a) ICT – Terminologies

i) Computer
This is an electro-magnetic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it
into useful information (output) and store for later reuse (retrieve).

ii) Computer system

A system is a group of two or more interrelated components or subsystems that serve a
common purpose. A computer system comprises of input, processing, storage and output
devices.

iii) Data
This refers to a collection of disorganized figures, facts, statistics, opinions or predictions that
are not useful for decision making.
-Also refers to the raw facts which have not been processed

iv) Information
This is processed data which is in a form that is meaningful for decision making

v) Information Communication Technology

Is an integration of computers, communication and other technologies applied to the
collection and storage of data that is subsequently processed and transmitted with the
intention of providing information to the recipient or decision makers?

vi) Computer- Based Information Communication System (CBIS)

This comprises of computer hardware, computer software, data/information, people/users,
procedures and communication devices (network)

b) Functions of ICT
i) Functions of ICT in an organization
- It increases operational
- Enhances employee productivity
- Improves customer service
- Increases customer satisfaction
- Promote effective decision making
- Enables development of competitive products
- Enables Strategic Planning for future expansion

ii) Advantages of computer systems

- High speed processing
A super computer can process one trillion arithmetic operations in one second.
- Handle large volume of repetitive tasks
It can prepare a payroll by calculating hours worked, rate per hour, total wages, various
deductions and net wages for thousands of employees without getting bored
- Has logical ability
Able to distinguish between numbers and decide which one is greater, negative or
positive

- Remote processing
Through time sharing and telecommunication, many persons at different locations can
use the same computer at one location for information processing eg ATM banking or
air-time top up.
- Enhance productivity
 Productivity increase once workers learn to use computers to perform their duties better
and faster
- Accelerate decision making
Managers can sort issues faster and make better decisions
- Reduce operation costs
Computers help to hold down the costs of labour, energy and paper work
- Reduce storage space
Information can be stored in computer components which occupy smaller space unlike
paper
iii) Disadvantages of computers
- High initial costs-requires high initial cost to purchase and install the computers
- Require skilled operators-Training needs to be done for the computer operators
- Cause health problems-use of computers causes health related problems such as neck
ache, eyes
- Reduce employment opportunities-one computer can perform several tasks that could
have been performed by several people hence causes unemployment
- Greater loss of data in case of breakage or system failure

c) Classification of computers
i) Classification by purpose
Analog Computers
These are computers that perform logical operations by measuring changes in physical
magnitudes and convert them to numeric values. These computers process data that is in a
continuous form or measurable quantities/units. Analog data includes physical variables like
temperature, pressure, length, weight, electrical voltages and resistance.
-Analog computers include thermometers, weighing scales, voltmeters and speedometers.
-These computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering purposes because they deal
with quantities that vary constantly.
-They give approximate results and are applied in industries, post office and weather stations
-Handles small volume of data.

Digital Computers
. These computers process data that is represented in the form of discrete or individually
distinct form usually in a binary or two state formats/digits 0 and 1. In the binary system,
each 0 and 1 is called a bit and a group of 8 bits is 1 byte.
Example of these devices include digital clock.
-handles high volume of data and gives accurate information

Hybrid Computers
These are computers that have the combined features of both the digital and analog
computers. Example is where patient’s vital signs like temperature, heart functions etc are
measured and converted to numbers and supplied to the digital components that monitor the
patient’s vital signs. A fluctuation can thus be noticed immediately.

ii) Classification by size

- Super computers
These are the most powerful, fastest and most expensive computers. Only a few of these
are manufactured each year because only a few organizations need and can afford their
processing capabilities. They have large memories and high processing speeds so fast that
they can process nearly a billion transactions per second and nearly a trillion arithmetic
operations at the same time. They apply parallel processing.
Application
  Worldwide weather forecasting and analysis of weather phenomena
 Produce images that can be incorporated into movies
 Aircraft design
 Mathematical research

- Main frames
These are large, general purpose computers which can serve 100 or more end users.
They are fast with large storage capacities.
Application
 Processing of high-volume batch applications eg in banks
 Management of very large centralized databases
 To control access, interpret queries and retrieve & update records
 Ideal for transaction processing, financial applications, payroll calculations and
airline reservations.
- Mini computers
 These are computers which are neither too big nor too small in size
 They are designed to accommodate more than one user
 The are a bit costly than micro computers
 Their processing speed is a bit faster than micro computers
 They have a large storage capacity than microcomputers and lesser than
mainframe computer

