GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Learning Module 01

Kinematics
Learning Packet 01

Principles of
Dynamics

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Learning Packet 01

Principles of Dynamics
Introduction
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in motion. In this
learning packet, we will study the principles of dynamics that includes discussion between the
difference of kinematics and kinetics, motion of particles, Newton’s laws of motion for a
particle, fundamental equation of kinetics for a particle, the effective force on a particle, and
applying the principles of dynamics.

Objectives
The objective of this learning packet is to develop understanding and apply the principles of
dynamics in succeeding topics.

Duration
• Topic 01: Principles of Dynamics = 2 hours

Delivery Mode
Online having synchronous and asynchronous class.

Readings
Engineering Mechanics Second Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer, Harper International Edition
https://www.pdfdrive.com/engineering-mechanics-dynamics-e168598109.html
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/dynamics

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Introduction Key Points:

Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with • Dynamics
• Particle
the study of bodies in motion. Compared with statics, dynamics
• Kinematics
is relatively new; it is generally considered to have been begun • Kinetics
by Galileo (1564-1642). Its development was greatly retarded by • Displacement, Velocity,
and Acceleration
the lack of precise methods of measuring time. The experiments • Resultant Force, Weight,
which form the foundation of dynamics required use of three and Mass of the particle
• Inertia Force
kinds of units, that are, force, length, and time. Precise methods
• Dynamic Equilibrium
for measuring force and length are relatively simple and account
Hazard Alerts:
in part for the early development of statics, in which only these
• Be cautious on proper
units of measurement are required. No accurate time-measuring signs, positive or negative
devices, such as the pendulum clock developed by Huygens in (+ or –), of each motion
characteristics on solving
1657 and the balance-wheel watch developed by Robert Hooke equations of motion.
around 1666, were devised until after Galileo’s death. • Use three-decimal place
on your solution and final
answer.
Dynamics was also retarded by the principles of natural • All inclined notes on
solution are just notes or
philosophy which were set up by Aristotle and in Galileo’s time
reminders on that part of
were regarded as infallible. Galileo’s experimental turn of mind solution.
led him to doubt these dogmas of abstract thought. For example,
he did not accept the notion that heavy weights fall more rapidly
that light ones.

Galileo’s experiments with blocks sliding down inclined planes led to a relation
between force and acceleration which Sir Isaac Newton generalized and incorporated into the
laws governing the motion of a particle that are named after him. Newton’s laws of motion
are the basis of extending the laws of motion from a particle to a body composed of a system
of particles.

At this point definitions of the terms particle and body are pertinent. The term particle
usually denotes an object of point size. The term body denotes a system of particles which
form an object of appreciable size. In other words, a particle in a body so small that any
differences in the motions of its parts can be neglected. The criterion of size is only relative,
however; the terms particle and body may apply equally to the same object. For example, in
astronomical calculations the earth may be assumed to be a particle in comparison with the
size of its path, whereas to an observer on the earth, it is obviously a body of appreciable size.
In this learning module the term particle is used to mean an object whose dimensions are
negligible compared with the size of its path.

Source: Engineering Mechanics Second Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer, Harper International Edition

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Lesson Proper
Kinematics and Kinetics
Dynamics is divided into two branches called kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics is
the geometry of motion. The term is used to define the motion of a particle or body without
consideration of the forces causing the motion. Kinematics is essentially a treatment of the
relations between displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

Kinetics is the branch of mechanics that relates the force acting on a body to its mass
and acceleration. When the acceleration of a body caused by the forces acting on it has been
determined, the principles of kinetics may be applied to determine the displacement or
velocity at any instant.

Motion of a Particle
The kinematic discussion of the motion of a particle depends upon the definitions of
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The displacement of a particle is the vector distance
from an origin to the position occupied by the particle on its path of travel. The origin may be
selected anywhere, as at O in Figure 1-1a. There the displacements to position A and B are the
vectors 𝑠𝐴 and 𝑠𝐵 which change both in magnitude and inclination. With straight line motion,
however, it is best to select the origin O on the path as in Figure 1-2b so that only the
magnitude of the displacement vector can change but not its inclination.

(b)
(a)

Figure 1-1. – Displacement in (a) curvilinear and (b) rectilinear motion.

