CHAPTER 9– Data Management System No data redundancy.

- Each data element is stored

only once, thereby eliminating data redundancy and
Database - model is a particular philosophy whose
reducing storage costs.
objectives are supported by specific strategies,
techniques, hardware, and software that are very Single update - Because each data element exists only
different from those associated with flat-file in one place, it requires only a single update
environments. procedure. This reduces the time and cost of keeping
the database current.
Two general data management approaches:
Current values - A change any user makes to the
1. Flat-file model
database yields current data values for all other users.
2. Database model
Task-data independence - Users have access to the
Flatfile - approach to data management. In this
full domain of data available to the firm. As users’
environment, users own their data files. Exclusive
information needs expand beyond their immediate
ownership of data is a natural consequence of two
domain, the new needs can be more easily satisfied
problems associated with the legacy-system era.
than under the flat-file approach.
Data redundancy - is the cause of three types of data
Database management system (DBMS).
management problems: data storage, data updating,
and currency of information. - Standing between the users’ programs and the
physical database
Data Storage - an efficient information system
- To provide controlled access to the database
captures and stores data only once and makes this
- special software system that is
single source available to all users who need it. This is
programmed to know which data elements
not possible in the flat-file environment. To meet the
each user is authorized to access.
private data needs of users, organizations must incur
the costs of both multiple collection and multiple Database approaches used for business information
storage procedures. Indeed, some commonly used systems are the: (HiMUR)
data may be duplicated dozens, hundreds, or even
1. Hierarchical – also called as navigational
thousands of times, creating excessive storage costs.
models or internal view
CURRENCY OF INFORMATION - In contrast to the 2. Model
problem of performing multiple updates is the 3. Users
problem of failing to update the files of all users 4. Relational model
affected by a change. If update messages are not
Database environment into four primary elements:
properly disseminated, then some users may not
record the change and will perform their duties and 1. Users
make decisions based on outdated data. 2. DBMS
3. Database administrator
TASK-DATA DEPENDENCY - user’s inability to obtain
4. Physical database.
additional information as his or her needs change.

Data sharing (the absence of ownership) - the

central concept of the database approach.
Users access the database in two ways. INTERNAL VIEW - The internal view presents the
physical arrangement of records in the database.
The first is via user application programs that systems
professionals prepare. - The internal view describes the structure of
records, the linkages between them, and the
- send data access requests (calls) to the DBMS,
physical arrangement and sequence of records
which validates the requests and retrieves the
in a file
data for processing.
CONCEPTUAL VIEW (SCHEMA) - represents the
The second method of database access is via direct
database logically and abstractly, rather than the way
query, which requires no formal user programs.
it is physically stored. This view allows users’
- The DBMS has a built-in query facility that programs to call for data without knowing or needing
allows authorized users to process data to specify how the data are arranged or where the
independent of professional programmers. data reside in the physical database.

DBMS model accomplishes these objectives USER VIEW (SUBSCHEMA). - The user view defines
differently, but some typical features include: how a particular user sees the portion of the database
that he or she is authorized to access.
1. Program development - The DBMS contains
application development software. Both DBMS OPERATION.
programmers and end users may employ this
1. A user program sends a request (call) for data to the
feature to create applications to access the
DBMS.
database.
2. Backup and recovery - During processing, the 2. The DBMS analyzes the request by matching the called
DBMS periodically makes backup copies of the data elements against the user view and the conceptual
view. If the data request matches, it is authorized, and
physical database.
processing proceeds to Step 3. If it does not match the
3. Database usage reporting - This feature
views, access is denied.
captures statistics on what data are being
used, when they are used, and who uses them. 3. The DBMS determines the data structure parameters
4. Database access - The most important feature from the internal view and passes them to the operating
system, which performs the actual data retrieval. Data
of a DBMS is to permit authorized user access
structure parameters - describe the organization and
to the database
access method (an operating system utility program) for
Data definition language (DDL) - is a programming retrieving the requested data.
language used to define the physical database to the 4. Using the appropriate access method, the operating
DBMS. system interacts with the disk storage device to retrieve
The definition includes the names and the relationship the data from the physical database.

of all data elements, records, and files that constitute 5. The operating system then stores the data in a main
the database. memory buffer area managed by the DBMS.