- Micro computers
 These are computers that are small in size
 They are designed for single user
 They have low processing speed
 They are less costly compared to others
 They have small processors
 They have small storage capacity

- Desktops
 These are a type of microcomputers also called Personal Computers (PCs).
 They are compact, powerful and versatile machines
 They generally serve a single user
 The desktop type may be one integral unit having monitor and CPU or may be
separate ( Tower units)

-
Laptops
 These are powerful portable computers
 They are designed for single user
 They have low processing speed
Computer Generations

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development process.
This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new
generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a
result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices.
 First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
 The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms.
 A magnetic drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on
which data and programs can be stored.
 The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around the circumference of the drum,
forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum. A single drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the
drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the
drum during the write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to that
of a magnetic tape or disk drive.
 They were very expensive to operate
 They used a great deal of electricity,
 Generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
 First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily
understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist
entirely of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or
an assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same instructions as a machine
language, but the instructions and variables have names instead of being just numbers.
 Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, the world's first operational electronic digital
computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. The ENIAC,
weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500
relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945.
 They had maintenance problems
 They had limited primary memory
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
 Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at
Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's
latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors
 They were smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors.
 Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
 Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages
were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
 These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
 The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
 The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers. Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon
diodes and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an
ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed, with other elements, such as boron,
phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.
 A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is
embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of electronic components
(transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards.
There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire
processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
 Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials. Semiconductors
make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization
mean that the components take up less space, it also means that they are faster and require less energy.

 Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
 Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors.
 High reliability
 Smaller size
 Use parallel processing
 Introduction of simpler programming language eg BASIC

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

 The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits we
rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the
terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most
workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from
clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.

Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the
processor can execute.

 As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
 Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices
 Introduction of a wide variety of software
 They became cheap enough for schools and homes to purchase them

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

 Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like
humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes:

 Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
 Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example,
some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
 Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages
 Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of
physical connections that occur in animal brains
 Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior). The
greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. In the area of robotics, computers are now
 widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty
identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.

Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people to interact
with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and
talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more
difficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human
language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators.

There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written words, but they do not
understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even these systems are quite limited -- you
must speak slowly and distinctly.

In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence and of
computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many expert systems help
human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are
helpful only in special situations.

Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in a number
of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing.

Elements of a computer system

COMPUTER HARDWARE
a) Input devices
i) Keyboard - Keyboard layout

 A standard QWERTY keyboard has about 102 keys grouped into categories;
- Functional keys
- Alphabetic keys
- Special keys
- Cursor movement keys
- Numeric keypad
The following are some functions of important keys on the keyboard
1) The Function Keys (F1- F12)
These keys are used to perform specific tasks eg F1 to activate help menu in MS-Word
2) Alphabetic keys
These are keys with alphabetical letters used for typing letters and words.
3) Special keys
These are keys used either alone or in combination with others to perform a function. Eg
i) Control Keys (Ctrl)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while taping another key eg
Ctrl + C = Copy Ctrl + Y = Redo
Ctrl + S = Save
Ctrl + V = paste
Ctrl + A = Select all Ctrl + U = Underline
Ctrl + P = Print Ctrl + X = cut
Ctrl + Z = Undo Ctrl + B = Bold
 Ctrl + I = italic
Ctrl + N = New window
ii) Alternate Keys (Alt)
They are used as a shortcut to activate a menu or task when held down when typing another key eg
 Alt + I = Inset  Alt + W = Window
 Alt + F = File  Alt +H = Help
 Alt + E = Edit  Alt + Y = Yes
 Alt + V = View  Alt + N = No
 Alt +O = Format  Alt + F4 = Close window
 Alt + A = Table
 iii) Shift Keys (Shift)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while typing another key e.g.
 To change case lower to upper or vice versa (Shift + A = a)
 To activate a character on upper part of a key eg (Shift + 2 = @, Shift + / =?)
iv) Num lock;
Used to change the numeric keypad to number entry mode or to directional arrow keys
v) Page up (pg up)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the top of the page
vi) page down(pg dn)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the bottom of the page
vii) home
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the beginning of a line
viii) end
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the end of a line
ix) insert keys
 it turns on the typeover or insert mode
 when insert mode is on, existing text is pushed to the right as new text is being typed, and when
typeover mode is on, existing text is over-written as new text is being typed over it.
x) delete key (Del)
 it is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the right of the cursor
 it can also erase selected (highlighted) text, file or folder
xi) Back space
It is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the left of the
cursor
xii) Caps Lock
 It is used to change the keyboard mode from upper case to lower case and vice versa.
 If this button has been pressed, a light will appear on the right hand side of the keyboard
xiii) Space bar
Adds blank spaces between words, letters, figures etc.
xiv) Enter key
Also referred to as Return key used to
 accept a selection/action
 insert a blank line between paragraphs, lines etc
 start a new line
 end a line

