
and you have to take 2’s complement of given binary number.

You can get negative number by 2’s complement of a positive number and positive number by directly
using simple binary representation. If value of most significant bit (MSB) is 1, then take 2’s complement
from, else not.

Therefore, in this representation, zero (0) has only one (unique) representation which is always positive.
The range of 2’s complement form is from (2(n-1)) to (2(n-1)-1).

For example, range of 6 bit 2’s complement form binary number is from (25) to (25-1) which is equal from
minimum value -32 (i.e., 1 00000) to maximum value +31 (i.e., 0 11111). And zero (0) has two
representation, -0 (i.e., 1 11111) and +0 (i.e., 0 00000).

COMPUTER LANGUAGES AND COMPUTER PROGRAM

A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to

execute. Computer programs are one component of software, which also includes documentation and other
intangible components.

C and C++
Both languages are widely used in computer science and programming. C and C++ developers can make
use of compilers for a wide variety of platforms, making applications developed in these languages largely
transportable. Both C and C++ are considered high-performance languages.

5 Types of Programming Languages

Programming is a skill that is becoming increasingly sought after in the job market. Having at least a basic
understanding of how software functions is helpful for anyone who interacts with technology. With a
background in programming, you can get a job coding, designing software, data architecture, or creating
intuitive user interfaces.

But what language should you learn? You'll find a seemingly infinite number of programming languages that
are free to learn and develop projects with online. With the field of technology growing exponentially each
year, the internet is a great place to start when trying to explore the latest developments or discover a new
skill.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 31

Whichever language you learn, you may find it helpful to take notes or draw diagrams detailing the steps
you're taking and why. It's important for programmers to be able to communicate their process to non-
technical stakeholders, but taking notes can also be a great learning tool. "Turns out this often comes in handy
not only for the sake of creating documentation, but often helps in solving a single task or issue where the
underlying tech is challenging to understand," offers Eric Hartzog, a software engineer at Meta.

In this article, we'll explore some of the most common types of programming languages and give you some
resources you can use to start learning.

5 MAJOR TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

While you'll find dozens of ways to classify various programming languages, they generally fall into five
major categories. Keep in mind that some languages may fall under more than one type:

1. Procedural programming languages

A procedural language follows a sequence of statements or commands in order to achieve a desired output.
Each series of steps is called a procedure, and a program written in one of these languages will have one or
more procedures within it. Common examples of procedural languages include:
i. C and C++
ii. Java
iii. Pascal
iv. BASIC

2. Functional programming languages

Rather than focusing on the execution of statements, functional languages focus on the output of
mathematical functions and evaluations. Each function–a reusable module of code–performs a specific task
and returns a result. The result will vary depending on what data you input into the function. Some popular
functional programming languages include:
i. Scala
ii. Erlang
iii. Haskell
iv. Elixir
v. F#

3. Object-oriented programming languages

This type of language treats a program as a group of objects composed of data and program elements, known
as attributes and methods. Objects can be reused within a program or in other programs. This makes it a
popular language type for complex programs, as code is easier to reuse and scale. Some common object-
oriented programming (OOP) languages include:
i. Java
ii. Python
iii. PHP
iv. C++

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 32

 v. Ruby

4. Scripting languages
Programmers use scripting languages to automate repetitive tasks, manage dynamic web content, or support
processes in larger applications. Some common scripting languages include:
i. PHP
ii. Ruby
iii. Python
iv. bash
v. Perl
vi. Node.js

5. Logic programming languages

Instead of telling a computer what to do, a logic programming language expresses a series of facts and rules
to instruct the computer on how to make decisions. Some examples of logic languages include:
i. Prolog
ii. Absys
iii. Datalog
iv. Alma-0
Other ways to classify programming languages
You'll find many more ways to categorize languages beyond the five listed above. Let's take a closer look at
there other ways you can think about programming languages:
Front-end vs. back-end languages

Front-end languages are primarily concerned with the ‘user’ aspect of the software. The front end deals with
all of the text, colors, buttons, images, and navigation that the user will face when navigating your website or
application. Anyone with a background in graphic design or art may be more inspired to begin learning one of
the front-end languages.

Some examples of front-end programming languages include:

i. HTML
ii. CSS
iii. JavaScript
iv. React

Back-end languages deal with storage and manipulation of the server side of software. This is the part of the
software that the user does not directly come into contact with but supports their experience behind the
scenes. This includes data architecture, scripting, and communication between applications and underlying
databases.

Anyone with experience in mathematics or engineering may find more interest in back-end development.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 33

Some examples of back-end programming languages include:
i. JavaScript
ii. PHP
iii. Java
iv. Python
v. Ruby
vi. C#

High-level vs. low-level languages

The biggest factor that differentiates high- and low-level programming languages is whether the language is
meant to be easily understood by a human programmer or a computer. Low-level languages are machine-
friendly, which makes them highly efficient in terms of memory usage but difficult to understand without the
help of an assembler. Since they're not very people-friendly, they're also not widely used anymore. Examples
include machine code and assembly languages.

High-level languages, on the other hand, are less memory efficient but much more human friendly. This
makes them easier to write, understand, maintain, and debug. Most popular programming languages in use
today are considered high-level languages.

Interpreted vs. compiled languages

The distinction between interpreted and compiled languages has to do with how they convert high-level code
and make it readable by a computer. With interpreted languages, code goes through a program called an
interpreter, which reads and executes the code line by line. This tends to make these languages more flexible
and platform independent.

Examples of interpreted languages include:

i. Python
ii. JavaScript
iii. PHP
iv. Ruby

Compiled languages go through a build step where the entire program is converted into machine code. This
makes it faster to execute, but it also means that you have to compile or "build" the program again anytime
you need to make a change.

Examples of compiled languages include:

i. C, C++, and C#
ii. Rust
iii. Erlang

UNIT 2. INTRODUCTION TO ‘C’ PROGRAMMING

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 34

C is a general-purpose programming language created by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Laboratories in 1972. It
is a very popular language, despite being old. C is strongly associated with UNIX, as it was developed to
write the UNIX operating system.

C is a general-purpose programming language that is extremely popular, simple, and flexible to use. It is a
structured programming language that is machine-independent and extensively used to write various
applications, Operating Systems like Windows, and many other complex programs like Oracle database,
Git, Python interpreter, and more.

It is said that ‘C’ is a god’s programming language. One can say, C is a base for the programming. If you
know ‘C,’ you can easily grasp the knowledge of the other programming languages that uses the concept of
‘C’
It is essential to have a background in computer memory mechanisms because it is an important aspect
when dealing with the C programming language.

IEEE-the best 10 top programming language in 2018

What are the basic concepts of C language?

Concepts From the C Programming Language

i. Compilation. Compilers. C11 safe functions.
ii. Hello World.
iii. Constants vs Directives.
iv. Quotations.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 35

 v. Char Type.
vi. Null Terminator.
vii. Pointers.
viii. Arrays.

10 MOST IMPORTANT FEATURES OF C LANGUAGE YOU MUST BE AWARE OF

The core features of a programming language describe its ability and uniqueness and how beneficial it can
be in developing a website or software. Listed below are some of the significant features of C language:

1) Simple and Efficient

The basic syntax style of implementing C language is very simple and easy to learn. This makes the
language easily comprehensible and enables a programmer to redesign or create a new application. C is
usually used as an introductory language to introduce programming to school students because of this
feature.

2 ) Fast
It is a well-known fact that statically typed programming languages are faster than dynamic ones. C is a
statically typed programming language, which gives it an edge over other dynamic languages. Also,
unlike Java and Python, which are interpreter-based, C is a compiler-based program. This makes the
compilation and execution of codes faster.

Another factor that makes C fast is the availability of only the essential and required features. Newer
programming languages come with numerous features, which increase functionality but reduce efficiency
and speed. Since C offers limited but essential features, the headache of processing these features reduces,
resulting in increased speed.

3) Portability
Another feature of the C language is portability. To put it simply, C programs are machine-independent
which means that you can run the fraction of a code created in C on various machines with none or some
machine-specific changes. Hence, it provides the functionality of using a single code on multiple systems
depending on the requirement.

4)Extensibility
You can easily (and quickly) extend a C program. This means that if a code is already written, you can add
new features to it with a few alterations. Basically, it allows adding new features, functionalities, and
operations to an existing C program.

5)Function-Rich Libraries
C comes with an extensive set of libraries with several built-in functions that make the life of a programmer
easy. Even a beginner can easily code using these built-in functions. You can also create your user-

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 36

defined functions and add them to C libraries. The availability of such a vast scope of functions and
operations allows a programmer to build a vast array of programs and applications.

6)Dynamic Memory Management

One of the most significant features of C language is its support for dynamic memory management (DMA).
It means that you can utilize and manage the size of the data structure in C during runtime. C also provides
several predefined functions to work with memory allocation. For instance, you can use the free() function
to free up the allocated memory at any time. Similarly, there are other functions such as malloc(), calloc(),
and realloc() to perform operations on data structure and memory allocations.

7)Modularity With Structured Language

C is a general-purpose structured language. This feature of C language allows you to break a code into
different parts using functions which can be stored in the form of libraries for future use and reusability..
Structuring the code using functions increases the visual appeal and makes the program more organized and
less prone to errors.

8)Mid-Level Programming Language

Although C was initially developed to do only low-level programming, it now also supports the features
and functionalities of high-level programming, making it a mid-level language. And as a mid-level
programming language, it provides the best of both worlds. For instance, C allows direct manipulation of
hardware, which high-level programming languages do not offer.

9)Pointers
With the use of pointers in C, you can directly interact with memory. As the name suggests, pointers point
to a specific location in the memory and interact directly with it. Using the C pointers, you can operate with
memory, arrays, functions, and structures.

10)Recursion
C language provides the feature of recursion. Recursion means that you can create a function that can call
itself multiple times until a given condition is true, just like the loops. Recursion in C programming
provides the functionality of code reusability and backtracking.

11) Final Thoughts

C programming is very popular in the world even today, and the biggest reason behind it is the unique
features of C language. In this article, we have shed light upon some of the most significant features of C
language. Due to these features, several multinational companies and corporations are still looking to hire C
programming professionals.

If you want to learn more about the C language and other such programming languages, you can sign up on
Simplilearn’s SkillUp platform. The platform provides several free courses to help you excel in the
development field.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 37

If you have any queries or questions, feel free to post them below in the comments and our experts will get
back to you in no time!

HISTORY OF C LANGUAGE
The base or father of programming languages is ‘ALGOL.’ It was first introduced in 1960. ‘ALGOL’ was
used on a large basis in European countries. ‘ALGOL’ introduced the concept of structured programming
to the developer community. In 1967, a new computer programming language was announced called as
‘BCPL’ which stands for Basic Combined Programming Language.

BCPL was designed and developed by Martin Richards, especially for writing system software. This was
the era of programming languages. Just after three years, in 1970 a new programming language called ‘B’
was introduced by Ken Thompson that contained multiple features of ‘BCPL.’ This programming language
was created using UNIX operating system at AT&T and Bell Laboratories. Both the ‘BCPL’ and ‘B’ were
system programming languages.

In 1972, a great computer scientist Dennis Ritchie created a new programming language called ‘C’ at the
Bell Laboratories. It was created from ‘ALGOL’, ‘BCPL’ and ‘B’ programming languages. ‘C’
programming language contains all the features of these languages and many more additional concepts that
make it unique from other languages.

‘C’ is a powerful programming language which is strongly associated with the UNIX operating system.
Even most of the UNIX operating system is coded in ‘C’. Initially ‘C’ programming was limited to the
UNIX operating system, but as it started spreading around the world, it became commercial, and many
compilers were released for cross-platform systems.

Today ‘C’ runs under a variety of operating systems and hardware platforms. As it started evolving many
different versions of the language were released. At times it became difficult for the developers to keep up
with the latest version as the systems were running under the older versions.

To assure that ‘C’ language will remain standard, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defined a
commercial standard for ‘C’ language in 1989. Later, it was approved by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) in 1990. ‘C’ programming language is also called as ‘ANSI C’.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 38

History of C
Languages such as C++/Java are developed from ‘C’. These languages are widely used in various
technologies. Thus, ‘C’ forms a base for many other languages that are currently in use.

C Basic Commands
Following are the basic commands in C programming language:
C Basic commands Explanation
This command includes standard input output header file(stdio.h) from the C library
#include <stdio.h>
before compiling a C program
int main() It is the main function from where C program execution begins.
{ Indicates the beginning of the main function.
Whatever written inside this command “/* */” inside a C program, it will not be
/*_some_comments_*/
considered for compilation and execution.
printf(“Hello_World!
This command prints the output on the screen.
“);
getch(); This command is used for any character input from keyboard.
return 0; This command is used to terminate a C program (main function) and it returns 0.
} It is used to indicate the end of the main function.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 39

Where is C used? Key Applications

‘C’ language is widely used in embedded systems.

It is used for developing system applications.
It is widely used for developing desktop applications.
Most of the applications by Adobe are developed using ‘C’ programming language.
It is used for developing browsers and their extensions. Google’s Chromium is built using ‘C’
programming language.
It is used to develop databases. MySQL is the most popular database software which is built using ‘C’.
It is used in developing an operating system. Operating systems such as Apple’s OS X, Microsoft’s
Windows, and Symbian are developed using ‘C’ language.

It is used for developing desktop as well as mobile phone’s operating system.

It is used for compiler production.
It is widely used in IOT applications.

Why learn C Language?

As we studied earlier, ‘C’ is a base language for many programming languages. So, learning ‘C’ as the
main language will play an important role while studying other programming languages.

It shares the same concepts such as data types, operators, control statements and many more. ‘C’ can be
used widely in various applications. It is a simple language and provides faster execution. There are many
jobs available for a ‘C’ developer in the current market.

‘C’ is a structured programming language in which program is divided into various modules. Each module
can be written separately and together it forms a single ‘C’ program. This structure makes it easy for
testing, maintaining and debugging processes.

‘C’ contains 32 keywords, various data types and a set of powerful built-in functions that make
programming very efficient.

Another feature of ‘C’ programming is that it can extend itself. A ‘C’ program contains various functions
which are part of a library. We can add our features and functions to the library. We can access and use
these functions anytime we want in our program. This feature makes it simple while working with complex
programming.

Various compilers are available in the market that can be used for executing programs written in this
language.

It is a highly portable language which means programs written in ‘C’ language can run on other machines.
This feature is essential if we wish to use or execute the code on another computer.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 40

How C Programming Language Works?
C is a compiled language. A compiler is a special tool that compiles the program and converts it into the
object file which is machine readable. After the compilation process, the linker will combine different
object files and creates a single executable file to run the program. The following diagram shows the
execution of a ‘C’ program

Nowadays, various compilers are available online, and you can use any of those compilers. The
functionality will never differ and most of the compilers will provide the features required to execute both
‘C’ and ‘C++’ programs.

Following is the list of popular compilers available online:

Clang compiler
MinGW compiler (Minimalist GNU for Windows)
Portable ‘C’ compiler
Turbo C

Summary
‘C’ was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972.
It is a robust language.
It is a low programming level language close to machine language
It is widely used in the software development field.
It is a procedure and structure oriented language.
It has the full support of various operating systems and hardware platforms.
Many compilers are available for executing programs written in ‘C’.
A compiler compiles the source file and generates an object file.
A linker links all the object files together and creates one executable file.
It is highly portable.

STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 41

Most programming languages have a structure, including the C language. A C program is divided into six
sections: Documentation, Link, Definition, Global Declaration, Main() Function, and Subprograms. While
the main section is compulsory, the rest are optional in the structure of the C program.

All human beings have a definite structure, i.e., head, neck, and four limbs connected to a torso. Almost
everything has a definite structure. Likewise, in the case of programming languages, all of them have a
definite structure. These structures have to be followed while writing the code.

The structure of a C program can be mainly divided into six parts, each having its purpose. It makes the
program easy to read, easy to modify, easy to document, and makes it consistent in format.

Basic Structure of the C Program

Section Description
Consists of the description of the program, programmer's name, and creation date.
Documentation
These are generally written in the form of comments.
All header files are included in this section which contains different functions
Link from the libraries. A copy of these header files is inserted into your code before
compilation.
Includes preprocessor directive, which contains symbolic constants.
Definition E.g.: #define allows us to use constants in our code. It replaces all the constants
with its value in the code.
Global Includes declaration of global variables, function declarations, static global
Declaration variables, and functions.
For every C program, the execution starts from the main() function. It is
Main() Function
mandatory to include a main() function in every C program.
Includes all user-defined functions (functions the user provides). They can contain
Subprograms the inbuilt functions and the function definitions declared in the Global
Declaration section. These are called in the main() function.
Let's look at an example to understand the structure of a C program:
Example: Write a program to calculate our age.

In the following example, we'll calculate age concerning a year.

Algorithm
You've to subtract the current year from your birth year and get your age.
Let's implement this and check:

Code:
/** //Documentation
* file: age.c
* author: you

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 42

* description: program to find our age.
*/

#include <stdio.h> //Link

#define BORN 2000 //Definition

int age(int current); //Global Declaration

int main(void) //Main() Function

{
int current = 2021;
printf("Age: %d", age(current));
return 0;
}

int age(int current) { //Subprograms

return current - BORN;
}
Output
Age: 21
Let's explore the code:
Different sections of the above code
Documentation
In a C program, single-line comments can be written using two forward slashes i.e., //, and we can create
multi-line comments using /* */. Here, we've used multi-line comments.
/**
* file: age.c
* author: you
* description: program to find our age.
*/
Link
All header files are included in this section.
A header file is a file that consists of C declarations that can be used between different files. It helps us in
using others' code in our files. A copy of these header files is inserted into your code before compilation.
#include <stdio.h>

Definition
A preprocessor directive in C is any statement that begins with the "#" symbol. The #define is a
preprocessor compiler directive used to create constants. In simple terms, #define basically allows the
macro definition, which allows the use of constants in our code.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 43

#define BORN 2000
We've created a constant BORN which is assigned a value of 2000. Generally, uppercase letters are
preferred for defining the constants. The above constant BORN will be replaced by 2000 throughout our
code wherever used.

#define is typically used to make a source program easy to modify and compile in different execution
environments.

The define statement does not ends with a semicolon.