Observe carefully the distinction between a change in displacement and the distance
traveled along the path. In the curves path of Figure 1-1a, the change in displacement ∆s is
less than the arc distance AB. In the straight path of Figure 1-1b, however, the change in
displacement ∆s and the distance AB are numerically equal for a particle moving from A to B,

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

but would be unequal if the particle should ever reverse its direction. Thus, if the particle in
Figure 1-1b travels from A to B and back to A, its final displacement will be the vector 𝑠𝐴 , its
change in displacement will be zero, but the distance travel between displacement (which is a
vector measured from a fixed origin) and distance is important because all the kinematic
relations we shall subsequently develop involve displacement and not distance.

Velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement, and acceleration is

defined as the time rate of change of velocity. The meanings of these terms may clarify by
restricting the discussion here to straight-line motion. A more general discussion is presented
in succeeding course packet of this learning module.

Figure 1-2

For velocity, in Figure 1-2, consider a particle traveling in a straight line from A to B
and let points 1 and 2 be two positions a small distance apart. If the displacement ∆s is
traversed in the time ∆t, it follows from the above definition that the average velocity over
that displacement will be:
∆𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡

and the instantaneous velocity will be found as ∆t approaches zero as a limit; i.e.,
∆𝑠
𝑣 = lim | |
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑣= (a)
𝑑𝑡

For acceleration, let us now assume that in the preceding discussion the particle starts
from A with a velocity of 𝑣𝐴 and arrives at B with a velocity 𝑣𝐵 . The average acceleration, or
the average rate of change of velocity, will be the difference between 𝑣𝐵 and 𝑣𝐴 divided by the
elapsed time. The instantaneous acceleration at any intermediate point cannot be determined
from these data. However, if the velocity at point 1 is 𝑣1 and at point 2 is 𝑣1 + ∆𝑣, the average
acceleration during the time ∆t will be:
∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡
And the instantaneous acceleration will be found as ∆t approaches zero as a limit; i.e.,
∆𝑣
𝑎 = lim | |
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= (b)
𝑑𝑡

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

𝑑𝑠
Since 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 , the instantaneous acceleration may also be written
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑠
𝑎= 2 (c)
𝑑𝑡
Elimination of dt in Eqs. (a) and (b) leads to:
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣
=
𝑣 𝑎
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑠
(d)

The three equations (a), (b) or (c), and (d) just developed are known as the differential
kinematic equations of motion. These equations are really statements of fundamental
definitions of instantaneous velocity and instantaneous acceleration. By their proper
application, the kinematic equations of motion for any case can be determined. This will be
done for several cases in the following topics. Again, the differential equations of kinematics
are here restated.
𝒅𝒔
𝒗= (1)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒔
𝒂= = (2)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒗 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒂 𝒅𝒔 (3)

The above definitions of velocity and acceleration include a fact which may not be
obvious, the fact that velocity and acceleration are vector quantities involving direction as well
as magnitude. As written here, they consider only variations in the magnitudes of these
quantities.1 But we shown earlier that displacement of a particle always takes place in a
definite direction. Therefore, if the definition of velocity, i.e., the time rate of change is
𝑑𝑠 1
displacement or 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 , is rewritten in the form 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝑠, it is apparent that the vector
1
displacement ds is multiplied by a scalar factor which results in a new vector of different
𝑑𝑡
length than ds but of the same direction. Obviously, if the displacement is constant in direction,
the velocity will likewise be constant in direction. In cases of rectilinear motion where only
the magnitude of velocity changes, the term speed is often used to describe the velocity.
Properly speaking, however, speed refers only to the magnitude of velocity. The possibility of
a change in the direction of velocity must not be overlooked. In this learning module the term
velocity includes both magnitude and direction of the rate of change of displacement; speed
is used only to mean the magnitude of velocity.

1There is a vector calculus which considers variation in both magnitude and direction, but its discussion
is beyond the scope of this learning module.

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

𝑑𝑣
Similarly, the definition of acceleration, i.e., the rate of change of velocity, or 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
,
1
may be written 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝑣. It is apparent that the velocity vector dv is multiplied by a scalar
1
factor , resulting in a new vector of different length but having the same direction as the
𝑑𝑡
velocity variation dv.