xv) Tab Key

It is used to indent text to the next tab setting
xvi) Escape Key
It is used to cancel dialog box or task being performed
4) Navigation Keys (Directional arrow keys)
They are used to move the cursor (insertion point) as per the direction that is on the key ie, up,
down, left, right

5) Numeric keypad
 Enter numbers 0-9

ii) Mouse
It is an input device which lets user move the cursor around the screen. It has at least two
buttons. The left button select icons and commands. The right button brings up a menu.
A mechanical mouse has a rubber or metal ball on it’s under side. When the ball rolls in a certain
direction, electronic circuits in the mouse translated the movement of the mouse into signals that
the computer can process. A mouse pad is a rectangular rubber or a foam pad that provides a
better traction than the top of a desk.
An optical mouse, by contrast, has no moving mechanical parts inside. Instead, it uses devices
that emit and sense light to detect the mouse movement.
A mouse contacts the computer in several ways. Many are attached to a serial port, mouse port or
USB port and system.
– Terminologies
- Clicking
This is pressing the mouse button once to activate a button.

- Double clicking
This is pressing the mouse button twice in rapid succession to open a file or folder.

- Dragging and dropping

This is the process of selecting a file, word etc and moving to another location.

- Right clicking
This is pressing the right mouse
- Left clicking
This is pressing the left mouse

- Scrolling
This is the process of moving the open window content either upward or downward using
vertical scroll bar or to the left or right using horizontal scroll bar.

iii) Scanner
It an input device that can create a digital representation of a printed image.

iv) Bar code reader

-It uses light to read universal product codes (UPCs), inventory goods, and other goods created
from patterns of variable width bars. It is used in super- markets and some libraries.
-Uses the principle of light to scan the data

v) Magnetic card input

It reads odd-shaped numbers printed with magnetic ink on cheques and is used in the banks.

vi) TOUCH SCREEN

 It responds when the user points to or touches different screen regions. Computers with touch
screen are frequently used in the airport, public libraries and shopping malls.

vii) Voice input devices

- Voice Recognition device
One of the latest input devices is the voice recognition device, which recognizes spoken words.
However, this only implies that the computer can take dictation, not that it understands what is
being said. However, they generally require an extended training session during which the
computer system becomes accustomed to a particular voice and accent. Such systems are said to
be speaker dependent. Many systems also require that the speaker speak slowly and distinctly
and separate each word with a short pause. These systems are called discrete speech systems.
Examples of where it is used include high security areas like in nuclear reactors where individual
voice is used as password to open doors to allow staff get to the plant.
- The other device is a microphone

b) Output devices
i) Monitor (Visual display unit)
The display screen are also called monitors which serve as a one way window between the
computer user and the machine. Most displays fold into one of the two classes: television –style
cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors and flat-panel liquid crystal display (LCD) displays. Overhead
projection panels and video projectors also use LCDs to project computer screen images for
meetings and classes.

ii) Printer
A printer can produce a hard copy on paper of any static information that can be displayed on the
computer screen. Printer come in several varieties, but they all fit into two basic groups: impact
printers and nonimpact printers.

iii) Sound output devices

Most modern PCs include sound cards. A sound card enables the PC to accept microphone input,
play music and other sounds through the speakers or headphones and process sound in a variety
of ways.

iv) Fax machine and fax modem

A fax machine is a fast and convenient tool for transmitting information stored on paper. In a
sense, when combined, fax machines and telephone lines serve as a long distance photocopy
machine.
The fax modem translates the document into signals that can be sent over the phone wires and
decoded by the receiving fax machine.

c) Central Processing Unit

The computer’s control centre is made up of the processing and main memory devices, housed in
the computer’s system unit. The system unit houses the part of electronic circuitry that does the
actual processing and the main memory that supports processing, which together are called
processing hardware. This is made up of the central processing unit (CPU), the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU).
 a) The central processing unit
It is the electronic circuitry that controls the interpretation and execution of instructions.