Global Declaration
This section includes all global variables, function declarations, and static variables. The variables declared
in this section can be used anywhere in the program. They're accessible to all the functions of the program.
Hence, they are called global variables.

int age(int current);

We've declared our age function, which takes one integer argument and returns an integer.

Main() Function
In the structure of a C program, this section contains the main function of the code. The compiler starts
execution from the main() function. It can use global variables, static variables, inbuilt functions, and user-
defined functions. The return type of the main() function can be void and also not necessarily int.
int main(void)
{
int current = 2021;
printf("Age: %d", age(current));
return 0;
}
Here, we've declared a variable named current and assigned the value as 2021. Then we've called
the printf() function, with calls the age() function, which takes only one parameter.

Subprograms
This includes the user-defined functions called in the main() function. User-defined functions are generally
written after the main() function irrespective of their order.
When the user-defined function is called from the main() function, the control of the program shifts to the
called function, and when it encounters a return statement, it returns to the main() function. In this case,
we've defined the age() function, which takes one parameter, i.e., the current year.
int age(int current) {
return current - BORN;
}
This function is called in the main function. It returns an integer to the main function.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 44

Conclusion
To conclude, the structure of a C program can be divided into six sections, namely - Documentation, Link,
Definition, Global Declaration, Main() Function, and Subprograms.
The main() function is compulsory to include in every C program, whereas the rest are optional.
A well-structured C program makes debugging easier and increases the readability and modularity of the
code.

FLOW CHARTS AND ALGORITHMS

A flowchart is a graphical representation of the steps a program takes to process data. In this, we can use
several geometric patterns to illustrate the numerous actions the program carries out. An algorithm is a
procedure or set of rules that defines how a program is to be executed.

Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Programmers often use it as a program-planning

tool to solve a problem. It makes use of symbols which are connected among them to indicate the flow of
information and processing.

The process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is known as “flowcharting”

A guide to machine learning algorithms and their applications

The term ‘machine learning’ is often, incorrectly, interchanged with Artificial Intelligence[JB1] , but
machine learning is actually a sub
field/type of AI. Machine learning is also often referred to as predictive analytics, or predictive modelling.

Coined by American computer scientist Arthur Samuel in 1959, the term ‘machine learning’ is defined as a
“computer’s ability to learn without being explicitly programmed”.

At its most basic, machine learning uses programmed algorithms that receive and analyse input data to
predict output values within an acceptable range. As new data is fed to these algorithms, they learn and
optimise their operations to improve performance, developing ‘intelligence’ over time.

There are four types of machine learning algorithms: supervised, semi-supervised, unsupervised and
reinforcement.

Supervised learning
In supervised learning, the machine is taught by example. The operator provides the machine learning
algorithm with a known dataset that includes desired inputs and outputs, and the algorithm must find a
method to determine how to arrive at those inputs and outputs. While the operator knows the correct
answers to the problem, the algorithm identifies patterns in data, learns from observations and makes
predictions. The algorithm makes predictions and is corrected by the operator – and this process
continues until the algorithm achieves a high level of accuracy/performance.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 45

Under the umbrella of supervised learning fall: Classification, Regression and Forecasting.

Classification: In classification tasks, the machine learning program must draw a conclusion from
observed values and determine to
what category new observations belong. For example, when filtering emails as ‘spam’ or ‘not spam’, the
program must look at existing observational data and filter the emails accordingly.

Regression: In regression tasks, the machine learning program must estimate – and understand – the
relationships among variables. Regression analysis focuses on one dependent variable and a series of other
changing variables – making it particularly useful for prediction and forecasting.

Forecasting: Forecasting is the process of making predictions about the future based on the past and
present data, and is commonly used to analyse trends.

Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning is similar to supervised learning, but instead uses both labelled and unlabelled
data. Labelled data is essentially information that has meaningful tags so that the algorithm can understand
the data, whilst unlabelled data lacks that information. By using this
combination, machine learning algorithms can learn to label unlabelled data.

Unsupervised learning
Here, the machine learning algorithm studies data to identify patterns. There is no answer key or human
operator to provide instruction. Instead, the machine determines the correlations and relationships by
analysing available data. In an unsupervised learning process, the machine learning algorithm is left to
interpret large data sets and address that data accordingly. The algorithm tries to organise that data in some
way to describe its structure. This might mean grouping the data into clusters or arranging it in a way that
looks more organised.

As it assesses more data, its ability to make decisions on that data gradually improves and becomes more
refined.

Under the umbrella of unsupervised learning, fall:

Clustering: Clustering involves grouping sets of similar data (based on defined criteria). It’s useful for
segmenting data into several groups and performing analysis on each data set to find patterns.

Dimension reduction: Dimension reduction reduces the number of variables being considered to find the
exact information required.

Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning focuses on regimented learning processes, where a machine learning algorithm is
provided with a set of actions, parameters and end values. By defining the rules, the machine learning

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 46

algorithm then tries to explore different options and possibilities, monitoring and evaluating each result to
determine which one is optimal. Reinforcement learning teaches the machine trial and error. It learns from
past experiences and begins to adapt its approach in response to the situation to achieve the best possible
result.

What machine learning algorithms can you use?

Choosing the right machine learning algorithm depends on several factors, including, but not limited to:
data size, quality and diversity, as well as what answers businesses want to derive from that data.
Additional considerations include accuracy, training time, parameters, data points and much more.
Therefore, choosing the right algorithm is both a combination of business need, specification,
experimentation and time available. Even the most experienced data scientists cannot tell you
which algorithm will perform the best before experimenting with others.

What are the most common and popular machine learning algorithms?

Naïve Bayes Classifier Algorithm (Supervised Learning - Classification)

The Naïve Bayes classifier is based on Bayes’ theorem and classifies every value as independent of any
other value. It allows us to predict a class/category, based on a given set of features, using probability.

Despite its simplicity, the classifier does surprisingly well and is often used due to the fact it outperforms
more sophisticated classification methods.

K Means Clustering Algorithm (Unsupervised Learning - Clustering)

The K Means Clustering algorithm is a type of unsupervised learning, which is used to categorise
unlabelled data, i.e. data without defined categories or groups. The algorithm works by finding groups
within the data, with the number of groups represented by the variable K. It then works iteratively to assign
each data point to one of K groups based on the features provided.

Support Vector Machine Algorithm (Supervised Learning - Classification)

Support Vector Machine algorithms are supervised learning models that analyse data used for classification
and regression analysis. They essentially filter data into categories, which is achieved by providing a set of
training examples, each set marked as belonging to one or the other of the two categories. The algorithm
then works to build a model that assigns new values to one category or the other.

Linear Regression (Supervised Learning/Regression)

Linear regression is the most basic type of regression. Simple linear regression allows us to understand the
relationships between two continuous variables.

Logistic Regression (Supervised learning – Classification)

Logistic regression focuses on estimating the probability of an event occurring based on the previous data
provided. It is used to cover a binary dependent variable, that is where only two values, 0 and 1, represent
outcomes.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 47

Artificial Neural Networks (Reinforcement Learning)
An artificial neural network (ANN) comprises ‘units’ arranged in a series of layers, each of which connects
to layers on either side.

ANNs are inspired by biological systems, such as the brain, and how they process information. ANNs are
essentially a large number of interconnected processing elements, working in unison to solve specific
problems.

ANNs also learn by example and through experience, and they are extremely useful for modelling non-
linear relationships in high-dimensional data or where the relationship amongst the input variables is
difficult to understand.

Decision Trees (Supervised Learning – Classification/Regression)

A decision tree is a flow-chart-like tree structure that uses a branching method to illustrate every possible
outcome of a decision. Each node within the tree represents a test on a specific variable – and each branch
is the outcome of that test.

Random Forests (Supervised Learning – Classification/Regression)

Random forests or ‘random decision forests’ is an ensemble learning method, combining multiple
algorithms to generate better results for classification, regression and other tasks. Each individual classifier
is weak, but when combined with others, can produce excellent results. The algorithm starts with a
‘decision tree’ (a tree-like graph or model of decisions) and an input is entered at the top. It then travels
down the tree, with data being segmented into smaller and smaller sets, based on specific variables.

Nearest Neighbours (Supervised Learning)

The K-Nearest-Neighbour algorithm estimates how likely a data point is to be a member of one group or
another. It essentially looks at the data points around a single data point to determine what group it is
actually in. For example, if one point is on a grid and the algorithm is trying to determine what group that
data point is in (Group A or Group B, for example) it would look at the data points near it to see
what group the majority of the points are in.

Clearly, there are a lot of things to consider when it comes to choosing the right machine learning
algorithms for your business’ analytics. However, you don’t need to be a data scientist or expert statistician
to use these models for your business. At SAS, our products and solutions utilise a comprehensive selection
of machine learning algorithms, helping you to develop a process that can continuously deliver value from
your data.

7 EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS IN EVERYDAY LIFE FOR STUDENTS

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 48

For students new to coding, the process of algorithmic thinking can be challenging. Instead of providing an
answer to a question or even showing the work for how they got there algorithmic thinking requires
students to solve not for an answer, but for a replicable process to solve the answer (or complete a task).
This concept can feel enigmatic for some students who haven’t yet connected how algorithms exist in daily
life.

In curriculum, it can be helpful for teachers to use examples of algorithms in everyday life to make the
concept more approachable.

Examples of Algorithms in Everyday Life

There are many types of algorithms that are used in everyday life, including linear processes that follow a
specific set of steps, conditional algorithms that perform decision-making between two actions and looping
algorithms that repeat a sequence for a certain number of times.

Many everyday algorithms are surprisingly complex but they also come naturally to us. For instance,
deciding what to wear in the morning is (for some of us) a complex algorithm of identifying what’s clean
and available, which options are suitable for the weather, which articles of clothing match (each other or
our style and what we’re comfortable wearing that day, etc.). Some are surprisingly simple, such as the
process of pouring a glass of water.

Below, we offer 7 unique examples that students can relate to that illustrate algorithms in everyday life:

1. Tying Your Shoes

Any step-by-step process that is completed the same way every time is an algorithm. A good example of
this in everyday life is tying your shoes. There are a limited number of steps that effectively result in a
traditional shoelace know (known as the “bunny rabbit” or “loop, swoop and pull” knot). Chances are that
you and your students follow one of these algorithms every time you tie your shoes.

2. Following a Recipe
Recipes are a great example of an algorithm in everyday life. They illustrate a replicable set of steps to
accomplish a specific goal (such as baking blueberry muffins or cooking spaghetti sauce from scratch).
Recipes are designed to create a duplicatable outcome, or to help individuals regardless of background be
able to create a specific food by following a set of detailed instructions—just as an algorithm in computer
science details steps to create replicable outcomes.

3. Classifying Objects
A process for classifying objects is another great example of algorithms in everyday life. Whether
classifying foods into different food groups, sorting household items by function, or organizing blocks from
smallest to largest, students can often complete these algorithms relatively simply. Asking students to
define the process they use to classify the objects (a flowchart of qualities they look for in each specific
food to determine its food group or how they compare one block to its surrounding blocks) is an example of
algorithmic thinking, or the process of developing an algorithm that can be used to replicate a process.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 49

4. Bedtime Routines
Daily routines, such as morning routines, bedtime routines, or even exercise routines are another example
of algorithms in everyday life. Ask your students what they do to get ready for bed. Most likely, they will
have a specific set of steps that are replicated (and could be replicated by others) to prepare for bed. This
makes that routine an algorithm!

5. Finding a Library Book in the Library

Finding a library book is another example of using an algorithm in everyday life. There are multiple
processes for successfully finding a library book, whether it’s by utilizing the library’s computer catalog
system, identifying genre labels on shelves and finding the book by subject or author, etc. Regardless of the
process used, if it can be defined and replicated by others then it is an algorithm.

6. Driving to or from Somewhere

Driving your car to school or home again is another example of an algorithm. There are additional
complexities that can be added to this algorithm, such as construction or traffic which may create an “If,
then” choice within an algorithm (if State Street is blocked off, turn right).

7. Deciding What to Eat

Even something as commonplace as deciding what to eat for a meal is an example of an algorithm. Ask
your students to consider the sequences and conditional statements that result in their decision about what
to eat if they are hungry. It likely includes steps such as determining how hungry they are, seeing what is
available in the fridge or pantry, considering whether a parent is cooking a meal or if they have to fend for
themselves and what they do or don’t have the skill to cook on their own, etc.

Final Thoughts
Understanding algorithms is the first step for students mastering algorithmic thinking. To learn more about
how Learning.com can help support this learning process in your classroom or district curriculum, sample
EasyTech today.

TYPES OF ERRORS
There are 5 types of error in C:
Syntax Errors.
Runtime Errors.
Logical Errors.
Linked Errors.
Semantic Errors.

Here we will see different types of errors using a C program. In any programming language errors are
common. If we miss any syntax like parenthesis or semicolon then we get syntax errors. Apart from this
we also get run time errors during the execution of code.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 50

There are 5 types of error in C:
Syntax Errors
Runtime Errors
Logical Errors
Linked Errors
Semantic Errors
Let’s discuss each of these in detail.

1. Syntax Errors
These are also referred to as compile-time errors. These errors have occurred when the rule of C writing
techniques or syntaxes has been broken. These types of errors are typically flagged by the compiler prior
to compilation.

Example 1: In the below program we are getting an error because of a missing semicolon at the end of
the output statement (printf()) called syntax error.

// C program to demonstrate
// a syntax error due to
// missing semi colon
#include <stdio.h>

// Driver code
int main()
{
// missing semicolon
printf("Geeks for geeks!")
return 0;
}

Output:

Example 2: In this case, we are getting errors because of missing parenthesis before the output
statement and below the main(). This type of error is also called syntax error.
C

// C program to demonstrate
// a syntax error due to
// missing parenthesis
#include <stdio.h>

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 51

// Driver code
int main()

printf("Geeks for Geeks");

return 0;
}

Output:

2. Runtime Errors
This type of error occurs while the program is running. Because this is not a compilation error, the
compilation will be completed successfully. These errors occur due to segmentation fault when a number
is divided by division operator or modulo division operator.
Example: Let us consider an array of length 5 i.e. array[5], but during runtime, if we try to access 10
elements i.e array[10] then we get segmentation fault errors called runtime errors. Giving only an array
length of 5
C

// C program to demonstrate
// a runtime error
#include <stdio.h>

// Driver code
int main()
{
int array[5];
printf("%d", array[10]);
return 0;
}

Output
-621007737
But in output trying to access more than 5 i.e if we try to access array[10] during runtime then the
program will throw an error or will show an abnormal behavior and print any garbage value.

3. Logical Errors
Even if the syntax and other factors are correct, we may not get the desired results due to logical issues.
These are referred to as logical errors. We sometimes put a semicolon after a loop, which is syntactically
correct but results in one blank loop. In that case, it will display the desired output.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 52

Example: In the below example, the for loop iterates 5 times but the output will be displayed only one
time due to the semicolon at the end of for loop. This kind of error is called a logical error.

// C program to demonstrate
// a logical error
#include <stdio.h>

// Driver code
int main()
{
int i;
for(i = 0; i <= 5; i++);
{
printf("Geeks for Geeks");
}
return 0;
}

Output
Geeks for Geeks

4. Linker Errors
When the program is successfully compiled and attempting to link the different object files with the main
object file, errors will occur. When this error occurs, the executable is not generated. This could be due to
incorrect function prototyping, an incorrect header file, or other factors. If main() is written as Main(), a
linked error will be generated.

Example: Below is the C program to show the linker error.

C

// C program to demonstrate
// a linker error
#include <stdio.h>

// Driver code
int Main()
{
printf("Geeks for Geeks");
return 0;
}

Output:

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 53

5. Semantic Errors
When a sentence is syntactically correct but has no meaning, semantic errors occur. This is similar to
grammatical errors. If an expression is entered on the left side of the assignment operator, a semantic error
may occur.
Example: Below is the C program to show semantic error.
C

// C program to demonstrate
// a semantic error
#include <stdio.h>

// Driver code
int main()
{
int x = 10;
b = 20, c;
x + y = c;
printf("%d", c);
return 0;
}

Output:

DEBUGGING
Debugging is the art of diagnosing errors in programs and determining how to correct them. "Bugs" come
in a variety of forms, including: coding errors, design errors, complex interactions, poor user interface
designs, and system failures. Learning how to debug a program effectively, then, requires that you learn
how to identify which sort of problem you're looking at, and apply the appropriate techniques to eliminate
the problem.

Bugs are found throughout the software life cycle. The programmer may find an issue, a software tester
might identify a problem, or an end user might report an unexpected result. Part of debugging effectively
involves using the appropriate techniques to get necessary information from the different sources of
problem reports.

The most common types of mistakes when programming are:

Programming without thinking
Writing code in an unstructured manner

Application development in C remains strong despite the advent of other languages such as Java and
Python, predominantly due to its performance, flexibility, and its use for memory management.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 54

This short blog will show how to compile a simple C application for debugging and to debug that
application with the TotalView graphical debugger. The example calculates the Fibonacci series up to a set
of terms (10) defined by the program.

Requirements for this Example

This example uses CentOS 7, gcc 4.8, and TotalView 2020.2 You can use any supported Linux version and
compiler.

Bugs in Detail
What are these different kinds of bugs, then?
With coding errors, the source of the problem lies with programmer induced erroneous or improper code.

Some examples of coding errors include:

1) Disregarding adopted conventions.
2) Calling the wrong function ("moveUp", instead of "moveDown")
3) Using the wrong variable names in the wrong places ( "moveTo(y, x)" instead of "moveTo(x, y)")
4) Failing to initialize a variable ( "y = x + 1", where x has not been set) when absolutely required.
5) Skipping a check for an error return.

Software users readily see some design errors, while in other cases design flaws make a program more
difficult to improve or fix, and those flaws are not obvious to a user. Obvious design flaws are often
demonstrated by programs that run up against the limits of a computer, such as available memory, available
disk space, available processor speed, and overwhelming input/output devices.

More difficult design errors fall into several categories:

1) Failure to hide complexity
2) Incomplete or ambiguous "contracts"
3) Undocumented side effects

Complex interactivity bugs arise in scenarios where multiple parts of a single program, multiple programs,
or multiple computers interact.

Poor user interface designs often lead users to use the program in ways that accomplish something other
than what they intend. For example, a "search" page for a web site might have an option for "case-
insensitive" searching. When the option is hard for the user to find or see, that user might report a bug that
some of their data is "lost", simply because it is not found by the case sensitive search.