For units, the units that define displacement, velocity, and acceleration depend upon
the units chosen to represent length and time, such as foot, centimeter, and mile, for length;
and second, minute, and hour, for time. Accordingly, since displacement is synonymous with
length, velocity with change of length per unit time, and acceleration with change of velocity
per unit time, the common units for these terms are:
Displacement: foot, centimeter, mile
Velocity: foot per second (ft/s), centimeter per second (cm/s), mile per hour (mi/hr)
Acceleration: foot per second per second (ft/s2), mile per hour per hour (mi/hr2), etc.

Newton’s Laws of Motion for a Particle

From his study of falling bodies, Galileo discovered the first two of what are
commonly called Newton’s laws of motion for a particle. Newton’s name is associated with
the laws of motion, however, because it was, he who generalized them and demonstrated their
truth by his astronomical predictions based on them.
Newton’s laws of motion for a particle have been stated in a variety of ways. For our
purposes we shall phrase them as follows:
1. A particle acted upon by a balanced force system has no acceleration.
2. A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force system has an acceleration in line
with and directly proportional to the resultant of the force system.
3. Action and reaction forces between two particles are always equal and oppositely
directed.

Fundamental Equation of Kinetics for a Particles

Consider a particle of weight W acted upon by the forces shown in Figure 1-3a. The
resultant of these forces is obtained by a tip-to-tail addition as in Figure 1-3b; and because all
the forces on a particle are assumed to be concurrent (the size of a particle is a point), its
direction and position are indicated by the dashed vector in Figure 1-3a. By Newton’s second
law of motion, this resultant force (F) causes an acceleration a in line with F and directly
proportional to it, or
𝐹 =𝑘∙𝑎 (a)
where k is some constant of proportionality.

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1-3. – Resultant force on and acceleration of a particle.

If the same particle is now assumed to be in a vacuum, the resultant force acting upon
it is its weight W. By experiment, the acceleration produces by W is found to be the value of
the gravitational constant g which acts in line with W, as shown in Figure 1-3c. Again, applying
Newton’s second law and assuming the same constant of proportionality, we have
𝑊 = 𝑘∙g (b)
Dividing Eq. (a) by Eq. (b) gives:
𝐹 𝑎
=
𝑊 g
𝑾
𝑭= ∙𝒂 (c)
𝐠

𝑊
Comparison with Eq. (a) discloses the value of the constant of proportionality to be . This
g

ratio of weight divided by gravitational constant is often called the mass of the particle (m),
𝑊
that is 𝑚 = g , derived from 𝑊 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑔. With that, Eq. (c) will lead to:
(4)
𝑭 =𝒎∙𝒂

Since Eq. (c) or Eq. (5) is a vector equation in which each term except the scalar term
𝑊
g
(or m) represents direction as well as magnitude, it may be resolved into components

parallel to a set of rectangular coordinate axes yielding as a variation of this equation:

𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒙
𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒚 (5)
𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒛
Here 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 , and 𝐹𝑧 represent the components of F, and 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , and 𝑎𝑧 , represent the x, y, and z
components of the acceleration.

Effective Force on a Particle (Inertia Force)

The effective force on a particle is defined as the resultant force on the particle. Since
by Eq. (5), F and m·a are numerically equivalent, either may be said to be the effective force on
a particle. The use of m·a to represent this force is especially convenient in cases where the
acceleration of the particle is known but the actual force system producing this acceleration is

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

not known. This concept is used in the following topics to extend the laws of motion for a
particle to the motion of a body composed of a system of particles.

According to Newton’s third law, for every force there is an equal but opposite
reaction. In the case of a particle accelerated by a resultant force, this reaction is called the
inertia force of the particle. This force is the equal but oppositely directed reaction to the
resultant force acting on a particle. It is convenient to think of the inertia force as a force
numerically equal to m·a but oppositely to the acceleration.

If inertia force is considered to act on a particle together with the resultant force, the
particle will be in a state of equilibrium. This will be called dynamic equilibrium to
distinguish it from static equilibrium in which the particle is at rest or is moving with constant
velocity.