b) The arithmetic logic units

This unit performs the fundamental arithmetic operations and it’s composed of two sections.

i) Arithmetic unit – this performs the calculations such as addition, multiplication, division
and subtraction.

ii) The logic unit – this performs the comparisons such as true or false, greater than, equal
to, less than, etc.
c) Control unit
It processes the instructions and data stored in the computer and transfers them to the arithmetic
logic unit.
 CPU Operation
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is
to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a
series of numbers that are kept in some kind of computer memory. There are four steps that
nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and write back.
i) The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a
number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is
determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position
in the program. In other words, the program counter keeps track of the CPU's place in the
program.
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do.
ii) In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other
portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined
by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).
However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a micro-program is often used to
assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This micro-
program is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes
instructions even after it has been manufactured.
iii) After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various
portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an
addition operation was requested, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) will be connected to a set of
inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will
contain the final sum. The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical
operations on the inputs.
iv) The final step, write back, simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to
some form of memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick
access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper
and larger, main memory. Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than
directly produce result data. These are generally called "jumps" and facilitate behavior like loops,
conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and functions in
programs.
After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process
repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction
because of the incremented value in the program counter. If the completed instruction was a
jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was
jumped to, and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one
described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.

i) Computer buses
A bus is a path between components of a computer. There are two main buses in a computer;
the internal (or system) bus and the external (or expansion) bus. The system bus connects all the
internal computer components to the CPU and main memory.
When a word or data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in parallel over a
set of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus must have lines for
address and control progress.
 All buses consist of two parts; an address bus and a data bus.
The data bus transfers information about the data whereas the address bus transfers information
about where the data should go. The size of a bus determines how much data can be transmitted
at a time.
Every bus has a clock speed measured in Mhz. A fast bus allows the data to be transferred
faster. This makes applications run faster on PCs.
Characteristics of a bus
A bus is characterized by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This
amount, expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data is sent
simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term “width” is
used to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.
Additionally, the bus speed is also defined by its frequency (ranging from 100-133 Hertz), the
number of data packets sent or received per second. Each time that data is sent or received is
called a cycle. This way, it is possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus.
Bus Categories
In reality, each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 distinct physical lines, divided into
three subcategories.
i). Address bus
The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses which the
processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus. It connects
only the CPU and RAM and carries only memory address (Note- each byte in RAM is
associated with a number which is its memory address.
ii). Data bus
The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a bidirectional
bus. Actually it is a group of parallel wires.
iii). Control bus
The control bus or (command bus) transfers orders and synchronization signals coming from
the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a bidirectional bus, as it
also transmits response signals from the hardware.
The primary buses
There are generally two buses within a computer;
i). System (internal) bus – sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short. Cables from
disc drives and other internal devices are plugged into the bus. The internal bus allows the
processor to communicate with the system’s central memory the RAM. It enables various
motherboard components (USB, serial and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard
drives, CD-ROM and CD- RW drive etc) to communicate with one another.
ii) External (Expansion) bus
This connects external devices such as keyboard, mouse, modem, printer and so on to the
CPU. However, it is mainly used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots
connected to the Central Processing Unit.

Other classification of buses

a) Universal Serial Bus (USB) and IEEE 1394 (firewire)
It has enabled each USB port to support upto 127 different devices. USB or firewire compliant
devices such as key boards, mice, printers and modems can all be plugged into a single USB
port. This has therefore eliminated the need for expansion slots and boards.
b) The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus
It is a 16-bit data bus used in many computers to attach slower devices such as input devices and
modems to the CPU
c) The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus
These buses incorporate a special architecture that allows the video card to access the system
RAM directly, greatly increasing the speed of graphic performance.
d) Local Bus
It is an internal system bus that runs between components on the motherboard and is mostly
coupled with one or more kinds of expansion buses.
e) The Periphery Component Interconnect(PCI) bus
It is a type of local bus designed for easier integration of new data types such as video, audio and
graphics.
Advantages of using buses
a) Reduce computer weight due to fewer wires
b) Easy to install
c) Cost effective(only single cable is required)
d) Easy identification of cable faults
e) Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speed (quick set up), resulting in
faster network.
f) Cheaper than other topologies

d) Peripherals
These are attachments to the system unit and include keyboard, mouse, speakers etc

e) Storage Media
i) Primary (Main memory)
The memory unit stores information inform of instruction and data. Computer memory is
contained on memory chips mounted on the motherboard.
There are two types of main memory in use today: Random Access Memory (RAM) and the
Read Only Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

It is the most common computer memory which can be used by programs to perform necessary
tasks while the computer is on, an integrated circuit memory chip allows information to be
stored or accessed in any order and all storage locations are equally accessible.

The RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data
in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer’s processor. RAM
is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, the hard
disc, floppy disc, and CD-ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as long as your
computer is running. When you turn off your computer, RAM loses its data. When you turn on
your computer again, your operating system and other files are once again loaded into RAM
usually from the hard disc.

There are two technologies used for RAM memories; static and dynamic.
STATIC RAM
It stores a bit of information with a flip-flop i.e. the contents of a static RAM remains stable
forever, as long as power is available.

DYNAMIC RAM
It stores a bit of information as a charge. Due to the way in which the information is stored here,
the packing density is much higher than for static RAM.

READ ONLY MEMORY

On the other hand, ROM provides permanent or semi permanent storage only, its content can be
read but cannot be re-written during normal computer operations (is non-volatile). It stores
some standard processing programmes supplied by the manufactures to operate the personal
computer (PC). The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and
initializes various equipment attached to the PC, when the switch is made ON.
One important reason a computer needs ROM is that it must know what to do when the power is
first turned on. Among other things, ROM stores a set of start-up instructions, which ensures
that the rest of memory is functioning properly, checks for hardware devices and checks for an
operating system on the computer hard disc.

ii) Cache

iii)Secondary storage devices

Hard Discs
A hard disc is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can be magnetized to represent
data. Hard discs come in a variety of sizes.
- Hard disc for mainframes and minicomputers may be as large as 14 inches in diameter. Several
discs can be assembled into a disc pack. There are different types of disc packs, with the
number of platters varying by model. Each disc in the pack has top and bottom surfaces on
which to record data. Many disc devices, however, do not record data on the top of the top
platter or on the bottom of the bottom platter.
The mechanism for reading or writing data on a disc is an access arm; it moves a read/write
head into position over a particular track. The read/write head on the end of the access arm
hovers just above the track but does not actually touch the surface. When a read/write head
does accidentally touch the disc surface, this is called a head crash and all data is destroyed.
Data can also be destroyed if a read/write head encounters even minuscule foreign matter on
the disc surface.

- Tapes
- The amount of data on a tape is expressed in terms of density, which is the number of
characters per inch (CPI) or bytes per inch (bpi) that can be stored on the tape.

The highest-capacity tape is the digital audio tape, or DAT, which uses a different method of
recording data. Using a method called helical scan recording, DAT wraps around a rotating
read/write head that spins vertically as it moves. This places the data in diagonal bands that run
 across the tape rather than down its length. This method produces high density and faster
access to data.

Two reels are used, a supply reel and a take-up reel. The supply reel, which has the tape with
data on it or on which data will be recorded, is the reel that is changed. The take-up reel always
stays with the magnetic tape unit. Many cartridges and cassettes have the supply and take-up
reels built into the same case.

Tape now has a limited role because disc has proved the superior storage medium. Disc data is
quite reliable, especially within a sealed module. Furthermore, as we will see, disc data can be
accessed directly, as opposed to data on tape, which can be accessed only by passing by all the
data ahead of it on the tape. Consequently, the primary role of tape today is as an inexpensive
backup medium.
- Diskettes

Made of flexible Mylar, a diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface.
Diskettes became popular along with the personal computer.

The older diskette, 5-1/4 inches in diameter, is still in use, but newer computers use the 3-1/2
inch diskette (Figure 1). The 3-1/2 inch diskette has the protection of a hard plastic jacket, a
size to fit conveniently in a shirt pocket or purse, and the capacity to hold significantly more
data than a 5-1/4 inch diskette.

- Flash discs
Personal computer users, who never seem to have enough hard disc storage space, may turn to a
removable hard disc cartridge. Once full, a removable hard disc cartridge can be replaced with
a fresh one. In effect, a removable cartridge is as portable as a diskette, but the disc cartridge
holds much more data. Removable units also are important to businesses concerned with
security, because the units can be used during business hours but hidden away during off hours.
A disadvantage of a removable hard disc is that it takes longer to access data than a built-in
hard drive. Also it can be infected with viruses which delete files.