Sometimes, computer hardware simply fails, and it usually does so in wildly unexpected ways.
Determining that the problem lies not with the software itself, but with the computer(s) on which it is
usually complicated by the fact that the person debugging the software may not have access to the hardware
that shows the problem

Preventing Bugs
No discussion of debugging software would be complete without a discussion of how to prevent bugs in the
first place. No matter how well you write code, if you write the wrong code, it won't help anyone. If you

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 55

create the right code, but users cannot work the user interface, you might as well have not written the code.
In short, a good debugger should keep an open mind about where the problem might lie.

Although it is outside the scope of this discussion to describe the myriad techniques for avoiding bugs,
many of the techniques here are equally useful after the fact, when you have a bug and need to uncover it
and fix it. Thus, a brief discussion follows.

Understand the Problem

In order to write effective software, the developer must solve the problem the user needs solved. Users,
naturally enough, do not think in strict algorithms, windowing systems, web pages, or command line
interfaces. Rather, users may not think of problems in the same way that the developer thinks of problems.
To address this difference, sit down with the intended user, and ask them what they want from the software.

Users frequently want more than software can actually deliver, or have contradictory aims, such as software
that does more, but doesn't require that they learn anything new. In short, ask the users what their goals are.
Absent those goals, users will keep reporting bugs that do not add up to a coherent whole.

8 Steps for Debugging in C

1. Create a file called fib.c
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;
int numTerms = 10;
int t1 = 0, t2 = 1;
int nextTerm;

printf("Fibonacci Series: ");

for (i = 1; i <= numTerms; ++i)

{
printf("%d, ", t1);
nextTerm = t1 + t2;
t1 = t2;
t2 = nextTerm;
}

return 0;
}

2. Compile the fib.c file using the gcc compiler and the -g flag to enable debug symbols.

3. Start TotalView and debug the fib application.

4. Set a breakpoint at line 12 by clicking on the line number.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 56
5. Start debugging by pressing the Green GO button. TotalView runs the program to the breakpoint at line
12 and then stops.

6. Use the Next button to step through the loop and watch the values of the variables in the Local
Variables window change as you do so.

7. A unique feature TotalView provides is the ability to record the execution of your program so you can
step back through the execution history.

Try turning on reverse debugging through the Replay Engine toolbar by pressing the Red Record button
and then stepping backward as well as forwards through the code.
Watch this video tutorial on Reverse Debugging.

8. Run the program to completion either by disabling the breakpoint and pressing GO or by
pressing Next multiple times until the for loop completes and observe the output in the Input / Output
window.
If the Input/Output View is not open, select it from the Window > Views > Input/Output menu item.

Basic debugging steps

Although each debugging experience is unique, certain general principles can be applied in debugging.
This section particularly addresses debugging software, although many of these principles can also be
applied to debugging hardware.

The basic steps in debugging are:

1) Recognize that a bug exists
2) Isolate the source of the bug
3) Identify the cause of the bug
4) Determine a fix for the bug
5) Apply the fix and test it

Recognize a bug exists

Detection of bugs can be done proactively or passively.
An experienced programmer often knows where errors are more likely to occur, based on the complexity of
sections of the program as well as possible data corruption. For example, any data obtained from a user
should be treated suspiciously. Great care should be taken to verify that the format and content of the data
are correct.

Data obtained from transmissions should be checked to make sure the entire message (data) was received.
Complex data that must be parsed and/or processed may contain unexpected combinations of values that
were not anticipated, and not handled correctly. By inserting checks for likely error symptoms, the program
can detect when data has been corrupted or not handled correctly.

If an error is severe enough to cause the program to terminate abnormally, the existence of a bug becomes
obvious. If the program detects a less serious problem, the bug can be recognized, provided error and/or log
messages are monitored. However, if the error is minor and only causes the wrong results, it becomes much
more difficult to detect that a bug exists; this is especially true if it is difficult or impossible to verify the
results of the program.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 57

The goal of this step is to identify the symptoms of the bug. Observing the symptoms of the problem, under
what conditions the problem is detected, and what work-arounds, if any, have been found, will greatly help
the remaining steps to debugging the problem.

Isolate source of bug

This step is often the most difficult (and therefore rewarding) step in debugging. The idea is to identify
what portion of the system is causing the error. Unfortunately, the source of the problem isn't always the
same as the source of the symptoms. For example, if an input record is corrupted, an error may not occur
until the program is processing a different record, or performing some action based on the erroneous
information, which could happen long after the record was read.

This step often involves iterative testing. The programmer might first verify that the input is correct, next if
it was read correctly, processed correctly, etc. For modular systems, this step can be a little easier by
checking the validity of data passed across interfaces between different modules. If the input was correct,
but the output was not, then the source of the error is within the module. By iteratively testing inputs and
outputs, the debugger can identify within a few lines of code where the error is occurring.

Skilled debuggers are often able to hypothesize where the problem might be (based on analogies to
previous similar situations), and test the inputs and outputs of the suspected areas of the program. This form
of debugging is an instance of the scientific method. Less skilled debuggers often step sequentially through
the program, looking for a place where the behavior of the program is different from that expected.

Note that this is still a form of scientific method as the programmer must decide what variables to examine
when looking for unusual behavior. Another approach is to use a "binary search" type of isolation process.
By testing sections near the middle of the data / processing flow, the programmer can determine if the error
happens during earlier or later sections of the program. If no data problems are detected, then the error is
probably later in the process.

Identify cause of bug

Having found the location of the bug, the next step is to determine the actual cause of the bug, which might
involve other sections of the program. For example, if it has been determined that the program faults
because a field is wrong, the next step is to identify why the field is wrong. This is the actual source of the
bug, although some would argue that the inability of a program to handle bad data can be considered a bug
as well.

A good understanding of the system is vital to successfully identifying the source of the bug. A trained
debugger can isolate where a problem originates, but only someone familiar with the system can accurately
identify the actual cause behind the error. In some cases it might be external to the system: the input data
was incorrect. In other cases it might be due to a logic error, where correct data was handled incorrectly.

Other possibilities include unexpected values, where the initial assumptions were that a given field can
have only "n" values, when in fact, it can have more, as well as unexpected combinations of values in
different fields (field x was only supposed to have that value when field y was something different).
Another possibility is incorrect reference data, such as a lookup table containing incorrect values relative to
the record that was corrupted.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 58

Having determined the cause of the bug, it is a good idea to examine similar sections of the code to see if
the same mistake is repeated elsewhere. If the error was clearly a typo, this is less likely, but if the original
programmer misunderstood the initial design and/or requirements, the same or similar mistakes could have
been made elsewhere.

Determine fix for bug

Having identified the source of the problem, the next task is to determine how the problem can be fixed. An
intimate knowledge of the existing system is essential for all but the simplest of problems. This is because
the fix will modify the existing behavior of the system, which may produce unexpected results.
Furthermore, fixing an existing bug can often either create additional bugs, or expose other bugs that were
already present in the program, but never exposed because of the original bug. These problems are often
caused by the program executing a previously untested branch of code, or under previously untested
conditions.

In some cases, a fix is simple and obvious. This is especially true for logic errors where the original design
was implemented incorrectly. On the other hand, if the problem uncovers a major design flaw that
permeates a large portion of the system, then the fix might range from difficult to impossible, requiring
a total rewrite of the application.

In some cases, it might be desirable to implement a "quick fix", followed by a more permanent fix. This
decision is often made by considering the severity, visibility, frequency, and side effects of the problem, as
well as the nature of the fix, and product schedules (e.g., are there more pressing problems?).

Fix and test

After the fix has been applied, it is important to test the system and determine that the fix handles the
former problem correctly. Testing should be done for two purposes: (1) does the fix now handle the
original problem correctly, and (2) make sure the fix hasn't created any undesirable side effects.

For large systems, it is a good idea to have regression tests, a series of test runs that exercise the system.
After significant changes and/or bug fixes, these tests can be repeated at any time to verify that the system
still executes as expected. As new features are added, additional tests can be included in the test suite.

Steps to reduce debugging

There are concrete steps that can be taken to reduce the amount of time spent debugging software. These
are listed in the sections below.

The correct mindset

Probably the most important thing you can do when you are starting to debug a program is to realize that
you don't understand what is going on. Programmers who are convinced that their program should work
fine are less likely to find errors simply because they are refusing to admit their confusion. If the program
behaved the way you think it does, you wouldn't be debugging; the program would be working fine.

Even when the program appears to work, if you examine it with the thought that there is at least one bug
remaining and you are going to find it, then you are more likely to find something wrong with the program.

Start at the source

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 59

The time when you are most aware of where problems are more likely to arise is usually when first
designing and writing the code. By inserting integrity checks at various places within the program,
problems can be detected and reported by the program itself.

In addition to detecting problems, considerations should be given as to how best to handle each error.
Options include:
i. Report error, set invalid fields to a default value, and continue
ii. Report error, discard the record associated with the invalid value, and continue
iii. Report error, transfer invalid record into separate file/table so the user can examine and possibly
correct the problem
iv. Report error and terminate the program
v. Treat user input with suspicion

Any data that originated from users (including external systems) should be treated with suspicion. Carefully
validate all such input data, performing syntactical and semantical integrity checks. Such invalid data are a
common source of programming errors. Think not just of data entered in error, but malicious data as well,
as in buffer overflow exploits.

If data are entered interactively by users, you can provide appropriate error messages and allow the user to
correct the invalid field(s). If data are not from an interactive source, then the erroneous records should be
handled as described above.

Use of log files

Programs that write information to log files can provide significant information that can be used to analyze
what was going on before, during, and after problems are encountered. The number of entries to be
searched can be reduced by creating various log files, such as a separate log for each major component of
the system, plus one log file strictly for errors.

Each entry should be date/time stamped so that entries from different logs can be correlated.

Test suites
A standard set of tests that can be run to perform tests can assist in finding errors before they make it into
production. These test cases should be automated as much as possible to reduce the amount of effort
required to perform these tests. As new features are added to the system, additional tests should be created
to exercise those features.

Change one thing at a time

When making a lot of changes, apply them incrementally. Add one change, and then test that change
thoroughly before starting on the next change. This will reduce the number of possible sources of new
bugs. If several different changes are applied at the same time, then it is much more difficult to identify the
source of the problem. Furthermore, minor errors in different areas can interact to produce errors that never
would have happened if those changes had been applied one at a time.

Back out changes that have no effect

If you make a change to fix a problem, but the program still behaves the same, back out those changes
before proceeding.

The fact that your changes didn't do anything indicates one of several things:

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 60

 i. The problem is not where you think it is
ii. The area you modified either isn't being called, or isn't being called the way you think it is
iii. Assuming the section you changed wasn't executed, you might have introduced new bugs that won't
appear until you fix the current bug
iv. Try another port of your Application

Programs, that are available under different Architectures (e.g. Operation Systems like MS Windows,
MacOSX, Linux or Processors like Intel Pentium, PowerPC or DEC Alpha) sometimes react differently on
other Systems (especially for subsequent errors). Sometimes it is far more easy to find the error on a
different architecture.

Think of similar situations

When a bug has been found, think of other places where the same mistake might have been made. Check
those places and see if the same problem exists there as well.

Finding Coding Errors

Not every kind of program is debugged in the same way and not all techniques can be used on all types of
programs.
The main character in debugging is the debugger. This is software which runs simultaneous with the newly
written program and allows you to pause the program and read memory addresses, stack and various other
normally invisible parts of your program.

Another method of debugging is the log-file. Outputting the contents of certain variables can provide
valuable information on how your program performs. Outputting a string containing the name of the
function when the function is called can be useful in locating when an error is introduced. For finding
where a program crashes it's more practical to use the debugger.

Large programs are hard to debug, small programs are (relatively) easy to debug. So the key is to turn a
large program into a lot of small programs for debugging. This is called "Unit testing" and involves
compiling a part of your program (a routine, a collection of related routines, a module or even a complete
subsystem) with extra code to allow it to run without the rest of the code in place.

Full screen application (especially games) can be hard to debug as you won't be able to see the debuggers
output. A solution lays in using a null-modem cable, a second computer and a terminal program (e.g.
Hyper-terminal). Pipe the output of the debugger through the null modem cable to the second computer.
e.g.

In Dos with gdb using a serial null modem cable:

Configure the port with mode: mode COM2: 9600,n,8,1,none
Pipe the output to COM2 by adding >COM2 when you invoke the debugger.

WATCHING VARIABLES VALUES IN MEMORY

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 61

How are variables stored in memory in C?

The static variables are stored in the data segment of the memory. The data segment is a part of the
virtual address space of a program.

All the static variables that do not have an explicit initialization or are initialized to zero are stored in the
uninitialized data segment( also known as the BSS segment).

Here we will see how to print the memory representation of C variables. Here we will show integers, floats,
and pointers.
To solve this problem, we have to follow these steps −
i. Get the address and the size of the variable
ii. Typecast the address to the character pointer to get byte address
iii. Now loop for the size of the variable and print the value of typecasted pointer.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
typedef unsigned char *byte_pointer; //create byte pointer using char*
void disp_bytes(byte_pointer ptr, int len) {
//this will take byte pointer, and print memory content
int i;
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
printf(" %.2x", ptr[i]);
printf("
");
}
void disp_int(int x) {
disp_bytes((byte_pointer) &x, sizeof(int));
}
void disp_float(float x) {
disp_bytes((byte_pointer) &x, sizeof(float));
}
void disp_pointer(void *x) {
disp_bytes((byte_pointer) &x, sizeof(void *));
}
main() {
int i = 5;
float f = 2.0;
int *p = &i;
disp_int(i);
disp_float(f);
disp_pointer(p);
disp_int(i);
}
Output
05 00 00 00
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 62
00 00 00 40
3c fe 22 00 00 00 00 00
05 00 00 00

How do you display memory?

Here's how:
i. Press Ctrl + Shift + Esc to launch Task Manager. Or, right-click the Taskbar and select Task
Manager.
ii. Select the Performance tab to see current RAM usage displayed in the Memory box, and total RAM
capacity listed under Physical Memory.

How are C strings represented memory?

A string constant in C is represented by a sequence of characters within double quotes. Standard C
character escape sequences like \n (newline), \r (carriage return), \a (bell), \0x17 (character with
hexadecimal code 0x17), \\ (backslash), and \" (double quote) can all be used inside string constants.

UNIT 3. CONSTANTS, VARIABLES AND DATA TYPES

A constant is a value that doesn't change throughout the execution of a program. A variable is an identifier
which is used to store a value. There are four commonly used data types such as int, float, char and a void.
Each data type differs in size and range from one another.

Character Set, C tokens, Keywords and Identifiers, Constants, Variables, Data types, Declaration of
Variables, Assigning values to variables, typedef, and Defining symbolic constants.

A variable is an identifier which is used to store some value. Constants can never change at the time of
execution. Variables can change during the execution of a program and update the value stored inside it.
A single variable can be used at multiple locations in a program. A variable name must be meaningful. It
should represent the purpose of the variable.

Example: Height, age, are the meaningful variables that represent the purpose it is being used for. Height
variable can be used to store a height value. Age variable can be used to store the age of a person

A variable must be declared first before it is used somewhere inside the program. A variable name is
formed using characters, digits and an underscore.

Following are the rules that must be followed while creating a variable:
1. A variable name should consist of only characters, digits and an underscore.
2. A variable name should not begin with a number.
3. A variable name should not consist of whitespace.
4. A variable name should not consist of a keyword.
5. ‘C’ is a case sensitive language that means a variable named ‘age’ and ‘AGE’ are different.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 63

Following are the examples of valid variable names in a ‘C’ program:
height or HEIGHT
_height
_height1
My_name
Following are the examples of invalid variable names in a ‘C’ program:
1height
Hei$ght
My name

For example, we declare an integer variable my_variable and assign it the value 48:
int my_variable;
my_variable = 48;
By the way, we can both declare and initialize (assign an initial value) a variable in a single statement:
int my_variable = 48;

Data types
‘C’ provides various data types to make it easy for a programmer to select a suitable data type as per the
requirements of an application. Following are the three data types:
1. Primitive data types
2. Derived data types
3. User-defined data types

There are five primary fundamental data types,

1. int for integer data
2. char for character data
3. float for floating point numbers
4. double for double precision floating point numbers
5. void

Array, functions, pointers, structures are derived data types. ‘C’ language provides more extended versions
of the above mentioned primary data types.

Each data type differs from one another in size and range. Following table displays the size and range of
each data type.

Data type Size in bytes Range

Char or signed char 1 -128 to 127
Unsigned char 1 0 to 255
int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767
Unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
Short int or Unsigned short int 2 0 to 255
Signed short int 2 -128 to 127
Long int or Signed long int 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647
Unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 64

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38
double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
Long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932

Note: In C, there is no Boolean data type.

Integer data type
Integer is nothing but a whole number. The range for an integer data type varies from machine to machine.
The standard range for an integer data type is -32768 to 32767.

An integer typically is of 2 bytes which means it consumes a total of 16 bits in memory. A single integer
value takes 2 bytes of memory. An integer data type is further divided into other data types such as short
int, int, and long int.

Each data type differs in range even though it belongs to the integer data type family. The size may not
change for each data type of integer family.

The short int is mostly used for storing small numbers, int is used for storing averagely sized integer values,
and long int is used for storing large integer values.

Whenever we want to use an integer data type, we have place int before the identifier such as,
int age;

Here, age is a variable of an integer data type which can be used to store integer values.

Floating point data type

Like integers, in ‘C’ program we can also make use of floating point data types. The ‘float’ keyword is
used to represent the floating point data type. It can hold a floating point value which means a number is
having a fraction and a decimal part.

A floating point value is a real number that contains a decimal point. Integer data type doesn’t store the
decimal part hence we can use floats to store decimal part of a value.

Generally, a float can hold up to 6 precision values. If the float is not sufficient, then we can make use of
other data types that can hold large floating point values. The data type double and long double are used to
store real numbers with precision up to 14 and 80 bits respectively.