The DDL defines the database on three levels called 6. The DBMS transfers the data to the user’s work location
views: in main memory. At this point, the user’s program is free to
access and manipulate the data.
1. Internal view
7. When processing is complete, Steps 4, 5, and 6 are
2. Conceptual view (schema)
reversed to restore the processed data to the database.
3. User view (subschema)
Data manipulation language (DML) - is the proprietary
programming language, which a particular DBMS uses to
Data dictionary - describes every data element in the
retrieve, process, and store data.
database. This enables all users (and programmers) to
Query - capability of the DBMS permits end users and share a common view of the data resource and greatly
professional programmers to access data in the database facilitates the analysis of user needs.
directly without the need for conventional programs.
THE PHYSICAL DATABASE - the lowest level of the
IBM’s indexed sequential file - (SQL, pronounced sequel) database. The physical database consists of magnetic spots
has emerged as the standard query language for both on magnetic disks. The other levels of the database (e.g.,
mainframe and microcomputer DBMSs. the user view, conceptual view, and internal view) are
abstract representations of the physical level.
SQL - is a fourth-generation, nonprocedural language with
many commands that allow users to input, retrieve, and Indexed sequential file - facilitates both direct access to
modify data easily. individual records and batch processing of the entire file.

- far less training in computer concepts and fewer Inverted list - allows even more flexible access to data.
programming skills than many other programming
Two indexes
languages
- is an efficient data processing tool - One contains the employee number (primary key)
for uniquely locating records in the file.
SELECT - command is a powerful tool for retrieving data.
- The second index contains record addresses
Database administrator (DBA) –The DBA is responsible for arranged by year-to-date earnings.
managing the database resource. Having multiple users
E. F. Codd - proposed the principles of the relational model
share a common database requires organization,
in the late 1960s.
coordination, rules, and guidelines to protect the integrity
of the database. Relational model - The formal model has its foundations in
relational algebra and set theory, which provide the
- The duties of the DBA fall into the following areas:
theoretical basis for most of the data manipulation
database planning, database design, database
operations used.
implementation, database operation and
maintenance, and database change and growth. From a purist’s point of view, a fully relational system is
one that conforms to 12 stringent rules that Codd
outlined.

Accordingly, a system is relational if it:

1. Represents data in the form of two-dimensional tables

such as the database table, called Customer

2. Supports the relational algebra functions of restrict,

project, and join:

Restrict: Extracts specified rows from a specified table.

Creates a virtual table (one that does not physically exist)
that is a subset of the original table.

Project: Extracts specified attributes (columns) from a

table to create a virtual table.

Join: Builds a new physical table from two tables consisting

of all concatenated pairs of rows, from each table.
Data model - is a visual representation of an organization’s Accordingly, properly designed tables possess the
data. The model represents the nature of the data and the following four characteristics:
business rules that dictate how they are used. A data
1. The value of at least one attribute in each tuple
model is similar to a blueprint (plan) for a house.
must be unique. This attribute is the primary key.
Top-down approach - which requires a detailed analysis of The values of the other (nonkey) attributes in the
the organization’s information needs. row need not be unique.
2. All attribute values in any column must be of the
Bottom-up approach - organization’s database developers
same class.
may then modify the model to suit the company’s specific
3. Each column in a given table must be uniquely
needs.
named. However, different tables may contain
Commercial DBMSs - provide a predefined data model and columns with the same name.
tables that are based on business best-practices. 4. Tables must conform to the rules of normalization.
This means they must be free from structural
Entity - anything about which the organization wishes to
dependencies, including repeating groups, partial
capture data. Entities may be physical, such as inventories,
dependencies, and transitive dependencies.
customers, and employees.
Linkages between Relational Tables - Logically related
Entity relationship (ER) diagram - graphical technique used
tables need to be physically connected to achieve the
to depict the model. Each entity that is represented in an
associations described in the data model.
ER diagram corresponds to a table in the physical
database. Foreign keys - With foreign keys in place, a computer
program can be written to navigate among the tables of
Entity-level ER diagram - This is a high-level perspective of
the database and provide users with the data they need to
the overall schema, which presents only the key entities
support their day-to-day tasks and decision-making
and their relationships; it does not show the data types
responsibilities.
and keys contained within the entities.
ANOMALIES, STRUCTURAL DEPENDENCIES, AND DATA
Relation - describes how data in one entity are related to
NORMALIZATION - This section deals with why database
data in another entity.
tables need to be normalized. In other words, why is it
Occurrence (or instance) - is used to describe the number necessary for the organization’s database to form an
of items associated with an entity. elaborate network of normalized tables linked together.