D’Alembert’s Principle
D’Alembert’s principle expresses the relation between the external forces applied to a
system of a particles and the effective force on each particle of the system. It may be stated as
follows: The resultant of the external forces applied to a body (rigid or non-rigid) composed of a system
of particles is equivalent to the vector summation of the effective forces acting on all particles. Both the
resultant force of the external force system and the summation of effective forces are vertical
additions and may be summed up in the following vector equation:
𝑤1 𝑤2
𝐹= 𝑎 + 𝑎 +⋯ or
g 1 g 2
𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑚2 𝑎2 + ⋯

The truth of this statement may be seen from Figure 1-4a. The heavy outline denotes
the boundary of a body which may consist of a system of particles either rigidly fastened
together or composing a non-rigid body like a gas or a liquid. The external forces acting on
this body are its weight W and several external forces of which two are shown, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 . Three
particles of the system composing the body are also shown. (The size of these particles is
exaggerated for convenience in representation.) One of these particles is assumed to be located at
the outer boundary of the body where it is acted upon by the external force 𝑃1 , its own weight
𝑤1 , and an internal force A. The second particle is assumed to be adjacent to the first particle
but is drawn at a distance from it to show the forces more clearly. This second particle is acted
upon by an external force due to its own weight 𝑤2 and an internal force B due to the action
of the first adjacent particle, as well as by other internal forces caused by other adjacent
particles. The third particle is assumed to be at the right boundary of the body where it is acted
upon by the external force 𝑃2 , its own weight 𝑤3 , and the internal force D transmitted to it
from the second particle by the action of intermediate particles. For convenience, these
intermediate particles are not drawn. In fact, the discussion is simplified if we temporarily

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

assume the body to be composed of just these three particles which act mutually upon each
other.

(a) (b)
Figure 1-4. – Resultant of external forces is equivalent to that of the effective forces.

By Newton’s third law of motion, the internal forces A and B are equal and oppositely
directed. Hence any summation involving all the forces acting on these two particles will
automatically cancel such internal forces as A and B. It is obvious therefore that any vectorial
summation of forces involving all the particles will cancel out all the internal forces between
particles since they occur in equal, opposite pairs. Figure 1-4b shows such a vectorial
summation of both the impressed forces such as 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , and W (note that W = 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 +
⋯) as well as the effective force of each particle. It is evident that the resultant force F of the
impressed forces is equivalent to that of the effective forces. Hence, we have:

𝑭 = 𝑾 + 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + ⋯ = 𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + ⋯ (6)

This expresses in equation form d’Alembert’s principle that the resultant force of the
impressed forces acting on a body is equivalent to the vector sum of the effective forces acting
on all the particles composing the body.

A useful variation of this principle is obtained by assuming that each particle is acted
upon by a force just equal but opposite to the effective force, thereby resulting in a set of
reversed effective forces which will balance the impressed forces. As discussed in preceding
topic, these reversed effective forces are the inertia forces of the particles. Thus, d’Alembert’s
principle may also be stated as follows: The impressed forces acting on any body are in dynamic
equilibrium with the inertia forces of the particles of the body.

Motion of the Center of Gravity of any Body

The vectorial relation expressed by Eq. (6) can be conveniently handled by algebraic
methods only if each term is resolved into its components. Considering the x-components of

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

each term, for example, we have:

∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑚3 𝑎3𝑥 + ⋯ (a)
in which ∑𝐹𝑥 represents the algebraic summation of the x-components of the external forces
W, 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , etc., acting on the body, and 𝑎1𝑥 , 𝑎2𝑥 , 𝑎3𝑥 , etc., are the x-components of the individual
acceleration of each particle. The masses of the particles composing the body denoted by 𝑚1 ,
𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , etc. Let the position of the particles at any instant be represented by (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ),
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 ), etc. From statics, the x-coordinate of the center of gravity of the given
system (𝑥̅ ) is given by the equation:
𝑚𝑥̅ = 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯ (b)
where m is the total mass of the system.

𝑑𝑥
Differentiating Eq. (b) twice with respect to the time and remembering that = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑥
and 𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑎𝑥 , we have:
𝑚𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑚3 𝑎3𝑥 + ⋯ (c)
in which 𝑎̅𝑥 is the x-component of the acceleration of the center of gravity.