While using a floating point number a keyword float/double/long double must be placed before an
identifier. The valid examples are,
float division;
double BankBalance;

Character data type

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 65

Character data types are used to store a single character value enclosed in single quotes.
A character data type takes up-to 1 byte of memory space.
Example,
Char letter;

Void data type

A void data type doesn’t contain or return any value. It is mostly used for defining functions in ‘C’.
Example,
void displayData()

Type declaration of a variable

int main() {
int x, y;
float salary = 13.48;
char letter = 'K';
x = 25;
y = 34;
int z = x+y;
printf("%d \n", z);
printf("%f \n", salary);
printf("%c \n", letter);
return 0;}
Output:
59
13.480000
K
We can declare multiple variables with the same data type on a single line by separating them with a
comma. Also, notice the use of format specifiers in printf output function float (%f) and char (%c) and int
(%d).
Constants
Constants are the fixed values that never change during the execution of a program. Following are the
various types of constants:

Integer constants
An integer constant is nothing but a value consisting of digits or numbers. These values never change
during the execution of a program. Integer constants can be octal, decimal and hexadecimal.
Decimal constant contains digits from 0-9 such as,

Example, 111, 1234

Above are the valid decimal constants.
Octal constant contains digits from 0-7, and these types of constants are always preceded by 0.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 66

Example, 012, 065
Above are the valid Octal constants.
Hexadecimal constant contains a digit from 0-9 as well as characters from A-F. Hexadecimal constants are
always preceded by 0X.

Example, 0X2, 0Xbcd

Above are the valid hexadecimal constants.
The octal and hexadecimal integer constants are very rarely used in programming with ‘C’.

Character constants
A character constant contains only a single character enclosed within a single quote (”). We can also
represent character constant by providing ASCII value of it.
Example, 'A', '9'
Above are the examples of valid character constants.

String constants
A string constant contains a sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes (“”).
Example, "Hello", "Programming"
These are the examples of valid string constants.

Real Constants
Like integer constants that always contains an integer value. ‘C’ also provides real constants that contain a
decimal point or a fraction value. The real constants are also called as floating point constants. The real
constant contains a decimal point and a fractional value.

Example, 202.15, 300.00

These are the valid real constants in ‘C’.
A real constant can also be written as,
Mantissa e Exponent
For example, to declare a value that does not change like the classic circle constant PI, there are two ways
to declare this constant
By using the const keyword in a variable declaration which will reserve a storage memory
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
const double PI = 3.14;
printf("%f", PI);
//PI++; // This will generate an error as constants cannot be changed
return 0;}

By using the #define pre-processor directive which doesn’t use memory for storage and without putting a
semicolon character at the end of that statement
#include <stdio.h>

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 67

#define PI 3.14
int main() {
printf("%f", PI);
return 0;}
Summary
A constant is a value that doesn’t change throughout the execution of a program.
A variable is an identifier which is used to store a value.
There are four commonly used data types such as int, float, char and a void.
Each data type differs in size and range from one another.

7 Data Types: A Better Way to Think about Data Types for Machine Learning
With 7 Data Types to reference we should all be able to more quickly evaluate and discuss the encoding
options and imputation strategies available.
TL;DR;

Think and talk about each of your features as one of the following seven data types to save time and transfer
knowledge:
Useless
Nominal
Binary
Ordinal
Count
Time
Interval
UPDATE
Read all the way through to see the additional 4 data types for machine learning.

The current state

In the machine learning world, data is nearly always split into two groups: numerical and categorical.
Numerical data is used to mean anything represented by numbers (floating point or integer). Categorical data
generally means everything else and in particular discrete labeled groups are often called out. These two
primary groupings numerical and categorical are used inconsistently and don’t provide much direction as to
how the data should be manipulated.

Data generally needs to be put into numeric form for machine learning algorithms to use the data to make
predictions. In machine learning guides categorical string data is usually one-hot-encoded (aka dummy
encoded). Dan Becker refers to it as “The Standard Approach for Categorical Data” in Kaggle’s Machine
Learning tutorial series.

Oftentimes in tutorials it is assumed that all data that arrived in numeric form is ready to be used as is and
that all string data needs one-hot-encoded. While many tutorials do dig a bit deeper into the types of data

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 68

(such as treating time, binary, or text data specially), these deeper dives often are not done in a systematic
way. In fact, I have found no clear guidelines for transforming the data based on a taxonomy like the one
proposed in this article. If you know of such data science resources, please share in the comments :)

Coming to machine learning after having been trained in social science methods and statistics in graduate
school, I found it surprising that there wasn’t much talk about ordinal data. For example, I kept finding
myself trying to figure out the best way to encode and impute ordinal scale data in string form and nominal
(truly categorical) data in numeric form. Without clear and consistent categories for types of data, this took
more time than necessary.

The 7 Data Types was inspired by Steven’s typology of measurement scales and my own observations about
the types of data that need special consideration for machine learning models. Let’s first look at the
measurement scales in use and where they came from before introducing the 7 Data Types.

Stevens’ typology of measurement scales

In the 1960s Harvard Psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens created four measurement scales for data: ratio,
interval, ordinal, and nominal.

Ratio (equal spaces between values and a meaningful zero value — mean makes sense)
Interval (equal spaces between values, but no meaningful zero value — mean makes sense)
Ordinal (first, second, third values, but not equal space between first and second and second and third —
median makes sense)

Nominal (no numerical relationship between the different categories — mean and median are meaningless)
Steven’s typology became extremely popular, especially in the social sciences. Since then, other researchers
have further expanded the number of scales (Mosteller & Tukey) including as many as ten categories
(Chrisman). Nonetheless, Steven’s typology has reigned in the social sciences and is occasionally referenced
in data science, despite not providing clear guidance in many cases.

Other machine learning and data science practitioners have adopted parts of Steven’s typology in various
ways, leading to a variety of nomenclatures. For example, Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman in The Elements
of Statistical Learning 2nd Ed. combine ratio and interval into quantitative and break
out ordinal and categorical in one example (p. 504). Elsewhere Hastie et. al. refer to ordinal as ordered
categorical variables and categorical variables as qualitative, discrete, or factors (p. 10). Statistics for
Dummies breaks the types of data into numerical, ordinal, and categorical —
lumping ratio with interval under numerical. DataCamp refers to continuous, ordinal, and nominal data
types in this tutorial.

A classification that occasionally comes up in statistics is between discrete and continuous variables.
Discrete data has distinct values while continuous data has an infinite number of potential values in a range.
But generally in machine learning numerical and categorical is the divide that you’ll see (e.g. here). The
popular Pandas library’s lumps together ordinal and nominal data in it’s optional Category dtype. Overall,

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 69

the current lexicon for machine learning data types is inconsistent and confusing. And what is unclear is
slow to learn. What can be done to improve things?

7 Primary Data Types for machine learning

Although it may seem like a bold goal to improve the lexicon of data types in machine learning, I hope that
this article will provide a useful taxonomy of groups that for more actionable steps for data scientists.

By providing clear categories, I hope to help my colleagues, especially newcomers, more quickly build
models and discover new options for improving model performance.

I propose the following taxonomy of 7 Data Types most useful for machine learning practitioners:
i. Useless
ii. Nominal
iii. Binary
iv. Ordinal
v. Count
vi. Time
vii. Interval

1. Useless
Useless data is unique, discrete data with no potential relationship with the outcome variable. A useless
feature might have high cardinality. An example would be bank account numbers that were generated
randomly.

If a feature consists of unique values with no order and no meaning, that feature is useless and need not be
included when fitting a model.

Same goes for a feature with no variance. If everyone in your dataset is an adult, a column full of 1s to
represent that information isn’t helpful to your model.

2. Nominal
Nominal data is made of discrete values with no numerical relationship between the different categories
mean and median are meaningless. Animal species is one example. For example, pig is not higher than bird
and lower than fish.

Nationality is another example of nominal data. There is group membership with no numeric order being
French, Mexican, or Japanese does not in itself imply an ordered relationship.

You can one-hot-encode or hash nominal features. Do not ordinal encode them because the relationship
between the groups cannot be reduced to a monotonic function. The assigning of values would be random.

3. Ordinal

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 70

Ordinal data are discrete integers that can be ranked or sorted. A defining characteristic is that the distance
between any two numbers is not known.

For example, the distance between first and second may not be the same as the distance between second and
third. Think of a 10k race. The winner might have run 30:00 minutes, second place might have run 30:01
minutes and third place might have run 400:00 minutes. Without the time data, we don’t know the relative
distance between the ranks.

Broadly speaking, ordinal data can be encoded one of three ways. It can be assumed to be close enough to
interval data, with relatively equal magnitudes between the values, to treat it as such. Social scientists make
this assumption all the time with Likert scales. For instance, on a scale from 1 to 7, 1 being extremely
unlikely, 4 being neither likely nor unlikely and 7 being extremely likely, how likely are you to recommend
this movie to a friend? Here the difference between 3 and 4 and the difference between 6 and 7 can be
reasonably assumed to be similar.

A second option is to treat ordinal data as nominal data, where each category has no relationship to any
other. One-hot encoding it or a similar scheme can be used in that case.

A third option that will be explored in more detail in a future article is something like reverse Helmert
coding, which can be used to encode various potential magnitudes between the values.
There’s merit in categorizing ordinal data as it’s own type of data.

4. Binary
Binary data is discrete data that can be in only one of two categories either yes or no, 1 or 0, off or on, etc.
Binary can be thought of as a special case of ordinal, nominal, count, or interval data.

Binary data is a very common outcome variable in machine learning classification problems. For example,
we may want to create a supervised learning model to predict whether a tumor is malignant or benign.
Binary data is common and merits its own category when thinking about your data.

5. Count
Count data is discrete whole number data no negative numbers here. Count data often has many small
values, such as zero and one.

Count data is usually treated similarly to interval data, but it is unique enough and widespread enough to
merit its own category.

6. Time
Time data is a cyclical, repeating continuous form of data. The relevant time features can be any period—
daily, weekly, monthly, annual, etc.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 71

The values for each observation might be any of the other data types we’ve seen. For example, your data
might contain unit sales or total revenue by date.

The Pandas python library was designed with time series data in mind. Financial and marketing data often
have a time series component that is important to capture.

Time series data often take some wrangling and manipulation to create features with the periods that might
be meaningful for your model.

Missing time series data is often filled using unique methods appropriate to seasonal or daily data.
Time series data has some of its own models and is definitely worth thinking about in a separate mental
bucket.

7. Interval
Interval data has equal spaces between the numbers and does not represent a temporal pattern. Examples
include percentages, temperatures, and income.

Interval data is the most precise measurement scale data and very common. Although each value is a
discrete number, e.g. 3.1 miles, it doesn’t generally matter for machine learning purposes whether it is a
continuous scale (e.g. infinitely smaller measurement sizes are possible) nor does it matter whether there is
an absolute zero.
Interval data is generally easy to work with but you may want to create bins to cut down on the number of
ranges.

And there you have the 7 Data Types.

i. Useless
ii. Nominal
iii. Binary
iv. Ordinal
v. Count
vi. Time
vii. Interval

Although many experienced machine learning practitioners certainly do think of some of the types of data
described with these labels differently in practice, a clear taxonomy for the field is lacking. I posit that using
the taxonomy above will help folks more quickly evaluate options for encoding, imputing, and analyzing
their data.

Note that most of these seven categories could show up in your raw data in most any form. We aren’t talking
about float64 vs bool: the Python type or (Numpy or Pandas dtype) is not the same as the type of data
discussed here.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 72

UNIT 4. OPERATORS AND EXPRESSION

Introduction to Operators and its types, Evaluation of expressions, Precedence of arithmetic operators,
Type conversions in expressions, Operator precedence and associatively

Expressions perform specific actions, based on an operator, with one or two operands. An operand can be a
constant, a variable or a function result. Operators are arithmetic, logical, and relational.

As with C, some operators vary in functionality according to the data type of the operands specified in the
expression.

Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, **, % )

Arithmetic operators perform mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction with operands.
There are two types of mathematical operators: unary and binary. Unary operators perform an action with
a single operand. Binary operators perform actions with two operands. In a complex expression, (two or
more operands) the order of evaluation depends on precedence rules.

Unary arithmetic operators

Unary operators are arithmetic operators that perform an action on a single operand. The script language
recognizes the unary operator negative (-).
The negative unary operator reverses the sign of an expression from positive to negative or vice-versa. The
net effect is that of multiplying the number by -1. Example:
a = -10;
The Prefix operators increment or decrement the variable prior to dereferencing the object, while the
Postfix operators increment or decrement the variable after referencing it. Example:
A=1;
B = a++; // b will equal 1, a will equal 2;
A = 1;
B = ++a; // b will equal 2, a will equal 2;
A= 1;
B = a--; // b will equal 1, a will equal 0;

Binary arithmetic operators

Insert a space before and after an arithmetic operator. The binary arithmetic operators that are supported are
listed below.
Symbol Operation Example Description
+ Addition a+b Add the two operands
Subtract the second operand from the first
- Subtraction a-b
operand
* Multiplication a * b Multiply the two operands
/ Division a/b Divide the first operand by the second operand
Raise the first operand by the power of the second
** Power a ** b
operand
Divide the first operand by the second operand
% Modulo a%b
and yield the remainder portion

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 73

 Symbol Operation Example Description
Table 1. Binary Arithmetic Operators

Operator precedence
Expressions are normally evaluated left to right. Complex expressions are evaluated one at a time. The
order in which the expressions are evaluated is determined by the precedence of the operators used. The
standard C ordering is followed.
1. negation (-) unary
2. power
3. multiplication, division and modulo
4. addition and subtraction

If an expression contains two or more operators with the same precedence, the operator to the left is
evaluated first. For example, 10 / 2 * 5 will be evaluated as (10 / 2) and the result multiplied by 5.

When a lower precedence operation should be processed first, it should be enclosed within parentheses. For
example, 30 / 2 + 8. This is normally evaluated as 30 divided by 2 then 8 added to the result. If you want to
divide by 2 + 8, it should be written as 30 / (2 + 8).

Parentheses can be nested within expressions. Innermost parenthetical expressions are evaluated first.
Assignment Operator (= )

Use the assignment operator (=) to copy a constant, literal, variable expression result, or function result
to a variable. The script language does not support multiple assignments in a single statement (such as
a=b=c=0). String lengths are defined based on the size of the string assigned to the variable and can
change dynamically at runtime.

Logical Operators (AND, OR)

Logical operators allow the combining of more than one relational test in one comparison. Logical
operators return a TRUE (1) or FALSE (0) value. Logical operators have a lower precedence than
arithmetic operators.

Symbol Operation Example Description

AND && AND Expr1 $$ expr2 True if both expr1 and expr2 are true.
OR || OR Expr1 OR expr2 True if either expr1 or expr2 are true.
Table 2. Logical Operators
Relational Operators
Relational operators are as follows:
Symbol Operation Example Description
< Less than a < b True if a is less than b.
> Greater than a GT b True if a is greater than b.
== Equal a == b True if a is equal to b.
!= Not equal a NE b True if a is not equal to b.
<= Less than or equal a <= b True if a is less than or equal to b.
>= Greater than or equal a GE b True if a is greater than or equal to b.
Table 3. Relational Operators
Comparisons must be made on like data types—string to string, numbers to numbers. If the data
types are different, a run time error will be raised.
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 74
String comparisons
Two strings are considered equal if they match character for character and are of the same length. Strings
are compared character by character, left to right until all characters have been matched or one of the
strings has been exhausted.

If the end of one string is encountered before the end of the corresponding string, the strings are considered
to be of unequal length and result in an unequal condition.

If any character in a string does not match the corresponding character in the other string, the comparison
stops and the strings are considered not equal. Strings are case-sensitive.

Examples:
Str1 = "abcdefg";
Str2 = "abcdefg";
Str3 = "abcdef";
Str4 = "ABCDEFG";
If (str1 == str2)... results in an equal/true conditions
If (str1 == str3).... Results in a not equal condition
because str3 is shorter than str1

If (str1 == str4) ... Results in a not equal condition

because the strings are of different case;

String Concatenation Operator (+)

The Plus(+) operator, when applied to strings, results in the concatenation of the two strings.
Example:
Str1 = "abc";
Str2 = "def";
Str3 = str1 + str2; results in "abcdef"

Data types and structures

Programs use data, known as ‘values’. Variables hold values. Each variable in a program must have a data
type. Sometimes a programmer needs to store a lot of related data. To do this they use structures such as
arrays.

Operators
In computer science, an operator is a character or characters that determine the action that is to be
performed or considered.

There are three types of operator that programmers use:

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 75

 i. arithmetic operators
ii. relational operators
iii. logical operators

These operators are common to most high-level programming languages.

Arithmetic operators
Computers are designed to carry out calculations. Arithmetic operators allow arithmetic to be performed on values.
Arithmetic operation Operator Example
Addition + x=x+5
Subtraction - x=x-5
Multiplication * x=x*5
Division / x=x/5
Integer division DIV x = x DIV 5
Remainder MOD x = x MOD 5

Relational operators
Relational operators allow for assignment and enable comparisons to be made. They are used in condition
testing.

Relational operation Operator Example

Assignment = x=5
Equivalence = or == if x = 5 or if x == 5
Less than < if x < 5
Less than or equal to <= if x <= 5
Greater than > if x > 5
Greater than or equal to >= if x >= 5
Does not equal <> or != If x <> 5 or if x != 5
Logical operators
Logical operators are used to combine relational operators to give more complex decisions.
Logical operation Operator Example
And AND if x > 0 AND x < 10
Or OR if topic == "Computing" OR topic == "Computer Science"
Not NOT while NOT x

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 76

UNIT 5. MANAGEMENT INPUT AND OUTPUT OPERATORS

Input/output (I/O) management involves controlling the flow of data into and out of a data processing
complex. In an automated environment, you might want to change your approach to I/O activities that
previously required manual intervention, such as tape and printer management.

Introduction, reading a character, writing a character, formatted input, formatted output.

Reading, processing, and writing of data are the three essential functional functions of a computer program
input and output operations.

Most programs take some data as input and display the processed data, often known as information or
results, on a suitable medium. So far we have seen two methods of providing data to the program variables.

One method is to assign values to variables through the assignment statements such as x=5; a=0; and so on.
Another method is to use the input and out function scanf which can read data from a keyboard. We have
used both the methods in most of our earlier example programs.

For outputting results we have used extensively the fuction printf which sends results out to a terminal.
Unlike other high-level languages, C does not have any built-in input/output statements as part of its
syntax. All input/output operations are carried out through function calls such as printf and scanf.