Attributes - are the data elements that define an entity. Database Anomalies - The answer to the questions asked
in previous section is that improperly normalized tables
Association - describes the nature of the functional
can cause DBMS processing problems that restrict, or even
connection between two entities in a relation.
deny, users’ access to the information they need. Such
Cardinality - the degree of association between two tables exhibit negative operational symptoms called
entities anomalies.

- describes the number of possible occurrences in Anomalies:

one table that is associated with a single
1. Update anomaly
occurrence in a related table.
2. Insertion anomaly
Four basic forms of cardinality are possible: 3. Deletion anomal

1. Zero or one (0,1)

- One or more of these anomalies will exist in tables
2. One and only one (1,1)
that are not normalized or are normalized at a low
3. Zero or many (0,M)
level, such as the first normal form (1NF) and
4. One or many (1,M)
second normal form (2NF). To be free of
Tuple - is the formal name for a row in the table anomalies, tables must be normalized to the third
normal form (3NF) level.
Update anomaly - is the result of data redundancy in CUST NUM – (logical key) which was the nonkey
an unnormalized table. attribute in the former table on which the other
nonkey customer attributes were dependent.
Insertion anomaly - assume that a new vendor has
entered the marketplace. Phases of database design, which are known
collectively as view modeling:
Deletion anomaly - involves the unintentional deletion
of data from a table. 1. Identify the views to be modeled.

The database anomalies described earlier in the text 2. Normalize the data model and add primary keys.
are symptoms of structural problems within tables
3. Determine cardinalities and add foreign keys.
called dependencies. Specifically, these are known as:
4. Construct the physical database.
1. Repeating groups
2. Partial dependencies 5. Prepare the physical user views.
3. Transitive dependencies
View modeling - begins by identifying the relevant
The normalization process involves identifying and views of the business function in question. This
removing structural dependencies from the table(s) involves user interviews, and other techniques, to
being modeled such that the resulting 3NF table determine what users do and what information they
designs will meet two conditions: need to support their tasks.

1. All nonkey (data) attributes in the table are To demonstrate view identification, we will analyze the
dependent on (defined by) the primary key. following key features of a simplified purchasing
function:
2. All nonkey attributes are independent of the other
nonkey attributes. 1. The purchasing agent reviews the inventory status
report for items that need to be reordered.
3NF table - is one in which the primary key of a table
wholly and uniquely defines each attribute in the table. 2. The agent selects a supplier and prepares a digital
purchase order from his terminal.
PART NUM - Primary key for the Inventory table
3. The agent prints a copy of the purchase order and
Repeating group data - occur when multiple values for
sends it to the supplier.
a particular attribute exist in a specific tuple.
4. The supplier ships the inventory to the company.
Relational database theory - prohibits the
Upon its arrival, the receiving clerk inspects the
construction of a table in which a single tuple (a row in
inventory and prepares the digital receiving report. The
the table) represents multiple values for an attribute (a
computer system automatically updates the inventory
column in the table).
records.
Composite key - primary key of the Line-Item table
This description identifies three views:
Composite key comprises two attributes: INVOICE
(1) Inventory Status Report
NUM and PROD NUM.
(2) Purchase Order, and
Partial dependency - occurs when one or more nonkey
attributes are dependent on (defined by) only part of (3) Receiving Report.
the primary key, rather than the whole key. This can
1. Repeating Group Data in Status Report Entity - The
occur only in tables that have composite (two or more
nonkey attributes of Supplier Number, Supplier Name,
attributes) primary keys.
Supplier Address, and Supplier Tel Number are
INVOICE NUM - uniquely and wholly defines the repeating group data in the Status Report.
economic event that the Order Date, Shpd Date, and
Shpd Via attributes represent.
Repeating Group Data in Purchase Order Entity - The PART NUMBER - portion of the key is used to access the
attributes of Part Number, Description, Order Quantity, Inventory table to facilitate updating the Quantity on Hand
and Unit Cost are repeating group data. field from the Quantity Received field of the Rec Rept Item-
Detail table.
Partial Dependency in PO Item Detail Entity - An
- Element of the key is a link to the Inventory table where
analysis of the PO Item Detail entity reveals that its
Description and Unit Cost data are stored.
composite primary key uniquely defines only Order
Quantity. PO NUMBER - component of the composite key provides a link
to the Purchase Order table.
Transitive Dependency in Purchase Order Entity - The
attributes of Supplier Name, Supplier Address, and SQL commands will be saved in a user program called a query.