- Optical Disc Storage

The technology works like this: A laser hits a layer of metallic material spread over the surface
of a disc. When data is being entered, heat from the laser produces tiny spots on the disc
surface. To read the data, the laser scans the disc, and a lens picks up different light reflections
from the various spots.

Optical storage technology is categorized according to its read/write capability. Read-only

media are recorded on by the manufacturer and can be read from but not written to by the user.
Such a disc cannot, obviously, be used for your files, but manufacturers can use it to supply
software. Applications software packages sometimes include a dozen diskettes or more; all
these could fit on one optical disc with plenty of room to spare. The most prominent optical
technology is the CD-ROM, for compact disc read-only memory.
 The Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)
The most prominent optical technology is the CD-ROM, for CD-ROM has a major advantage
over other optical disc designs: The disc format is identical to that of audio compact discs, so
the same dust-free manufacturing plants that are now stamping out digital versions of Mozart
or Mary Chapin Carpenter can easily convert to producing anything from software to an
encyclopedia. Furthermore, CD-ROM storage is large -up to 660 megabytes per disc, the
equivalent of over 400 3-1/2 inch diskettes.

 Digital Versatile Disc (DVDs)

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) is a flat disc, the size of a CD - 4.7 inches diameter and .05
inches thick. Data are stored in a small indentation in a spiral track, just like in the CD. DVD
discs are read by a laser beam of shorter wave-length than used by the CD ROM drives. This
allows for smaller indentations and increased storage capacity. The data layer is only half as
thick as in the CD-ROM. This opens the possibility to write data in two layers. The outer gold
layer is semi transparent, to allow reading of the underlying silver layer. The laser beam is set
to two different intensities, strongest for reading the underlying silver layer.

A 4.7 GB side of a DVD can hold 135 minutes top quality video with 6 track stereo. This
requires a transmission rate of 4692 bits per second. The 17 GB disc holds 200 hours top
quality music recording.

Terms used in mouse action.

a) Point. Moving the mouse pointer to a desired spot on the screen such as over a particular
word or object.
b) Click. Used to select or highlight an object or icon on the screen. Also click is used to
position the cursor for instance in a word processor to indicate where to start inserting text,
numbers, pictures or images. This is done by pressing and releasing quickly, the left mouse
button once.
c) Double click
is used to open icons on the desktop. This is done by, pressing the left mouse button in two quick
successive clicks.
d) Drag & drop
is used to change the position of icons on the desktop. It’s also used to move an icon from one
location to another. This is done by pressing and holding down the left mouse button over an
icon; the mouse pointer is used to move the object to a new location or position and then release
it.
e) Right click is
used to access shortcut menu. This is done by, pressing the right mouse button once, and then a
pop-up menu appears.
1. Trackball is a movable ball on top of a stationary device that is rotated with fingers or palm
of the hand. It’s like an upside down mouse with a protruding ball on top.

Trackball
 2. Pointing stick looks like a pencil eraser protruding from the keyboard between letters G, H
and B. It is commonly found in laptops.
3. Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle like gearshift lever mounted on
a base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are used in video and computer games.
4. Touch pad is a small, flat surface which you slide your finger to move the cursor. Touch
pads have sensors used to detect finger movement. They’re also found in laptops.
5. Light pen contains a light sensitive cell on its tip. Light pen is a light-sensitive stylus, or pen
like device connected by a wire to the computer terminal. The user brings the pen to a desired
point on the display screen and presses the pen button, which identifies that screen location to
the computer. Engineers and illustrators use light pens.

Advantages & disadvantages of the following pointing devices.

Advantages. Devices. Disadvantages.

- Relatively inexpensive - When gripped too tightly can

cause muscle strain
Mouse
- Very little finger - Uses more desk space than
movement needed to other pointing devices
reach buttons
- Must be cleaned regularly

- Requires less arm - Wrist is bent during use

movement than mouse
Trackbal - More finger movement
l needed to reach buttons than
Optical readers and scanning devices.
Optical readers are input devices used in data processing, which read the data directly from
source of information.
Scanning devices use laser beam and reflected light to translate images, text, drawings, photos
and symbols into digital form.
The following are examples of optical readers and scanning devices: -
i). Barcode readers are vertical zebra stripped marks that you can see on most
manufactured products. For instance in supermarkets, barcodes are used for the stock
control. Barcode readers works on the principle that a narrow beam light from the reader is
reflected back from the patterns of black lines of various widths on the barcode; and
changed into a series of electrical pulses. This enables the computer to identify the item.

ii). Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) used by banks for handling
cheques. Some of the characters are printed in special magnetic ink.