There exist several functions that have more or less become standard for input and output operations in C.
These functions are collectively known as the standard input and output library.

However, one should consult the system reference manual for exact details of these functions and also to
see what other functions are available.

#include <math.h>
Where a math library function cos(x) has been used. This is to instruction the compiler to fetch the function
cos(x) from the math library, and that it is not a part of C language.

Similarly, each program that uses a standard input/output function must contain the statement
#include <stdio.h>

at the beginning. However there might be exceptions. For example, this is not necessary for the
functions printf and scanf which have been defined as a part of the C language.
Reading a Character

The simplest of all managing input and output operations in c is reading a character from the ‘standard
input’ unit (usually the keyboard) and writing it to the ‘standard output’ unit (usually the screen).

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 77

Reading a single character can be done by using the function getchar.

variable_name=grtchar();
variable_name is a valid C name that has been declared as char type. When this statement is encountered,
the computer waits until a key is pressed and then assigns this character as a value to getchar function.

Since getchar is used on the right hand side of an assignment statement, the character value of fetchar is in
turn assigned to the variable name on the letf.
char name;
name = getchar();
Will assign the character ‘H’ to the variable name when we press the key H on the keyboard. Since getchar
is a function, it requires a set of parentheses as shown.

The program displays a question of YES/NO type to the user and reads the user’s response in a single
character (Y or N). If the response is Y or Y, it outputs the message My name is BUSY BEE
Program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char answer;
printf("Would you like to know my name?\n");
printf("Type Y for YES and N for NO: ");
answer = getchar(); /* .... Reading a character...*/
if(answer == 'Y' || answer == 'y')
printf("\n\nMy name is BUSY BEE\N");
else
printf("\n\nYou are good for nothing\n");
}

Output
Would you like to know my name?
Type Y for YES and N for NO: Y
Would you like to know my name?
Type Y for YES and N for NO: n
You are good for nothing

The getchar function may be called successively to read the characters contained in a line of text. For
example, the following program segment reads characters from keyboard one after another untile the
‘Return’ key is pressed.

The getchar() function accepts any character keyed in. This includes RETURN and TAB . This means
when we enter single character input, the newline character is waiting in the input queue
after getchar() returns.

Note : We shall be using decision statements like if, if…else and while extensively in this chapter. They are
discussed in detail next chapter.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 78

This program receives a character from the keyboard and tests whether it is a latter or digit and prints out a
message accordingly. These tests are done with the help of the following functions:
isalpha(character)
isdigit(character)
for example, isalpha assumes a value non-zero (TRUE) if the argument character contains an alphabet;
otherwise it assumes 0 (FLASE). Similar is the case with the function isdigit.
Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
main()
{
char character;
printf("Press any key\n");
character = getchar();
if (isalpha(character) >0)/* Test for letter */
printf("The character is a letter.");
else
if (isdigit (character) >0)/* Test for digit */
printf("The character is a digit is a digit.");
else
printf("The character is not alphanumeric.");
}
Output
Press any key
h
The character is a letter.
Press any key
5
The character is a digit.
Press any key
*
The character is not alphanumeric.
C supports many other similar functions, which are given in table in next. These character functions are
contained in the file ctype.h and therefore the statement #include <ctype.h> must be included in the
program.

Writing a Character – input and output

Like getchar, there is an analogous function putchar for writing characters one at a time to the terminal. It
takes the form as shown below: putchar (variable_name);

where variable_name is a type char variable containing a character. This statement display the character
contained in the variable_name at the terminal.
answer = 'Y' ;
putchar (answer);
will display the character Y on the screen. The statement putchar (‘\n’); would cause the cursor on the
screen to move to the beginning of the next line.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 79

The program uses three new functions: islower, toupper, and tolower. The function islower is a conditional
function and takes the value TRUE if the argument is a lowercase alphabet; otherwise takes the value
FALSE.

The function toupper converts the lowercase argument into an uppercase alphabet while the function
tolower does the reverse.
Formatted Input
Formatted input to an input data that has been arranged in a particular format. For example, consider the
following data: 15.75 123 John

This line contains three pieces of data, arranged in a particular form. Such data has to be read conforming
to the format of its appearance.

For example, the first part of the data should be read into a variable float, the second into int, and the third
part into char. This is possible in C using the scanf function. (scanf means scan formatted)

The control string specifies the field format in which the data is to be entered and the argument arg1, arg2,
… argn specify the address of locations where the data is stored, Control string and arguments are separted
by commas.

Field (or format) specifications, consisting of the conversion character % a data type character (or type
specifier), and an optional number, specifying the field width.

Blanks, tabs, or newlines.

Blanks, tabs and newlines are ignoerd. The data type character indicates the type of data is to be assigned to
the variable associated with the corresponding argument. The field width specifier is optional. The
discussions that follo will clarify these concepts.

Inputting Integer Numbers – input and output

The field specification for reading an integer number is : % w sd
The percentage sign (%) indicates that a conversion specification follows. w is an integer number that
specified the field width of the number to be read and d, know as data type character, indicates that the
number to be read is in interger mode.

Consider the following example: scanf (“%d %5d”, &num1, &num2);

The variable num1 will be assigned 31 (because of %2d) and num2 will be assigned 426 (unread part of
31426). The value 50 that is unread will be assigned to the first variable in the next scanf call.

This kind of error may be eliminated if we use the field specifications without the without the field width
specifications. That is the statement scanf(“%d %d”, &num1, &num2);

Input data items must be separated by spaces, tabs or newlines, punctuation marks do not count as
separators.

When the scanf function searches the input data line for a value to be read, it will always bypass any white
space characters.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 80

What happens if we enter a floating point number of an integer? The fractional part may be stripped away!
Also, scanf may skip reading further input.

The data type character d may be preceded by ‘I’ (letter ell) to read long integers and h to read short
integers.

Note : we have provided white space between the field specifications. These spaces are not necessary with
the numeric input, but it is a good practice to include the.
The first scanf requests input data for three integer value a,b and c, and accordingly three values 1,2 and 3
are keyed in. Because of the specification %*d the value 2 has been skipped and 3 is assigned to the
variable b.

Notice that since no data is available for c, it contains garbage.

The second scanf specifies the format %2d and %4d for the variables x and y respectively. Whenever we
specify field width for reading integer numbers, the input numbers sholud not contain more digits that the
specifid size.

Otherwise, the extra digits on the right hand side will be truncated and assigned to the next variable in the
list.

Note : It is legal to use a non whitespace character between field specification. However, the scanf expects
a matching character in the given location.

Inputting Real Numbers

Unlike inteher numbers, the field width of real numbers is not to be specified and therefore scanf reads real
numbers using the simple specification %f for both notation, namely, decimal point notation and
exponential. scanf(“%f %f %f”, &x, &y, &z); with the input data 475.89 43.21E-1 678

will assign the value 475.89 to x, 4.321 to y, and 678.0 to z. The input field specifications may be separated
by any arbitrary blank spaces.

If the number to be read is of double type, the specification should be %if instead of simple %f. A number
may be skipped using %*f specification.

Inputting Character Strings

We have already seen how a single character can be read from the terminal using the getchar function. The
same can be achieved using the scanf function also.

In addition, a scanf function can input strings containg more than one character. Following are the
specifications for reading character strings: %ws or %wc

The corresponding argument should be a pointer to a character array. However, %c may be used to read a
single character when the argument is a pointer to a char variable.

when we use %wc for reading a string, the system will wait until the w character is keyed in.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 81

Reading Mixed Data Types
It is possible to use one scanf statement to input a data line containing mixed mode data. In such cases care
should be exercised to ensure that the input data items match the control specifications in order and type.
When an attempt is made to read an item that does not match the type expected, the scanf function does not
read any further and immediately returns the value read. The statement

scanf ("%d %c %f %s", &count, &code, &ratio, name);

Correctly and assign the values to the variables in the order in which they appear. Some systems accept
integers in the place of real numbers and vice versa, and the input data is converted to the type specification
in the control string.
Note : A space before the %c specification in the format string in necessary to skip the white space before
p.
Detection of Errors in Input

When a scanf function completes reading its, it returns the value of number of items that are successfully
read. This value can be used to test whether any errors occurred in reading the input.

For example the statement

scanf("%d %f %s, &a, &b, name);
will return the value 3 if the following data is typed in:
20 150.25 motor
and will return the value 1 if following line is entered
20 motor 150.25
This is because the function would encounter a string when it was expecting a floating point value, and
would therefore terminal its scan after reading the first value.

The function scanf is expected to read three items of data and therefore, when the values for all the three
variables are read correctly, the program prints out their values.

During the third run, the second item does not match with the type of variable and therefore the reading is
terminated and the error message is printed. Same is the case with the fourth run.

In the last run, although data items do not match the variables, no error message has been printed when we
attempt to read a real number for an int variable, the integer part is assigned to variable and the truncated
decimal part is assigned to the next variable.

h for short integers

l for long integers or double
L for long double
Points to Remember While Using scanf – input and output
If we do not plan carefully, some ‘crazy’ things can heppen with scanf. Since the Input and output are
not part of C language, they are made available either as a separate module of the C library or as a part of
the operating system (like UNIX).

New feature are added to these routines from time to time as never versions of systems are released. We
should consult the system referance manual before using these routines.

All function arguments, except the control string must be pointers to variables.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 82

Format specifications contained in the control string should match the arguments in order.
Input data items must be separated by spaces and must match the variables reciving the input in the same
order.

The reading will be terminated, when scanf encounters a ‘mismatch’ of data or a character that is not valid
for value being read.

When searching for a value, scanf ignores line boundaries and simply looks for the next appropriate
character.

Any under data items in a line be considered as part of the data input to the next scanf call.
When the field width specifier w is used, it should be large enough to contain the input data size.
Rules for scanf
Each variable to be read must have a filed have a specification.

For each field specification, there must be a variable address of proper type.
Any non-whitespace character used in the formated string must have a matching character in the user input.
Never end the format string with whitespace. It is a fatal error!

UNIT 11. POINTERS

BASICS OF POINTERS, POINTER TO POINTER, POINTER AND ARRAY, POINTER TO
ARRAY, ARRAY OF POINTERS, FUNCTIONS RETURNING A POINTER

An array is a fundamental data structure built into C. A thorough understanding of arrays and their use is
necessary to develop effective applications. Misunderstandings of array and pointer usage can result in
hard-to-find errors and less than optimal performance in applications. Array and pointer notations are
closely related to each other and can frequently be used interchangeably in the right context.

A common misconception is that an array and a pointer are completely interchangeable. An array name is
not a pointer. Although an array name can be treated as a pointer at times, and array notation can be used
with pointers, they are distinct and cannot always be used in place of each other. Understanding this
difference will help you avoid incorrect use of these notations. For example, although the name of an array
used by itself will return the array’s address, we cannot use the name by itself as the target of an
assignment.

Arrays support many parts of an application and can be single or multidimensional. In this chapter, we will
address the fundamental aspects of arrays as they relate to pointers to provide you with a deep
understanding of arrays and the various ways they can be manipulated with pointers. You will see their use
in more advanced contexts throughout the book.

We start with a quick review of arrays and then examine the similarities and differences between array and
pointer notation. Arrays can be created using malloc type functions. These functions provide more
flexibility than that afforded by traditional array declarations. We will see how the realloc function can be
used to change the amount of memory allocated for an array.

Dynamically allocating memory for an array can present challenges, especially when we are dealing with
arrays with two or more dimensions, as we have to ensure that the array is allocated in contiguous memory.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 83

We will also explore problems that can occur when passing and returning arrays. In most situations, the
array’s size must be passed so the array can be properly handled in a function.

There is nothing inherent in an array’s internal representation that determines its length. If we do not pass
the length, the function has no standard means of knowing where the array ends. We will also examine how
to create jagged arrays in C, although they are infrequently used. A jagged array is a two-dimensional array
where each row may have a different number of columns.

To demonstrate these concepts, we will use a vector for single-dimensional arrays and a matrix for two-
dimensional arrays. Vectors and matrices have found extensive use in many areas, including analyzing
electromagnetic fields, weather prediction, and in mathematics.

Quick Review of Arrays

An array is a contiguous collection of homogeneous elements that can be accessed using an index. By
contiguous, we mean the elements of the array are adjacent to one another in memory with no gaps between
them. By homogeneous, we mean they are all of the same type. Array declarations use a set of brackets and
can possess multiple dimensions.

Two-dimensional arrays are common, and we typically use the terms rows and columns to describe the
position of an array’s element. Arrays with three or more dimensions are not as common but can be quite
useful in some applications. A two-dimensional array is not to be confused with an array of pointers. They
are similar but behave slightly differently, as will be shown in the sectionUsing a One-Dimensional Array
of Pointers.

Variable length arrays were introduced in C99 version of C. Previously, techniques using
the realloc function were used to support arrays whose sizes change. We illustrate the realloc function in
the section Using the realloc Function to Resize an Array.

NOTE
Arrays have a fixed size. When we declare an array, we need to decide how big it should be. If we specify
too many elements, we waste space. If we specify too few elements, we limit how many elements we can
process. The realloc function and variable length arrays provide techniques for dealing with arrays whose
size needs to change. With a little work, we can resize an array and use just the right amount of memory.

One-Dimensional Arrays
A one-dimensional array is a linear structure. It uses a single index to access its members. The following is
a declaration of a five-element array of integers:
int vector[5];
Array indexes start with 0 and end at one less than their declared size. Valid indexes for the
array vector start at 0 and end at 4. However, C does not enforce these bounds. Using an invalid index for
an array can result in unpredictable behavior.

Figure 4-1 illustrates how the array is allocated in memory. Each element is four bytes in length and is
uninitialized. Depending on the memory model used, as explained in Memory Models, the size may be
different.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 84

Figure 4-1. Array memory allocation
The internal representation of an array has no information about the number of elements it contains. The
array name simply references a block of memory. Using the sizeof operator with an array will return the
number of bytes allocated to the array. To determine the number of elements, we divide the array’s size by
its element’s size, as illustrated below. This will display 5:

printf("%d\n", sizeof(vector)/sizeof(int));
One-dimensional arrays can be readily initialized using a block type statement. In the following sequence,
each element is initialized to an integer starting at one:

int vector[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Two-Dimensional Arrays
Two-dimensional arrays use rows and columns to identify array elements. This type of array needs to be
mapped to the one-dimension address space of main memory. In C this is achieved by using a row-column
ordering sequence. The array’s first row is placed in memory followed by the second row, then the third
row, and this ordering continues until the last row is placed in memory.

The following declares a two-dimensional array with two rows and three columns. The array is initialized
using a block statement. Figure 4-2 illustrates how memory is allocated for this array. The diagram on the
left shows how memory is mapped. The diagram on the right shows how it can be viewed conceptually:
int matrix[2][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6}};

Figure 4-2. Two-dimensional array

A two-dimensional array is treated as an array of arrays. That is, when we access the array using only one
subscript, we get a pointer to the corresponding row. This is demonstrated in the following code sequence
where each row’s address and size is displayed:
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
printf("&matrix[%d]: %p sizeof(matrix[%d]): %d\n",
i, &matrix[i], i, sizeof(matrix[i]));
}
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 85
The following output assumes the array is located at address 100. The size is 12 because each row has three
elements of four bytes each:
&matrix[0]: 100 sizeof(matrix[0]): 12
&matrix[1]: 112 sizeof(matrix[1]): 12
In the section Pointers and Multidimensional Arrays, we will examine this behavior in more detail.

Multidimensional Arrays
Multidimensional arrays have two or more dimensions. As with two-dimensional arrays, multiple sets of
brackets define the array’s type and size. In the following example, we define a three-dimensional array
consisting of three rows, two columns, and a rank of four. The term rank is often used to denote the
elements of the third dimension:
int arr3d[3][2][4] = {
{{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}},
{{9, 10, 11, 12}, {13, 14, 15, 16}},
{{17, 18, 19, 20}, {21, 22, 23, 24}}
};
The elements are allocated contiguously in row-column-rank order as illustrated in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3. Three-dimensional array

We will use these declarations in later examples.

Pointer Notation and Arrays

Pointers can be very useful when working with arrays. We can use them with existing arrays or to allocate
memory from the heap and then treat the memory as if it were an array. Array notation and pointer notation
can be used somewhat interchangeably. However, they are not exactly the same as detailed in the
section Differences Between Arrays and Pointers.

When an array name is used by itself, the array’s address is returned. We can assign this address to a
pointer as illustrated below:
int vector[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 86

 int *pv = vector;

The variable pv is a pointer to the first element of the array and not the array itself. When we first assigned
a value to pv, we assigned the address of the array’s first element.

We can use either the array name by itself or use the address-of operator with the array’s first element as
illustrated below. These are equivalent and will return the address of vector. Using the address-of operator
is more verbose but also more explicit:
printf("%p\n",vector);
printf("%p\n",&vector[0]);

The expression &vector is sometimes used to obtain the address of an array. It differs from the other
notations in that it returns a pointer to the entire array. The other two approaches yield a pointer to an
integer. Instead of returning a pointer to an integer, it returns a pointer to an array of integers. The use of
this type will be illustrated in the section Passing a Multidimensional Array.

We can also use array subscripts with pointers. Effectively, the notation pv[i] is evaluated as:
*(pv + i)
The pointer pv contains the address of a block of memory. The bracket notation will take the address
contained in pv and adds the value contained in the index i using pointer arithmetic. This new address is
then dereferenced to return its contents.

As we discussed in the section Pointer Arithmetic, adding an integer to a pointer will increment the address it
holds by the product of the integer and the data type’s size. The same is true if we add an integer to the
name of an array. The following two statements are equivalent:
*(pv + i)
*(vector + i)
Assume the vector is located at address 100 and pv is located at address 96. Table 4-1 and Figure 4-4 illustrate
the use of array subscripts and pointer arithmetic with both the array name and the pointer for various
values.

Table 4-1. Array/pointer notation

Value Equivalent Expression

92 &vector[-2] vector - 2 &pv[-2] pv - 2

100 vector vector+0 &pv[0] pv

100 &vector[0] vector+0 &pv[0] pv

104 &vector[1] vector + 1 &pv[1] pv + 1

140 &vector[10] vector + 10 &pv[10] pv + 10

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 87

Figure 4-4. Array/pointer notation

When we add 1 to the array address we effectively add 4, the size of an integer, to the address since this is
an array of integers. With the first and last operations, we addressed locations outside the array’s bounds.
While this is not a good practice, it does emphasize the need to be careful when using indexes or pointers to
access elements of an array.