Supplier Tel Number are transitive dependencies, Commercial systems - are designed to comply with proven
which are defined by Supplier Number. industry best practices and to satisfy the most common needs of
different client organization.
Repeating Group Data in Receiving Report Entity - The
attributes Part Number, Quantity Received, and Distributed databases fall into two categories: partitioned and
Condition Code are repeating groups in the Receiving replicated.
Report entity and were removed to a new entity called Centralized database approach - remote users send requests via
Rec Report Item Detail. terminals for data to the central site, which processes the
requests and transmits the data back to the user. The central site
Transitive Dependency in Receiving Report Entity -
performs the functions of a file manager that services the data
The attributes Supplier Name, Supplier Address, and needs of the remote users.
Supplier Tel Number are defined by Supplier Number
and not defined by the primary key PO Number. Data currency - (i.e., the firm’s data files reflect accurately
the effects of its transactions).
View Integration - Combining the data needs of all
users into a single entity-wide schema. Database lockout - which is a software control (usually a
function of the DBMS) that prevents multiple simultaneous
This involves the consolidation of the attributes from accesses to data.
all user views into a common set of normalized entities
that meet the following conditions: Distributed databases - can be distributed using either the
partitioned or replicated technique.
1. An entity must consist of two or more occurrences.
Partitioned database - approach splits the central
2. No two entities may have the same primary key. The
database into segments or partitions that are distributed to
exceptions to this are entities with composite keys that
their primary users. The advantages of this approach are:
comprise the primary keys of other entities.

3. No nonkey attribute may be associated with more than • Storing data at local sites increases users’ control.
one entity. For example, if Customer Address is an attribute
• Permitting local access to data and reducing the volume
of the Customer entity, it cannot also be an attribute of
of data that must be transmitted between sites improve
another entity. All views that use Customer Address will
transaction processing response time.
retrieve it from the Customer entity.

SELECT command - identifies all of the attributes to be • Partitioned databases can reduce the potential for
contained in the view. disaster. By having data located at several sites, the loss of
a single site cannot terminate all data processing by the
FROM command - identifies the tables used in creating the
organization.
view.
Deadlock - occurs here because there is mutual exclusion
REC REPT NUMBER - portion of the key provides the link to
to data, and the transactions are in a wait state until the
the Receiving Report table that contains general data about
the receiving event locks are removed. A deadlock is a permanent condition
that must be resolved by special software that analyzes
each deadlock condition to determine the best solution.
DEADLOCK RESOLUTION.

1. The resources currently invested in the transaction.

2. The transaction’s stage of completion
3. The number of deadlocks associated with the
transaction.

Database concurrency - is the presence of complete and

accurate data at all remote sites. System designers need to
employ methods to ensure that transactions processed at
each site are accurately reflected in the databases at all
other sites.

A commonly used method for concurrency control is to

serialize transactions.

System-wide clock - is used to keep all sites, some of which

may be in different time zones, on the same logical time.
Each time stamp is made unique by incorporating the site’s
identification number.

Algorithm - is used to schedule updates to the database

based on the transaction time stamp and class.