Comparison of the right-hand terms in Eqs. (a) and (c) shows them to be identical;
hence we conclude that the left-hand terms must be equal, or:
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎̅𝑥 (d)

Since a similar procedure can be followed with respect to the y and z axes, the
relations between the external forces acting on any body, the mass of the body, and the
acceleration of its center of gravity may be stated by the following equations:
̅𝒙
∑𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎𝒂
̅𝒚
∑𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂 (7)
̅𝒛
∑𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎𝒂
In terms of the resultant force F (we denote resultant force in the equation as ∑𝐹 to have synchronize
equation) and the resultant acceleration 𝑎̅ of the center of gravity, this becomes:
̅
∑𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 (8)
These equations express the acceleration of the center of gravity of any body (rigid or non-
rigid) in terms of the applied external forces.

In conclusion we may say that as far as the relation between the resultant force and
the acceleration of the center of gravity is concerned, any system of particles may be
considered equivalent to a single particle, provided that the particle has the same mass of the
system and the same motion as the center of gravity of the system. Whenever there is occasion
to treat a body as though its mass were squeezed to a point located at its center of gravity, we
shall use the term point diagram to define the diagram of the forces.

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Applying the Principles of Dynamics

In this text, we shall apply the laws of dynamics only to bodies that are considered to
be particles or to bodies that are rigid. As we have seen, when the dimensions of a body are
small compared with its path, the body may be assumed to be a particle. The flight of a
projectile is an example. It is also permissible to consider that any body is a particle having the
body’s weight and the motion of its center of gravity. This procedure is used in discussing
non-rigid bodies.

Although any body may be treated as a particle concentrated at its center of gravity
and equations for its motion may be derived from this concept, in many cases the angular
motion of the body must also be considered. This requires additional equations derived from
the separate paths followed by the particles composing the body. Such equations can be
obtained only for rigid bodies in which the particles composing them are fixed in position
relative to each other, because only in rigid bodies can the motions of particles be related to
each other. The particles of a non-rigid body, such as a jet of water, can and do follow separate,
unrelated paths.

Although actual solid bodies are not really rigid, the change in shape under disturbing
forces is usually so small that no appreciable error is made in assuming them to be rigid. In
the following topics we shall discuss the various motions of an ideal rigid body. These motions
are known as translation, rotation, and plane motion. The type of motion produced on a rigid
body by any given force system will be shown in later topics to depend upon the nature and
position of the resultant of that force system. For the present, we shall merely state the effect
produced.

Consider a flat rigid body resting upon a smooth horizontal surface. If the resultant
of the applied force system is a single force passing through the gravity center of the body as
in Figure 1-5a, the body will move in the direction of the resultant force F, but it will not rotate.
If the direction of F is constant, the motion of the body follows a straight-line path and is called
rectilinear translation. If the direction of F varies, although continuing to pass through the
gravity center, so will the motion of the body, resulting in a curved path motion known as
curvilinear translation. In either type of translation, however, a straight line passing through
any two particles will always remain parallel to its initial position.

If the resultant of the applied force system is a couple M as in Figure 1-5b, the body
will spin about a vertical axis through its center of gravity, but the center of gravity will remain
stationary. All particles will describe horizontal circular arcs about the vertical centroidal axis.
This type of motion is called centroidal rotation.

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1-5. – Nature and position of resultant of applied

forces determines type of rigid body motion.

Finally, the resultant of the applied force system may be a single force which does not
pass through the gravity center as in Figure 1-5c. Recognizing that the resultant can be
transformed into a force acting through the gravity center plus a couple, it is easy to see that
the motion in this case will be a combination of translation and centroidal rotation, commonly
called plane motion.

The converse of the preceding discussion is also true, namely, the type of motion
specifies the nature and position of the resultant force. For example, a body that is constrained
so that its motion may only be a translation requires that the applied forces so distribute
themselves that their resultant passes through the center of gravity. Or if a body is constrained
so that it can only rotate about its centroidal axis, the resultant of any applied force system
must be a couple.

Sources:
Engineering Mechanics Second Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer, Harper International Edition

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

References.
Lectures and Figures form:
▪ Engineering Mechanics Second Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer, Harper International
Edition

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 GEEM0315 – Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Activity
Instructions:
A. Study the lesson on this learning packet.
B. Rewrite the lectures under the lesson proper of this learning packet on a separate
notebook.
C. The deadline of submission will be announced after the discussion of this learning
packet. In line with that, there will be online class for further explanation of this topic.

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