Array notation can be thought of as a “shift and dereference” operation. The expression vector means start
with vector, which is a pointer to the beginning of the array, shift two positions to the right, and then
dereference that location to fetch its value. Using the address-of operator in conjunction with array
notation, as in &vector, essentially cancels out the dereferencing. It can be interpreted as go left two
positions and then return that address.

The following demonstrates the use of pointers in the implementation of the scalar addition operation. This
operation takes a value and multiplies it against each element of the vector:
pv = vector;
int value = 3;
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
*pv++ *= value;
}
Differences Between Arrays and Pointers
There are several differences between the use of arrays and the use of pointers to arrays. In this section, we
will use the vector array and pv pointer as defined below:
int vector[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *pv = vector;
The code generated by vector[i] is different from the code generated by vector+i. The
notation vector[i] generates machine code that starts at location vector, moves i positions from this location,

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 88

and uses its content. The notation vector+i generates machine code that starts at location vector, adds i to
the address, and then uses the contents at that address. While the result is the same, the generated machine
code is different. This difference is rarely of significance to most programmers.

There is a difference when the sizeof operator is applied to an array and to a pointer to the same array.
Applying the sizeof operator to vector will return 20, the number of bytes allocated to the array. Applying
the sizeof operator against pv will return 4, the pointer’s size.

The pointer pv is an lvalue. An lvalue denotes the term used on the lefthand side of an assignment operator.
An lvalue must be capable of being modified. An array name such as vector is not an lvalue and cannot be
modified. The address assigned to an array cannot be changed . A pointer can be assigned a new value and
reference a different section of memory.

Consider the following:

pv = pv + 1;
vector = vector + 1; // Syntax error
We cannot modify vector, only its contents. However, the expression vector+1 is fine, as
demonstrated below:
pv = vector + 1;

Using malloc to Create a One-Dimensional Array

If we allocate memory from the heap and assign the address to a pointer, there is no reason we cannot use
array subscripts with the pointer and treat this memory as an array. In the following sequence, we duplicate
the contents of the vector array used earlier:
int *pv = (int*) malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
pv[i] = i+1;
}
We could have used pointer notation as shown below; however, the array notation is often easier to follow:
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
*(pv+i) = i+1;
}
Figure 4-5 illustrates how memory is allocated for this example.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 89

Figure 4-5. Array allocated from the heap
This technique creates a region of memory and treats it as an array. Its size is determined at runtime.
However, we need to remember to deallocate the memory when we are through with it.

WARNING
In the previous example we used *(pv+i) instead of *pv+1. Since the dereference operator has higher
precedence than the plus operator, the second expression’s pointer is dereferenced, giving us the value
referenced by the pointer.

We then add i to this integer value. This was not what was intended. In addition, when we use this
expression as an lvalue, the compiler will complain. Thus, we need to force the addition to be performed
first, followed by the dereference operation, in order for it to work correctly.

Using the realloc Function to Resize an Array

We can resize an existing array created using malloc with the realloc function. The essentials of
the realloc function were detailed in Chapter 2. The C standard C99 supports variable length arrays. In
some situations, this may prove to be a better solution than using the realloc function. If you are not using
C99, then the realloc function will need to be used. Also, variable length arrays can only be declared as a
member of a function. If the array is needed longer than the function’s duration, then realloc will need to be
used.

To illustrate the realloc function, we will implement a function to read in characters from standard input
and assign them to a buffer. The buffer will contain all of the characters read in except for a terminating
return character. Since we do not know how many characters the user will input, we do not know how long
the buffer should be.

We will use the realloc function to allocate additional space by a fixed increment amount. The code to
implement this function is shown below:
char* getLine(void) {
const size_t sizeIncrement = 10;
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 90
 char* buffer = malloc(sizeIncrement);
char* currentPosition = buffer;
size_t maximumLength = sizeIncrement;
size_t length = 0;
int character;

if(currentPosition == NULL) { return NULL; }

while(1) {
character = fgetc(stdin);
if(character == '\N') { break; }

if(++length >= maximumLength) {

char *newBuffer = realloc(buffer, maximumLength += sizeIncrement);

if(newBuffer == NULL) {
free(buffer);
return NULL;
}

currentPosition = newBuffer + (currentPosition - buffer);

buffer = newBuffer;
}
*currentPosition++ = character;
}
*currentPosition = '\0';
return buffer;
}
We will start by defining a series of declarations as summarized in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2. getLine variables
The size of the initial buffer and the amount it will be incremented by when the
sizeIncrement buffer needs to be enlarged

buffer A pointer to the characters read in

currentPosition A pointer to the next free position in the buffer

maximumLength The maximum number of characters that can be safely stored in the buffer

length The number of characters read in

character The last character read in

The buffer is created with a size of sizeIncrement. If the malloc function is unable to allocate memory, the
first if statement will force the function to return NULL. An infinite loop is entered where the characters
are processed one at a time. When the loop exits, a NUL is added to terminate the string and the buffer’s
address is returned.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 91

Within the while loop, a character is read in. If it is a carriage return, the loop is exited. Next,
the if statement determines whether we have exceeded the buffer’s size. Otherwise, the character is added
to the current position within the buffer.

If we have exceeded the buffer’s size, the realloc function creates a new block of memory. This block
is sizeIncrement bytes larger than the old one. If it is unable to allocate memory, we free up the existing
allocated memory and force the function to return NULL. Otherwise, currentPosition is adjusted to point to
the right position within the new buffer and we assign the variable buffer to point to the newly allocated
buffer. The realloc function will not necessarily keep your existing memory in place, so you have to use the
pointer it returns to figure out where your new, resized memory block is.

The variable newBuffer holds the allocated memory’s address. We needed a separate variable, not buffer,
in case the realloc was unable to allocate memory. This allows us to detect and handle the condition.

We did not free buffer if realloc was successful because realloc will copy the original buffer to the new
buffer and free up the old buffer. If we had tried to free buffer, then it would normally result in the
program’s termination because we tried to free the same block of memory twice.

Figure 4-6 illustrates memory being allocated for the getLine function with an input string of “Once upon a
time there was a giant pumpkin.” The program stack has been simplified to ignore the local variables
except for buffer and currentPosition. The buffer has been extended four times, as indicated by the
rectangle containing the input string.

Figure 4-6. Memory allocation for getLine function

The realloc function can also be used to decrease the amount of space used by a pointer. To illustrate its
use, the trim function shown below will remove leading blanks in a string:
char* trim(char* phrase) {
char* old = phrase;
char* new = phrase;

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 92

 while(*old == ' ') {
old++;
}

while(*old) {
*(new++) = *(old++);
}
*new = 0;
return (char*) realloc(phrase,strlen(phrase)+1);
}

int main() {
char* buffer = (char*)malloc(strlen(" cat")+1);
strcpy(buffer," cat");
printf("%s\n",trim(buffer));
}
The first while loop uses the tmp variable to skip over any leading blanks. The second while loop copies
the remaining characters in the string to the beginning of the string. It will evaluate to true until NUL is
reached, which will evaluate to false.

A zero is then added to terminate the string. The realloc function is then used to reallocate the memory
based on the string’s new length.

Figure 4-7 illustrates the function’s use with an original string of “cat.” The state of string before and after
the trim function executes is shown. The memory in red is the old memory and should not be accessed.

Figure 4-7. Realloc example

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 93

Passing a One-Dimensional Array

When a one-dimensional array is passed to a function, the array’s address is passed by value. This makes
the transfer of information more efficient since we are not passing the entire array and having to allocate
memory in the stack for it. Normally, this means the array’s size must be passed. If we don’t, from the
function’s perspective all we have is the address of an array with no indication of its size.

Unless there is something integral to the array to tell us its bounds, we need to pass the size information
when we pass the array. In the case of a string stored in an array, we can rely on the NUL termination
character to tell us when we can stop processing the array. We will examine this in Chapter 5.

Generally, if we do not know the array’s size, we are unable to process its elements and can wind up
working with too few elements or treating memory outside of the array as if it were part of the array. This
will frequently result in abnormal program termination.

We can declare the array in the function declaration using one of two notations: array notation or pointer
notation.

Using Array Notation

In the following example, an integer array is passed to a function along with its size. Its contents are then
displayed:

void displayArray(int arr[], int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d\n", arr[i]);
}
}

int vector[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

displayArray(vector, 5);

The sequence’s output will be the numbers 1 through 5.We passed the number 5 to the function that
indicates its size. We could have passed any positive number and the function would attempt to display the
corresponding number of elements, regardless of whether the size was correct.

The program may terminate if we attempt to address memory outside of the array’s bounds. The memory
allocation for this example is shown in Figure 4-8.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 94

Figure 4-8. Using array notation

WARNING
A common mistake is to use the sizeof operator with the array in order to determine its number of elements,
as shown below. However, as explained in the section

One-Dimensional Arrays, this is not the correct way of determining its size. In this case, we would be
passing the value of 20 to the array.

displayArray(arr, sizeof(arr));
It is a common practice to pass a size smaller than the actual number of elements in an array. This is done
to process only part of an array. For example, assume we read in a series of ages into an array but did not
fill up the array. If we called a sort function to sort it, we would only want to sort the valid ages, not every
array element.

Using Pointer Notation

We do not have to use the bracket notation when declaring an array parameter of a function. Instead, we
can use pointer notation as follows:
void displayArray(int* arr, int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d\n", arr[i]);
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 95
 }
}
We continued to use array notation within the function. If desired, we could have used pointer notation in
the function:
void displayArray(int* arr, int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d\n", *(arr+i));
}
}
If we had used array notation to declare the function, we could have still used pointer notation in the
function’s body:
void displayArray(int arr[], int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d\n", *(arr+i));
}
}
Using a One-Dimensional Array of Pointers
In this section, we will examine the key aspects of using an array of pointers by using an array of pointers
to integer. Examples of array of pointers can also be found in:
I. Using an Array of Function Pointers, where we use an array of function pointers;
II. How Memory Is Allocated for a Structure, where an array of structures is used; and
III. Passing Arguments to an Application, where the argv array is handled.
IV. The purpose of this section is to set the stage for later examples by illustrating the essence of the
approach. The following sequence declares an array of integer pointers, allocates memory for each
element, and initializes this memory to the array’s index:
int* arr[5];
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
arr[i] = (int*)malloc(sizeof(int));
*arr[i] = i;
}
If this array was displayed, the numbers 0 through 4 would be printed. We used arr[i] to reference the
pointer and *arr[i] to assign a value to the location referenced by the pointer. Do not let the use of array
notation confuse you. Since arr was declared as an array of pointers, arr[i] returns an address. When we
dereference a pointer such as *arr[i], we get the contents at that address.

We could have used the following equivalent pointer notation for the loop’s body:
*(arr+i) = (int*)malloc(sizeof(int));
**(arr+i) = i;
This notation is harder to follow, but understanding it will further your C expertise. We are using two levels
of indirection in the second statement. Mastery of this type of notation will separate you from the less
experienced C programmers.

The subexpression (arr+i) represents the address of the array’s i th element. We need to modify the content
of this address so we use the subexpression *(arr+i). The allocated memory is assigned to this location in
the first statement. Dereferencing this subexpression a second time, as we do in the second statement,
returns the allocated memory’s location. We then assign the variable i to it. Figure 4-9 illustrates how
memory is allocated.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 96

For example, arr[1] is located at address 104. The expression (arr+1) will give us 104. Using *(arr+1) gives
us its content. In this example, it is the pointer 504. Dereferencing this a second time using **(arr+1) gives
us the contents of 504, which is a 1.

Figure 4-9. Array of pointers

Example expressions are listed in Table 4-3. Reading pointer expression from left to right and not ignoring
parentheses can help in understanding how they work.

Table 4-3. Array of pointers expressions

Expression Value

*arr[0] 0

**arr 0

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 97

Expression Value

**(arr+1) 1

arr[0][0] 0

arr[3][0] 3
The first three expressions are similar to those in the previous explanation. The last two are different. The
use of a pointer to a pointer notation suggests we are dealing with an array of pointers. In effect, this is
what we are doing. If we reexamine Figure 4-9 and pretend each element of arr points to an array of size
one, then the last two expressions make sense. What we have is a five-element array of pointers to a series
of one-element arrays.

The expression arr[3][0] refers to the fourth element of arr and then the first element of the array it points
to. The expression arr[3][1] does not work because the array the fourth element is pointing to does not have
two elements.

This suggests the ability to create jagged arrays. This is indeed possible and is the subject of
the sectionJagged Arrays and Pointers.

Pointers and Multidimensional Arrays

Parts of multidimensional arrays can be treated as subarrays. For example, each row of a two-dimensional
array can be treated as a one-dimensional array. This behavior affects how we use pointers when dealing
with multidimensional arrays.

To illustrate this behavior, we create a two-dimensional array and initialize it as follows:

int matrix[2][5] = {{1,2,3,4,5},{6,7,8,9,10}};
The addresses and their corresponding values are then displayed:
for(int i=0; i<2; i++) {
for(int j=0; j<5; j++) {
printf("matrix[%d][%d] Address: %p Value: %d\n",
i, j, &matrix[i][j], matrix[i][j]);
}
}
The output follows:
matrix[0][0] Address: 100 Value: 1
matrix[0][1] Address: 104 Value: 2
matrix[0][2] Address: 108 Value: 3
matrix[0][3] Address: 112 Value: 4
matrix[0][4] Address: 116 Value: 5
matrix[1][0] Address: 120 Value: 6
matrix[1][1] Address: 124 Value: 7
matrix[1][2] Address: 128 Value: 8

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 98

matrix[1][3] Address: 132 Value: 9
matrix[1][4] Address: 136 Value: 10
The array is stored in row-column order. That is, the first row is stored sequentially in memory followed by
the second row. The memory allocation is illustrated in Figure 4-10.
We can declare a pointer for use with this array as follows:
int (*pmatrix)[5] = matrix;

Figure 4-10. Two-dimensional array memory allocation

The expression, (*pmatrix), declares a pointer to an array. Combined with the rest of the
declaration, pmatrix is defined as a pointer to a two-dimensional array of integers with five elements per
column.

If we had left the parentheses off, we would have declared a five-element array of pointers to integers. The
size of the first dimension is 2 since we know the dimensions of the matrix. If a different size is used to
access the array, then the results are unpredictable.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 99

If we want to access the second element, 2, using pointer notation, it might seem reasonable to use the
following:
printf("%p\n", matrix);
printf("%p\n", matrix + 1);
The output follows:
100
120
The address returned by matrix+1 is not offset by 4 from the beginning of the array. Instead, it is offset by
the first row’s size, 20 bytes. Using matrix by itself returns the address of the array’s first element. Since a
two-dimensional array is an array of arrays, we get the address of a five-element integer array.

Its size is 20. We can verify this with the following statement, which will display 20:
printf("%d\n",sizeof(matrix[0])); // Displays 20

To access the array’s second element, we need to add 1 to the first row of the array as follows: *(matrix[0]
+ 1). The expression, matrix[0], returns the address of the first element of the first row of the array. This
address is the address of an array of integers. Thus, when we add one to it, the size of a single integer is
added to it, giving us the second element. The output will be 104 and 2.
printf("%p %d\n", matrix[0] + 1, *(matrix[0] + 1));
We can graphically depict the array as illustrated in Figure 4-11.

Figure 4-11. Graphically depiction of a two-dimensional array

Two-dimensional array notation can be interpreted as shown in Figure 4-12.

Figure 4-12. Two-dimensional array notation

Passing a Multidimensional Array

Passing a multidimensional array to a function can be confusing, especially when pointer notation is used.
When passing a multidimensional array, we need to determine whether to use array notation or pointer
notation in the function’s signature. Another consideration is how to convey the array’s shape. By shape,
we are referring to the number and size of its dimensions.

If we want to use array notation within the function, it is imperative to specify the array’s shape. Otherwise,
the compiler is unable to use subscripts.

To pass the matrix array, use either:

void display2DArray(int arr[][5], int rows) {
or:
void display2DArray(int (*arr)[5], int rows) {
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 100
In both versions the number of columns is specified. This is needed because the compiler needs to know the
number of elements in each row. If this information is not passed, then it is unable to evaluate expressions
such as arr[0][3] as explained in the section Pointers and Multidimensional Arrays.

In the first version, the expression arr[] is an implicit declaration of a pointer to an array. In the second
version, the expression (*arr) is an explicit declaration of the pointer.

WARNING
The following declaration will not work correctly:
void display2DArray(int *arr[5], int rows) {
While it will not generate a syntax error, the array passed is assumed to be a five-element array of pointers
to integers.

Using a One-Dimensional Array of Pointers discusses arrays of pointers.

A simple implementation of this function and invocation follows:
void display2DArray(int arr[][5], int rows) {
for (int i = 0; i<rows; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j<5; j++) {
printf("%d", arr[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}

void main() {
int matrix[2][5] = {
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
{6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
};
display2DArray(matrix, 2);
}
The function does not allocate memory for the array. Only the address is passed. The program stack’s state
for this call is shown in Figure 4-13.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 101
Figure 4-13. Passing multidimensional array
You may encounter a function declared as follows. It is passed a single pointer and the number of rows and
columns:
void display2DArrayUnknownSize(int *arr, int rows, int cols) {
for(int i=0; i<rows; i++) {
for(int j=0; j<cols; j++) {
printf("%d ", *(arr + (i*cols) + j));
}
printf("\n");
}
}
The printf statement calculates the address of each element by adding to arr the number of elements in the
previous row(s), (i*cols), and then adding j to specify the column. To invoke the function, we can use the
following:
display2DArrayUnknownSize(&matrix[0][0], 2, 5);
Within the function, we cannot use array subscripts as shown below:
printf("%d ", arr[i][j]);

This is not possible because the pointer is not declared as a two-dimensional array. However, it is possible
to use array notation as shown below. We can use a single subscript since it will be interpreted simply as an
offset within the array, whereas two subscripts cannot be used because the compiler doesn’t know the size
of the dimensions:
printf("%d ", (arr+i)[j]);

The first element’s address is passed using &matrix[0][0] instead of matrix. While using matrix will
execute correctly, a warning will be generated, indicating incompatible pointer types. The
expression &matrix[0][0] is a pointer to an integer, whereas matrix is a pointer to an array of integers.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 102
When passing an array with more than two dimensions, all but the size of the first dimension need to be
specified. The following demonstrates a function written to display a three-dimensional array. The last two
dimensions are specified in the declaration:
void display3DArray(int (*arr)[2][4], int rows) {
for(int i=0; i<rows; i++) {
for(int j=0; j<2; j++) {
printf("{");
for(int k=0; k<4; k++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i][j][k]);
}
printf("}");
}
printf("\n");
}
}
The following code shows the function’s invocation:
int arr3d[3][2][4] = {
{{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}},
{{9, 10, 11, 12}, {13, 14, 15, 16}},
{{17, 18, 19, 20}, {21, 22, 23, 24}}
};

display3DArray(arr3d,3);
The output follows:
{1 2 3 4 }{5 6 7 8 }
{9 10 11 12 }{13 14 15 16 }
{17 18 19 20 }{21 22 23 24 }
Allocation of the array’s memory is depicted in Figure 4-14.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 103
Figure 4-14. Three-dimensional array

The expression arr3d[1] refers to the array’s second row and is a pointer to a two-dimensional array with
two rows and four columns. The expression arr3d[1][0] refers to the second row, first column of the array
and is a pointer to a one-dimensional array of size 5.