A barcode & barcode number

A sample cheque

iii). Optical mark reader (OMR) works on the principle that a beam light is used to
read and detect marks on specially prepared documents e.g. answer sheets for multiple
choice in an examination.
iv). Optical character reader (OCR). This is a device used to read printed characters
(letters & figures) in a particular font and concerts them into a digital code. It is used in
preparation of gas and electricity bills.
v). Scanner is a device that translates photos, images, drawings and text into digital
form.
 A flatbed scanner

Processing hardware.

The data processing hardware here is the CPU; which stands for central processing unit. It is also
referred to as the “brain” of the computer. It follows the instructions of the software to perform
calculations, manipulates data into information and manages the flow of the same
information through the computer.

Microprocessor architecture.
There are four major functional elements or units in a microprocessor system, namely: -
i). The control unit. It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory
and the arithmetic logic unit. It also directs these electronic signals between main memory
and the input/output devices. For every instruction, the control unit carries out four basic
operations known as the- machine cycle. In the machine cycle the CPU (i). Fetches an
instruction (ii). Decodes the instruction (iii). Executes the instruction (iv). Stores the
results.
ii). Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). The ALU performs arithmetic and logical
operations and controls the speed of those operations. Arithmetic operations are the
fundamental math operations such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
Logical operations are comparisons. That is, the ALU compares two pieces of data to see
whether one is equal to, greater than or less than logical operation.
iii). Registers are special high-speed storage areas. The control unit and the ALU also use
registers, special areas that enhance the computer’s performance. Therefore, registers are
high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing.
They may store program instructions while it is being decoded; stores data while it is being
processed by the ALU or store the results of a calculation.
iv). Computer bus. A bus is a set of parallel wires or electronic pathway used to transmit data,
commands/instructions and power between the CPU and other components of the
motherboard.
A bus resembles a multilane highway. The more bus lines it has, the faster the data bits can
be transferred.
Output hardware/Devices.
 These are devices that translate information processed by the computers into a form that humans
can understand.
The two types of outputs are soft copy such as the one shown on the display screen, and the hard
copy, which is a printout from a printer.
Soft copy refers to data that is shown on the monitor, audio or voice form. This kind of output is
not tangible.
Hard copy is a printout from a printer and these are tangible output.
Display screens.
Display systems convert computer signals into text and pictures and display them on a television
like screen. Display screens use either cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD),
plasma or flat panel display.
An example of CRT is a monitor. A monitor is a specialized high-resolution screen similar to
high quality television set. The video card sends the contents of the system memory via the video
RAM on the VGA card into the monitor.
Speakers.
Speakers are output devices that communicate sound to the user. Speakers produce soft copy
output.

Desktop stereo speakers

Printers.
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols and graphics on a paper or any other
hard copy medium.
There are two classes of printers: -
1. Impact printers.
2. Non-impact printers.
1. Impact printer forms characters or images by striking on the paper with “hammers” when
printing against an inked ribbon. Therefore the printing head comes into contact with the
printing media.
Impact printers can be further subdivided into: -
i). Line printers.
ii).Character printers.

i). Line printers print one line of characters at a time. It prints at a rate of 300 to 3000 lines
per minute.
Examples of line printers are drum printers and chain printers.
ii). Character printers. They print one character at a time. They are much slower than the
line printers.
Examples of character printers include daisy wheel and dot matrix printers.
2. Non-impact printers don’t have “hammers”. The printing head does not come into contact with
the printing media. Instead it uses laser beam to produce a printout. Non-impact printers print a
page at a time.
 Examples of non-impact printers are laser and inkjet printers.

a) Laser printers use a laser beam to create a page printout. It is a high quality printer, which
operates at a high speed.
b) Ink jet printers use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper. Ink is sprayed from tiny
holes on the ink cartridge onto the paper. Print quality is better than impact printers but not as
good as laser printers.
Advantages and disadvantages of both laser and ink jet printers.
Laser printers. Ink jet printers.
Advantages. Advantages.
 They are quiet and fast when printing.  They are also quiet & fast when
printing.
 Produces excellent quality printout.  Less expensive to buy compared to laser
printers.

 Produce coloured printout.

Disadvantages. Disadvantages.
 They are expensive in terms of price They are routinely slow when printing a
and maintenance. coloured document.

 Most of them are single colour

printers.

Comparison between impact & non-impact printers.

Impact printers. Non-impact printers.
 Cheap to buy.  Expensive to buy.
 Slow when printing.  Fast when printing.
 Relatively poor quality printout.  Produces high quality printout.

 Noisy when printing.  Quiet when printing.

Plotters are used for producing technical drawings or even marketing materials such as posters.
They can print on architectural size paper.
rage device reads and records information on storage media. The computer uses information
stored on the storage media to perform tasks. Popular examples of storage devices includes a
hard disk, floppy drive, CD-Recordable drive and tape drive.

ASS. Discuss the impacts of ICT in the society

Units of measuring storage hardware.

Most computer systems use digital or binary system where two voltages low & high are used,
0volts & +5volts. This voltages are denoted as “0” & “1” respectively.

A computer system’ data/information storage capacity is represented by bytes, kilobytes (KB),

megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), and terabytes (TB).

Roughly a byte = 1 character of data, Kilobyte = 1000 bytes, megabyte = 1 million bytes,
gigabyte = 1 billion bytes and terabyte = 1 trillion bytes.

Letters, numbers and special characters are represented within a computer by means of binary
coding schemes. That is, the off and on or “0” and “1” are arranged in such a way that they can
be made to represent characters, digits or other values.

A bit is one of the binary digits either “0” or “1”.

Byte. A group of eight bits forms one byte or one byte consists of eight bits. Bytes are used to
measure the amounts of information a device can store.

A character can be a number, letter or symbol. Therefore, a bit is the smallest unit of information
a computer can process.

Kilobyte (K). This is approximately equal to one page of a double spaced text.

Megabyte (MB). This is approximately equal to one book.

Gigabyte (GB) is approximately equal to 1000 books or a study lined with bookshelves.

Terabytes (TB) is approximately equal to one entire library of books.

Binary coding schemes.

There are two common coding schemes namely: -

1. ASCII. It is pronounced “Ask-ee”. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange and is the binary code most widely used with microcomputers.
 Besides more conventional characters, ASCII includes such characters as math symbols and
Greek letters.
2. EBCDIC. It is pronounced “Eb-see-dick”. EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Code
Decimal Interchange Code and is a binary code used with large computers such as
mainframes.

Number systems & representations.

Computers do not use a decimal numbers system which humans are used to. There are other
number systems apart from decimal number system namely: -

i). Octal number system.

ii). Hexadecimal number system.
iii).Decimal number system consists of 0-9 digits that a human can understand.
iv). Binary number system is the number system used in digital computers and other digital
applications.
Decimal-binary equivalence.
Decimal. Binary.
0 0 NB:
1 1
 The subscript (2) is used for the binary system.
2 10  The subscript (10) is used for the decimal system.
3 11
4 100
5 101 Binary operations.
6 110
7 111 To perform binary operations, the following sets of rules are used.
8 1000
9 1001 i). 0+0=0
ii). 0+1=1
iii). 1+0=1
Conversion of decimal to binary & vice versa.
iv). 1+1=0 carry 1 Therefore, 910 = 10012
The binary number system is a weighted code where the value of a digit depends on its position.

The most significant bit is at the left while the least significant bit is at the right. The decimal
value of a binary digit “1” is given by 2k-1 where “K” is the position of the bit counting from right
to left.

 Binary to decimal conversion.

Example 1.

i). Convert binary number 1100102 to decimal.

To convert the above binary number to decimal, we compute it as follows: -

 (1×25) + (1×24) + (0×23) + (0×22) + (1×21) + (0×20)

32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 5010

Therefore, 1100102 = 5010

 Decimal to binary conversion.

When converting from decimal to binary, the decimal number is continuously divided by two
(2). The remainder of each subsequent division is written down sequentially. Therefore, the
reverse order of this sequence gives the binary equivalent.

Example 1.

i). Convert decimal number 1910 to binary.

Subscript. Decimal Remainder.
number.
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
0

Therefore, 1910 = 100112

 Converting decimal fraction to binary.

Example 1.

i). Convert decimal fraction 548.35610 to binary.

Subscript. Decimal Remainder.
number.
2 548 0
2 274 0
2 137 1
2 68 0
2 34 0
2 17 1
2 8 0
 2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
0

Decimal Remainde
fraction. r

0.356*2=0. 0
712

0.712*2=1. 1
424

Therefore, 548.35610 = 0.424*2=0. 0

1000100100.0102 848