Dynamically Allocating a Two-Dimensional Array

Several issues are involved with dynamically allocating memory for a two-dimensional array, including:
Whether the array elements need to be contiguous

Whether the array is jagged

Memory is allocated contiguously when a two-dimensional array is declared as follows:
int matrix[2][5] = {{1,2,3,4,5},{6,7,8,9,10}};

However, when we use a function such as malloc to create a two-dimensional array, there are variations in
how memory can be allocated. Since a two-dimensional array can be treated as an array of arrays, there is
no reason the “inner” arrays need to be contiguous. When array subscripts are used with such an array, the
array’s noncontiguous nature is handled transparently.

NOTE
Whether or not it is contiguous can affect other operations, such as copying a block of memory. Multiple
copies may be required if the memory is not contiguous.

Allocating Potentially Noncontiguous Memory

The following illustrates one way of allocating a two-dimensional array where the allocated memory is not
guaranteed to be contiguous. First, the “outer” array is allocated and then each row is allocated using
separate malloc statements:
int rows = 2;
int columns = 5;

int **matrix = (int **) malloc(rows * sizeof(int *));

for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {

matrix[i] = (int *) malloc(columns * sizeof(int));
}
Since separate malloc calls were used, the allocated memory is not guaranteed to be contiguous. This is
illustrated in Figure 4-15.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 104
Figure 4-15. Noncontiguous allocation
The actual allocation depends on the heap manager and the heap’s state. It may well be contiguous.

Allocating Contiguous Memory

We will present two approaches for allocating contiguous memory for a two-dimensional array. The first
technique allocates the “outer” array first and then all of the memory for the rows. The second technique
allocates all of the memory at once.

The first technique is illustrated in the following sequence. The first malloc allocates an array of pointers to
integers. Each element will be used to hold a pointer to a row. This is the block allocated at address 500
in Figure 4-16.

The second malloc allocates memory for all of the elements of the array at location 600. In the for loop,
each element of the first array is assigned a portion of the memory allocated by the second malloc:
int rows = 2;
int columns = 5;
int **matrix = (int **) malloc(rows * sizeof(int *));
matrix[0] = (int *) malloc(rows * columns * sizeof(int));
for (int i = 1; i < rows; i++)

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 105
 matrix[i] = matrix[0] + i * columns;

Figure 4-16. Contiguous allocation with two malloc calls

Technically, the memory for the first array may be separated from the memory for the array’s “body.”
However, a contiguous region of memory is allocated for the body.

In the second technique shown below, all of the memory for the array is allocated at one time:
int *matrix = (int *)malloc(rows * columns * sizeof(int));

This allocation is illustrated in Figure 4-17.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 106
Figure 4-17. Contiguous allocation with a single malloc call

When the array is referenced later in code, array subscripts cannot be used. Instead, indexes into the array
need to be calculated manually, as illustrated in the following code sequence.

Each array element is initialized to the product of its indexes:

for (int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < columns; j++) {
*(matrix + (i*columns) + j) = i*j;
}
}
Array subscripts cannot be used because we have lost the shape information needed by the compiler to
permit subscripts. This concept is explained in the section Passing a Multidimensional Array.

This approach has limited use in the real world, but it does illustrate the relationship between the concept of
a two-dimensional array and the one-dimensional nature of main memory. The more convenient two-
dimensional array notation makes this mapping transparent and easier to use.

We have demonstrated two general approaches for allocating contiguous memory for a two-dimensional
array. The approach to use depends on the needs of the application. However, the last approach generates a
single block of memory for the “entire” array.

Jagged Arrays and Pointers

A jagged array is a two-dimensional array possessing a different number of columns for each row.
Conceptually, this is illustrated in Figure 4-18, where the array has three rows with a varying number of
columns per row.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 107
Figure 4-18. Jagged array

Before we learn how to create such an array, let’s examine a two-dimensional array created
using compound literals. A compound literal is a C construct that consists of what appears to be a cast
operator followed by an initializer list enclosed in braces.

An example of a compound literal follows for both a constant integer and an array of integers. These would
be used as part of a declaration:
(const int) {100}
(int[3]) {10, 20, 30}

In the following declaration, we create the array arr1 by declaring it as an array of pointers to an integer and
using a block statement of compound literals to initialize it:
int (*(arr1[])) = {
(int[]) {0, 1, 2},
(int[]) {3, 4, 5},
(int[]) {6, 7, 8}};
This array has three rows and three columns. The array’s elements are initialized with the value 0 through 8
in row column order. Figure 4-19 depicts how memory is laid out for this array.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 108
Figure 4-19. Two-dimensional array
The following sequence displays the addresses and values of each array element:
for(int j=0; j<3; j++) {
for(int i=0; i<3; i++) {
printf("arr1[%d][%d] Address: %p Value: %d\n",
j, i, &arr1[j][i], arr1[j][i]);
}
printf("\n");
}
When executed, we will get the following output:
arr1[0][0] Address: 0x100 Value: 0
arr1[0][1] Address: 0x104 Value: 1
arr1[0][2] Address: 0x108 Value: 2

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 109
arr1[1][0] Address: 0x112 Value: 3
arr1[1][1] Address: 0x116 Value: 4
arr1[1][2] Address: 0x120 Value: 5

arr1[2][0] Address: 0x124 Value: 6

arr1[2][1] Address: 0x128 Value: 7
arr1[2][2] Address: 0x132 Value: 8

This declaration can be modified slightly to create a jagged array as depicted in Figure 4-18. The array
declaration follows:
int (*(arr2[])) = {
(int[]) {0, 1, 2, 3},
(int[]) {4, 5},
(int[]) {6, 7, 8}};

We used three compound literals to declare the jagged array. The array’s elements are initialized in row-
column order starting with a value of zero. The next sequence will display the array to verify its creation.

The sequence required three for loops because each row had a different number of columns:
int row = 0;
for(int i=0; i<4; i++) {
printf("layer1[%d][%d] Address: %p Value: %d\n",
row, i, &arr2[row][i], arr2[row][i]);
}
printf("\n");

row = 1;
for(int i=0; i<2; i++) {
printf("layer1[%d][%d] Address: %p Value: %d\n",
row, i, &arr2[row][i], arr2[row][i]);
}
printf("\n");

row = 2;
for(int i=0; i<3; i++) {
printf("layer1[%d][%d] Address: %p Value: %d\n",
row, i, &arr2[row][i], arr2[row][i]);
}
printf("\n");
The output of this sequence follows:
arr2[0][0] Address: 0x000100 Value: 0
arr2[0][1] Address: 0x000104 Value: 1
arr2[0][2] Address: 0x000108 Value: 2
arr2[0][3] Address: 0x000112 Value: 3

arr2[1][0] Address: 0x000116 Value: 4

arr2[1][1] Address: 0x000120 Value: 5

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 110
arr2[2][0] Address: 0x000124 Value: 6
arr2[2][1] Address: 0x000128 Value: 7
arr2[2][2] Address: 0x000132 Value: 8
Figure 4-20 depicts how memory is laid out for this array.

Figure 4-20. Jagged array memory allocation

In these examples, we used array notation as opposed to pointer notation when accessing the array’s
contents. This made it somewhat easier to see and understand. However, pointer notation would have
worked as well.

Compound literals are useful in creating jagged arrays. However, accessing elements of a jagged array can
be awkward, as demonstrated with the previous three for loops. This example can be simplified if a
separate array is used to maintain the size of each column. While you can create jagged arrays in C, it may
not be worth the effort.

Summary

We started with a quick review of arrays and then examined the similarities and differences between array
and pointer notation. Arrays can be created using malloc type functions. These type of functions provide
more flexibility than afforded by traditional array declaration. We saw how we can use the realloc function
to change the amount of memory allocated for an array.

Dynamically allocating memory for an array can present challenges. In the case with two or more
dimensional arrays, we have to be careful to make sure the array is allocated in contiguous memory.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 111
We also explored the problems that can occur when passing and returning arrays. Passing the array’s size to
a function is normally required so the function can properly handle the array. We also examined how to
create jagged arrays in C.

UNIT 12. DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

Introduction to Dynamic memory allocation, malloc(), calloc(), free(), realloc()

Dynamic memory allocation is when an executing program requests that the operating system give it a
block of main memory. The program then uses this memory for some purpose. Usually the purpose is to
add a node to a data structure.

In object oriented languages, dynamic memory allocation is used to get the memory for a new object.
The memory comes from above the static part of the data segment. Programs may request memory and may
also return previously dynamically allocated memory. Memory may be returned whenever it is no longer
needed. Memory can be returned in any order without any relation to the order in which it was allocated.
The heap may develop "holes" where previously allocated memory has been returned between blocks of
memory still in use.

A new dynamic request for memory might return a range of addresses out of one of the holes. But it might
not use up all the hole, so further dynamic requests might be satisfied out of the original hole.

If too many small holes develop, memory is wasted because the total memory used by the holes may be
large, but the holes cannot be used to satisfy dynamic requests. This situation is called memory
fragmentation. Keeping track of allocated and deallocated memory is complicated. A modern operating
system does all this.

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to allocate memory
at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4 functions of stdlib.h header file.
malloc()
calloc()
realloc()
free()
Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory allocation and dynamic
memory allocation.

static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

memory can't be increased while executing memory can be increased while executing
program. program.

used in array. used in linked list.

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.
malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 112
calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc() function in C

The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.

Play Video
It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of malloc() function is given below:

ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)
Let's see the example of malloc() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter elements of array: 3
En elements of array: 10
1010
Sum=30
calloc() function in C
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.
It initially initialize all bytes to zero.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 113
The syntax of calloc() function is given below:
ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)
Let's see the example of calloc() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter elements of array: 3
Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30
realloc() function in C
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by realloc() function. In
short, it changes the memory size.
Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.

free() function in C
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free() function.
Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.
Let's see the syntax of free() function.

The string can be defined as the one-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null ('\0'). The
character array or the string is used to manipulate text such as word or sentences. Each character in the
array occupies one byte of memory, and the last character must always be 0.

The termination character ('\0') is important in a string since it is the only way to identify where the string
ends. When we define a string as char s[10], the character s[10] is implicitly initialized with the null in the
memory.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 114
There are two ways to declare a string in c language.
By char array
By string literal
Let's see the example of declaring string by char array in C language.
char ch[10]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};
As we know, array index starts from 0, so it will be represented as in the figure given below.

Play Video

While declaring string, size is not mandatory. So we can write the above code as given below:
char ch[]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};

We can also define the string by the string literal in C language. For example:
char ch[]="javatpoint";
In such case, '\0' will be appended at the end of the string by the compiler.

Difference between char array and string literal

There are two main differences between char array and literal.
We need to add the null character '\0' at the end of the array by ourself whereas, it is appended internally by
the compiler in the case of the character array.

The string literal cannot be reassigned to another set of characters whereas, we can reassign the characters
of the array.

String Example in C
Let's see a simple example where a string is declared and being printed. The '%s' is used as a format
specifier for the string in c language.
#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(){
char ch[11]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};
char ch2[11]="javatpoint";

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 115
 printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);
printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);
return 0;
}
Output
Char Array Value is: javatpoint
String Literal Value is: javatpoint

Traversing String
Traversing the string is one of the most important aspects in any of the programming languages. We may
need to manipulate a very large text which can be done by traversing the text. Traversing string is
somewhat different from the traversing an integer array. We need to know the length of the array to
traverse an integer array, whereas we may use the null character in the case of string to identify the end the
string and terminate the loop.

Hence, there are two ways to traverse a string.

By using the length of string
By using the null character.
Let's discuss each one of them.

Using the length of string

Let's see an example of counting the number of vowels in a string.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[11] = "javatpoint";
int i = 0;
int count = 0;
while(i<11)
{
if(s[i]=='a' || s[i] == 'e' || s[i] == 'i' || s[i] == 'u' || s[i] == 'o')
{
count ++;
}
i++;
}
printf("The number of vowels %d",count);
}
Output
The number of vowels 4

Using the null character

Let's see the same example of counting the number of vowels by using the null character.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[11] = "javatpoint";
int i = 0;

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 116
 int count = 0;
while(s[i] != NULL)
{
if(s[i]=='a' || s[i] == 'e' || s[i] == 'i' || s[i] == 'u' || s[i] == 'o')
{
count ++;
}
i++;
}
printf("The number of vowels %d",count);
}
Output
The number of vowels 4

Accepting string as the input

Till now, we have used scanf to accept the input from the user. However, it can also be used in the case of
strings but with a different scenario. Consider the below code which stores the string while space is
encountered.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[20];
printf("Enter the string?");
scanf("%s",s);
printf("You entered %s",s);
}
Output
Enter the string?javatpoint is the best
You entered javatpoint

It is clear from the output that, the above code will not work for space separated strings. To make this code
working for the space separated strings, the minor changed required in the scanf function, i.e., instead of
writing scanf("%s",s), we must write: scanf("%[^\n]s",s) which instructs the compiler to store the string s
while the new line (\n) is encountered. Let's consider the following example to store the space-separated
strings.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[20];
printf("Enter the string?");
scanf("%[^\n]s",s);
printf("You entered %s",s);
}
Output
Enter the string?javatpoint is the best
You entered javatpoint is the best

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 117
Here we must also notice that we do not need to use address of (&) operator in scanf to store a string since
string s is an array of characters and the name of the array, i.e., s indicates the base address of the string
(character array) therefore we need not use & with it.

Some important points

However, there are the following points which must be noticed while entering the strings by using scanf.
The compiler doesn't perform bounds checking on the character array. Hence, there can be a case where the
length of the string can exceed the dimension of the character array which may always overwrite some
important data.

Instead of using scanf, we may use gets() which is an inbuilt function defined in a header file string.h. The
gets() is capable of receiving only one string at a time.

Pointers with strings

We have used pointers with the array, functions, and primitive data types so far. However, pointers can be
used to point to the strings. There are various advantages of using pointers to point strings. Let us consider
the following example to access the string via the pointer.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[11] = "javatpoint";
char *p = s; // pointer p is pointing to string s.
printf("%s",p); // the string javatpoint is printed if we print p.
}
Output
javatpoint

As we know that string is an array of characters, the pointers can be used in the same way they were used
with arrays. In the above example, p is declared as a pointer to the array of characters s. P affects similar to
s since s is the base address of the string and treated as a pointer internally. However, we can not change

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 118
the content of s or copy the content of s into another string directly. For this purpose, we need to use the
pointers to store the strings. In the following example, we have shown the use of pointers to copy the
content of a string into another.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char *p = "hello javatpoint";
printf("String p: %s\n",p);
char *q;
printf("copying the content of p into q...\n");
q = p;
printf("String q: %s\n",q);
}
Output
String p: hello javatpoint
copying the content of p into q...
String q: hello javatpoint
Once a string is defined, it cannot be reassigned to another set of characters. However, using pointers, we
can assign the set of characters to the string. Consider the following example.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char *p = "hello javatpoint";
printf("Before assigning: %s\n",p);
p = "hello";
printf("After assigning: %s\n",p);
}
Output
Before assigning: hello javatpoint
After assigning: hello

UNIT 13. FILE MANAGEMENT IN C

Introduction to file management and its functions

File Handling is the storing of data in a file using a program. In C programming language, the programs
store results, and other data of the program to a file using file handling in C. Also, we can extract/fetch data
from a file to work with it in the program.

What is File Handling in C?

File handling refers to the method of storing data in the C program in the form of an output or input that
might have been generated while running a C program in a data file, i.e., a binary file or a text file for
future analysis and reference in that very program.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 119
In programming, we may require some specific input data to be generated several numbers of times.
Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be displayed may be very
large, and only a limited amount of data can be displayed on the console, and since the memory is volatile,
it is impossible to recover the programmatically generated data again and again.

However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile and can be
accessed every time. Here, comes the need of file handling in C.

File handling in C enables us to create, update, read, and delete the files stored on the local file system
through our C program. The following operations can be performed on a file.
i. Creation of the new file
ii. Opening an existing file
iii. Reading from the file
iv. Writing to the file
v. Deleting the file

Functions for file handling

There are many functions in the C library to open, read, write, search and close the file. A list of file functions are
given below:

No. Function Description

1 fopen() opens new or existing file

2 fprintf() write data into the file

3 fscanf() reads data from the file

4 fputc() writes a character into the file

5 fgetc() reads a character from file

6 fclose() closes the file

7 fseek() sets the file pointer to given position

8 fputw() writes an integer to file

9 fgetw() reads an integer from file

10 ftell() returns current position

11 rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 120
Opening File: fopen()
We must open a file before it can be read, write, or update. The fopen() function is used to open a file. The
syntax of the fopen() is given below

FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );

The fopen() function accepts two parameters:

The file name (string). If the file is stored at some specific location, then we must mention the path at
which the file is stored. For example, a file name can be like "c://some_folder/some_file.ext".
The mode in which the file is to be opened. It is a string.

We can use one of the following modes in the fopen() function.

Mode Description

r opens a text file in read mode

w opens a text file in write mode

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in read and write mode

w+ opens a text file in read and write mode

a+ opens a text file in read and write mode

rb opens a binary file in read mode

wb opens a binary file in write mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

wb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

ab+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

The fopen function works in the following way.

Firstly, It searches the file to be opened.
Then, it loads the file from the disk and place it into the buffer. The buffer is used to provide efficiency for
the read operations.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 121
It sets up a character pointer which points to the first character of the file.
Consider the following example which opens a file in write mode.
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
FILE *fp ;
char ch ;
fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r") ;
while ( 1 )
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ) ;
if ( ch == EOF )
break ;
printf("%c",ch) ;
}
fclose (fp ) ;
}
Output
The content of the file will be printed.
#include;
void main( )
{
FILE *fp; // file pointer
char ch;
fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r");
while ( 1 )
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ); //Each character of the file is read and stored in the character file.
if ( ch == EOF )
break;
printf("%c",ch);
}
fclose (fp );
}
Closing File: fclose()
The fclose() function is used to close a file. The file must be closed after performing all the operations on it.
The syntax of fclose() function is given below:
int fclose( FILE *fp );

File Handling is the storing of data in a file using a program. In C programming language, the programs
store results, and other data of the program to a file using file handling in C. Also, we can extract/fetch
data from a file to work with it in the program.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 122
The operations that you can perform on a File in C are −
 Creating a new file
 Opening an existing file
 Reading data from an existing file
 Writing data to a file
 Moving data to a specific location on the file
 Closing the file
Creating or opening file using fopen()
The fopen() function is used to create a new file or open an existing file in C. The fopen function is defined
in the stdio.h header file.

Now, lets see the syntax for creation of a new file or opening a file
file = fopen(“file_name”, “mode”)

This is a common syntax for both opening and creating a file in C.

Parameters
file_name − It is a string that specifies the name of the file that is to be opened or created using the fopen
method. mode: It is a string (usually a single character ) that specifies the mode in which the file is to be
opened. There are various modes available to open a file in C, we will learn about all of them later in this
article.

When will a file be created?

The fopen function will create a new file when it will not find any file of the specified name in the
specified location. Else, if the file is found it will be opened with the mode specified.

Let’s see can example which will make the concept clear, Suppose we are opening a file named hello.txt
using the fopen function. The following will be the statement,

file = fopen(“hello.txt”, “w”)

This will search for a file named hello.txt in the current directory. If the file exists, it will open the file
otherwise it will create a new file named “hello.txt” and open it with write mode (specified using “w”).
Now, let’s see all types of modes that are available for us to read or write a file in C, and see code snippets
that will show sample runs of the code.
Mode = “r” − open for reading, this mode will open the file for reading purpose only, i.e. the contents can
only be viewed, nothing else like edits can be done to it.
This mode cannot create a new file and open() returns NULL, if we try to create a new file using this
mode.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "r")){
printf("File opened successfully in read mode");
}
else
printf("The file is not present! cannot create a new file using r mode");
fclose(file);
return 0;

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 123
}
Output
File opened successfully in read mode
We have created a file named hello.txt in our current directory but if we try to access other file then we
will get “The file is not present! cannot create a new file using r mode” as output.
Mode = “rb” − open for reading in binary mode, this mode will open the file for reading in binary mode
only, i.e. the contents can only be viewed and nothing else like edits can be done to it.
This mode cannot create a new file and open() returns NULL, if we try to create a new file using this
mode.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("program.txt", "rb")){
printf("File opened successfully in read mode");
}
else
printf("The file is not present! cannot create a new file using rb mode");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
The file is not present! cannot create a new file using rb mode
Mode = “w” − open for writing only, this mode will open the file if present in the current directory for
writing only i.e. reading operation cannot be performed. If the file is not present in the current directory,
the program will create a new file and open it for writing.
If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will be overwritten.
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("helo.txt", "w")){
printf("File opened successfully in write mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in write mode or a new file is created
You can see here, we have tried to open file “helo.txt” which is not present in the directory, still the
function returned the success message because it has create a file named “helo.txt”.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 124
Mode = “wb” − open for writing in binary mode, this mode will open the file if present in the current
directory for writing in binary mode i.e. reading operation cannot be performed. If the file is not present in
the current directory, the program will create a new file and open it for writing in binary mode.
If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will be overwritten.

Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "wb")){
printf("File opened successfully in write in binary mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in write in binary mode or a new file is created

Mode = “a” − open for append only, this mode will open the file if present in the current directory for
writing only i.e. reading operation cannot be performed. If the file is not present in the current directory,
the program will create a new file and open it for writing. If we open a file that contains some text in it, the
contents will not be overwritten; instead the new text will be added after the existing text in the file.
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "a")){
printf("File opened successfully in append mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in append mode or a new file is created
Mode = “ab” − open for append in binary, this mode will open the file if present in the current directory
for writing in binary only i.e. reading operation cannot be performed. If the file is not present in the current
directory, the program will create a new file and open it for writing in binary.

If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will not be overwritten; instead the new text will
be added after the existing text in the file.
Example
Live Demo
Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 125
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "ab")){
printf("File opened successfully in append in binary mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in append in binary mode or a new file is created
Mode = “r+” − open for reading and writing both, this mode will open the file for both reading and
writing purposes i.e. both read and write operations can be performed to the file.

This mode cannot create a new file and open() returns NULL, if we try to create a new file using this
mode.
If we open a file that contains some text in it and write something, the contents will be overwritten.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "r+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read and write both");
}
else
printf("The file is not present! cannot create a new file using r+ mode");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in read and write both
We have created a file named hello.txt in our current directory but if we try to access another file then we
will get “The file is not present! cannot create a new file using r+ mode” as output.

Mode = “rb+” − open for reading in binary mode, this mode will open the file for reading in binary mode
only, i.e. the contents can only be viewed and nothing else like edits can be done to it.

This mode cannot create a new file and open() returns NULL, if we try to create a new file using this
mode.

If we open a file that contains some text in it and write something, the contents will be overwritten.

Example

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 126
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("program.txt", "rb+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read mode");
}
else
printf("The file is not present! cannot create a new file using rb+ mode");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
The file is not present! cannot create a new file using rb+ mode

Mode = “w” − open for writing and reading, this mode will open the file if present in the current directory
for writing and reading operation both. If the file is not present in the current directory, the program will
create a new file and open it for reading and writing.

If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will be overwritten.
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("helo.txt", "w+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read-write mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in read-write mode or a new file is created

You can see here, we have tried to open file “helo.txt” which is not present in the directory, still the
function returned the success message because it has create a file named “helo.txt”.

Mode = “wb+” : open for writing and reading in binary mode, this mode will open the file if present in the
current directory for writing and reading in

binary mode. If the file is not present in the current directory, the program will create a new file and open
it for reading and writing in binary mode. If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will
be overwritten.

Example

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 127
Live Demo

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "wb+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read-write in binary mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}

Output
File opened successfully in read-write in binary mode or a new file is created

Mode = “a+” − open for read and append, this mode will open the file if present in the current directory
for both reading and writing. If the file is not present in the current directory, the program will create a new
file and open it for reading and writing.

If we open a file that contains some text in it, the contents will not be overwritten; instead the new text will
be added after the existing text in the file.
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "a+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read-append mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!");
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in read-append mode or a new file is created

Mode = “ab+” − open for read and append in binary, this mode will open the file if present in the current
directory for both reading and writing in binary. If the file is not present in the current directory, the
program will create a new file and open it for reading and writing in binary. If we open a file that contains
some text in it, the contents will not be overwritten; instead the new text will be added after the existing
text in the file.

Example

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 128
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "ab+")){
printf("File opened successfully in read-append in binary mode or a new file is created");
}
else
printf("Error!”);
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
File opened successfully in read-append mode or a new file is created
Reading Data for from an existing file

We can read content of a file in c using the fscanf() and fgets() and fgetc() functions. All are used to read
contents of a file. Let’s see the working of each of the function −
fscanf()

The fscanf() function is used to read character set i.e strings from the file. It returns the EOF, when all the
content of the file are read by it.

Syntax
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *charPointer[])
Parameters
FILE *stream: the pointer to the opened file.
const char *charPointer[]: string of character.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
char str[500];
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "r")){
while(fscanf(file,"%s", str)!=EOF){
printf("%s", str);
}
}
else
printf("Error!”);
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
LearnprogrammingattutorialsPoint
fgets()
The fget() function in C is used to read string from the stream.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 129
Syntax
char* fgets(char *string, int length, FILE *stream)
Parameter
char *string: It is a string which will store the data from the string.
int length: It is an int which gives the length of string to be considered.
FILE *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
char str[500];
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "r")){
printf("%s", fgets(str, 50, file));
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
Learn programming at tutorials Point
fgetc()
The fgetc() function in C is used to return a single character from the file. It gets a character from the file
and returns EOF at the end of file.
Syntax
char* fgetc(FILE *stream)
Parameter
FILE *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
char str;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "r")){
while((str=fgetc(file))!=EOF)
printf("%c",str);
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
Learn programming at tutorials Point
Writing Data to a file in C
We can write data to a file in C using the fprintf(), fputs(), fputc() functions. All are used to write contents
to a file.
Let’s see the working of each of the function −
fprintf()
The fprintf() function is used to write data to a file. It writes a set of characters in a file.
Syntax

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 130
int fprintf(FILE *stream, char *string[])

Parameters
FILE for *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.
char *string[]: It is the character array that we want to write in the file.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "w")){
if(fprintf(file, "tutorials Point”) >= 0)
printf("Write operation successful");
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
Write operation successful
fputf()
The fputf() function in C can be used to write to a file. It is used to write a line (character line) to the file.
Syntax
int fputs(const char *string, FILE *stream)

Parameters
Constant char *string[]: It is the character array that we want to write in the file.
FILE for *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "w")){
if(fputs("tutorials Point", file) >= 0)
printf("String written to the file successfully...");
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
String written to the file successfully…
fputc()
The fputc() function is used to write a single character to the file.
Syntax
int fputc(char character , FILE *stream)
Parameters
char character : It is the character that we want to write in the file.
FILE for *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 131
Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "w")){
fputc('T', file);
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output
‘T’ is written to the file.
fclose()
The fclose() function is used to close the open file. We should close the file after performing operations on
it to save the operations that we have applied to it.
Syntax
fclose(FILE *stream)
Parameters

FILE for *stream: It is the pointer to the opened file.

Example
Live Demo
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
FILE * file;
char string[300];
if (file = fopen("hello.txt", "a+")){
while(fscanf(file,"%s", string)!=EOF){
printf("%s", string);
}
fputs("Hello", file);
}
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Output

Why files are needed?

When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve your data even if the
program terminates.
If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all.
However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents of the file using a few
commands in C.
You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 132
Types of Files
When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about:
Text files
Binary files

1. Text files
Text files are the normal .txt files. You can easily create text files using any simple text editors such as
Notepad.
When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You can easily edit or
delete the contents.
They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide the least security and takes bigger
storage space.

2. Binary files
Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer.
Instead of storing data in plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's).
They can hold a higher amount of data, are not readable easily, and provides better security than text files.

File Operations
In C, you can perform four major operations on files, either text or binary:
Creating a new file
Opening an existing file
Closing a file
Reading from and writing information to a file

Working with files

When working with files, you need to declare a pointer of type file. This declaration is needed for
communication between the file and the program.
FILE *fptr;

Opening a file - for creation and edit

Opening a file is performed using the fopen() function defined in the stdio.h header file.
The syntax for opening a file in standard I/O is:
ptr = fopen("fileopen","mode");
For example,
fopen("E:\\cprogram\\newprogram.txt","w");

fopen("E:\\cprogram\\oldprogram.bin","rb");
Let's suppose the file newprogram.txt doesn't exist in the location E:\cprogram. The first function creates a
new file named newprogram.txt and opens it for writing as per the mode 'w'.
The writing mode allows you to create and edit (overwrite) the contents of the file.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 133
Now let's suppose the second binary file oldprogram.bin exists in the location E:\cprogram. The second
function opens the existing file for reading in binary mode 'rb'.
The reading mode only allows you to read the file, you cannot write into the file.

Opening Modes in Standard I/O

Mode Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file

If the file does not exist, fopen() returns

r Open for reading.
NULL.

If the file does not exist, fopen() returns

rb Open for reading in binary mode.
NULL.

If the file exists, its contents are

overwritten.
w Open for writing.
If the file does not exist, it will be
created.

If the file exists, its contents are

overwritten.
wb Open for writing in binary mode.
If the file does not exist, it will be
created.

Open for append. If the file does not exist, it will be

a
Data is added to the end of the file. created.

Open for append in binary mode. If the file does not exist, it will be
ab
Data is added to the end of the file. created.

If the file does not exist, fopen() returns

r+ Open for both reading and writing.
NULL.

Open for both reading and writing in If the file does not exist, fopen() returns
rb+
binary mode. NULL.

If the file exists, its contents are

overwritten.
w+ Open for both reading and writing.
If the file does not exist, it will be
created.

wb+ Open for both reading and writing in If the file exists, its contents are
binary mode. overwritten.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 134
Opening Modes in Standard I/O

Mode Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file

If the file does not exist, it will be

created.

If the file does not exist, it will be

a+ Open for both reading and appending.
created.

Open for both reading and appending If the file does not exist, it will be
ab+
in binary mode. created.

Closing a File
The file (both text and binary) should be closed after reading/writing.
Closing a file is performed using the fclose() function.

Functions OF file management

Functions of a file management system are as follows:
I. Store, arrange, or accessing files on a disk or other storage locations.
II. Creating new files.
III. Displaying the old files.
IV. Adding and editing the data in files.
V. Moving files from one location to another.
VI. Sorting files according to the given criteria.

Functions of the File Management System

Functions of a file management system are as follows:
I. Store, arrange, or accessing files on a disk or other storage locations.
II. Creating new files.
III. Displaying the old files.
IV. Adding and editing the data in files.
V. Moving files from one location to another.
VI. Sorting files according to the given criteria. For example, file size, file location, modified date,
creation date, etc.

Features of the File Management System

A file management system has the following features:
I. Arranging the files and folders hierarchically.
II. Report generation

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 135
 III. Notes
IV. Status
V. Assigning documents for processing in a queue.
VI. Add or edit metadata of files.
VII. Create, modify, delete, or manage other file operations.
VIII. Simple interact to access and manage files.
IX. Managing different types of files with extensions .xls, .pdf, .doc etc

Windows Explorer: Default File Management Tool

Windows Explorer is a file utility program included in windows explorer with the name file explorer. a file
management system which is the default management tool. It allows the user to view, access, manage, or
delete files on your system using a simple window. Functions and features of windows explore are as
follows:
I. It can access and manage files of different software namely, excel, word, etc
II. Helps to browse files on your hard drive and also, external storage like USB.
III. It helps to manage files in a hierarchy in folders.
IV. Moreover, it also helps to drag and move files among folders.
V. The default file management tool in mac devices is Finder. Although Windows Explorer and Finder
have many features, they are not enough for business purposes.
VI. Examples of File Management Tool

Certain examples are as follows:

I. eFileCabinet
II. Microsoft OneDrive
III. Dropbox
IV. Apple iCloud
V. Google Drive

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is a file management tool?
A1. File management tools are utility software that manages files of the computer system. Since files are an
important part of the system as all the data is stored in the files. Therefore, this utility software help
to browse, search, arrange, find information, and quickly preview the files of the system.
Q2. Name some famous file management tools.

A2. Common file management software is as follows:

eFileCabinet
Microsoft OneDrive
Dropbox
Apple iCloud
Google Drive

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 136
Keeping computerized data organized is critical for any business. Businesses often have many documents
organized into folders by customer, date or other criteria so they can be found quickly. A file
management program is a tool for organizing files into folders on your computer, as well as locating,
moving, opening and copying existing files.

Windows Explorer is an example of this type of utility, and there are equivalent programs for Apple
macOS, various distributions of Linux, and the smartphone operating systems iOS and Android.
Nowadays, you may also use a cloud-based file management tool to organize and store your personal or
business data remotely.

The Purpose of Windows Explorer

If you're using Microsoft Windows, it's possible to edit files in programs such as Microsoft Word or
Excel, save them and open them again using that particular piece of software.

Often, you'll want to browse through your hard drive or external storage such as USB memory sticks for
particular files. You may also want to reorganize your files into new hierarchies of folders so that you
can easily find them. For example, if you run a small business, you might organize files initially by client
and then create a second layer of folders organizing them by year or month when the folders start to be
crowded with files.

Using Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer, a file utility program included with Microsoft Windows, known as File Explorer as
of Windows 10, enables you to browse through the hierarchy of files, create new folders and drag files
from one folder to another. You can also rename files, double-click them to open them in the associated
application or delete them from your drive. It's not to be confused with Internet Explorer, a line of web
browser tools from Microsoft.

Open the Explorer tool by clicking the Start Menu and browsing for it by name or by clicking the folder
icon on the Windows task bar.

Using Other Operating Systems

If you're not running Windows in your office, you can use equivalent tools to manage the files on your
computer.

On a Mac computer, use Mac's built-in Finder tool. Click the Finder icon on the system dock and
navigate through the files and folders on your Mac.

If you're running Ubuntu Linux, the default file manager is called Nautilus. On an Android phone, there's
usually a file manager installed when you purchase the phone, and you can install additional file
managers through the Google Play store. Apple iPhones ship with a file manager called Files, and you
can install additional managers through the App Store.

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 137
When you install a third-party file manager on your computer or phone, make sure it's from a source you
trust, since it will have permissions to read, write and reorganize your files.

Cloud-Based File Management Tools

Cloud-based tools for storing and managing files are becoming prevalent for business and personal use.
Many of these tools can automatically sync data between your devices and create a hierarchy of folders
and files on a remote server that you can even access from a web browser.

Some of the popular tools in this category include Dropbox, Google Drive, Microsoft
OneDrive and Apple iCloud. Many cloud services provide you a limited amount of free storage, and you
can pay for additional storage space as needed. Some systems for advanced users allow you to store data
using other cloud systems, like Amazon's Simple Storage Service. Shop around for a service that meets
your needs at a good price.

You can usually either manipulate files and folders directly through the cloud system's web or
smartphone app interface or allow it to sync file and folder structures that already exist on your devices.
Many cloud providers also provide business accounts that can be useful for allowing multiple employees
or people in an organization to share files and set up the right security permissions

Team University Lecture Material - Introduction to Basic Computer Programming Page 138