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Levels of Biological Organizations

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Examples of Organ
Systems

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Levels of Organization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LJYUg
DNhi-A

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 ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
simplest Cells The smallest unit that can Heart cell
↓ perform the functions of life
Tissues A group of specialized cells Cardiac
↓ that share the same structure tissue
and function
Organs Several types of tissues Heart
↓ working together to perform a
specific function
Organ A group of tissues and organs Circulatory
systems working together to perform a system
Most ↓ specific function
complex
organism Human
 Organism Most
ex. Human complex
Organ Systems
ex. Circulatory
system
Organs
ex. Heart

Tissues
ex. Cardiac tissue

Cells
ex. Heart cells Simplest
The Cell Theory,
Cell Cycle
& Mitosis
 To Review: The Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are made of one or more
cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
 Why are Cells so Tiny?
• Your body contains 60 trillion cells.
• Cells take in nutrients and dispose of waste through
the cell membrane.
 Why are Cells so Tiny?
• As a cell grows, its volume (internal space)
increases at a faster rate than its surface area (cell
membrane).
• When the cell becomes too large to absorb enough
nutrients it must divide.
 Why do Cells Divide?
• Growth:
To increase the number of cells in the body.
• Repair:
To replace dead, damaged or old cells.
• Reproduction:
Can make exact copies (clones).
 The Cell Cycle
• Every hour, about 1 billion of your cells die and
another 1 billion are made.
• Body cells go through several stages in their lifetime
called the Cell Cycle.
 The Cell Cycle
• The Cell Cycle has 3 parts:
1. Interphase:
Cell repairs any damage, grows, and prepares for
division.
2. Mitosis : (division of the nucleus)
Creation of identical (Genetic material) daughter cells
3. Cytokinesis: (division of the cytoplasm)
Division of the cell into 2 identical “daughter cells.
 Interphase
• Longest stage of the cell cycle.
• Divided into three phases.
Chromatin: Chromosomes
• When a cell is ready to divide: The Chromatin condenses into
structures known as Chromosomes:
 Interphase
• First Gap Phase (G1):
Cells grow in size. New proteins and organelles
are made.
• Synthesis Phase (S):
DNA is replicated (known as chromatin).
• Second Gap Phase (G2):
Cells prepare for division.
 Cell Division
1. Mitosis (division of the nucleus)
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase

2. Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)

The Nucleus
 Chromosomes
• Hereditary information.
• Contained within the nucleus.
• Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
(Total of 46).
• When a cell divides, each
daughter cell gets the same
23 pairs of chromosomes.
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 Chromosomes
• Composed of DNA and proteins.
• A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a
particular trait.
The function of different cells needs
to be Regulated : Cell Cycle

We have Skin Cells, Stomach Cells,

Muscle Cells

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Their Functions need
to be regulated

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• A Multicellular Organism is not
growing because each individual cell
is getting bigger.
• A Multicellular organism grows by
MAKING MORE CELLS by
dividing : CELL REPRODUCTION
• we are continually changing and
growing.
• For our bodies to grow and develop,
they must produce new cells.
• Cell division is also an essential
component of injury repair.

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 AGAIN: Why do Cells Divide?
• Growth:
To increase the number of cells in the body.
• Repair:
To replace dead, damaged or old cells.
• Reproduction:
Can make exact copies (clones).
Our Cells are Growing, Developing,
and many of them are Dividing to
make more cells with IDENTICAL
COPIES OF OUR DNA to replace
the old ones.

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 New Skin Cells

Scar

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 Phase 1: Interphase
• Cells are growing
• Replicating their
DNA
• Doing their Cell
Functions

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 The pancreas has two main functions: digestion and blood sugar regulation

Metabolism: Cells perform chemical reactions that convert food into energy
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Phase 2: M Phase
• Mitosis : Mitosis is a part of
the cell cycle in which
replicated chromosomes are
separated into two new
nuclei.

• Cytokinesis: The Splitting

of the Cytoplasm

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Most of the Time: They are not
dividing

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 A Hair Cell
A Nerve Cell

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Checkpoint (STEP G1)

The G1 Phase or the “First Gap”,

Cells are ballooning in SIZE, while
making new PROTEINS and
ORGANELLS
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G1: Is the Cell growing well enough? Is its DNA Damaged? If its damaged it should not move to S
Phase where the DNA is replicated.
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Checkpoint (STEP S)
• For the cells who CLEAR UP THE CHECK POINT The next step is: S
PHASE

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It now contains 2 copies of Ur
genetic code.

It is important, as when the cell

divides later, each replicated cell
will need its own copy of all the
DNA.
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Checkpoint (STEP G2)
• The last of the 3 interphase steps is G2 or the SECOND GAP.
• Repair of DNA damage, ensuring no errors in the replicated
DNA.

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G2: If the DNA is replicated correctly in S Phase. Is it Growing well enough.

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Key Differences Between G1 and G2 steps of the Interphase
Feature G1 Phase G2 Phase

Timing After mitosis, before S phase After S phase, before mitosis

Growth and preparation for

Primary Activity Preparation for mitosis
replication
DNA replication already
DNA Replication No DNA replication occurs
completed
Checks DNA replication and
Checkpoints Checks size and environment
damage

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M Phase

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Mitosis
• The Cell’s Nucleus will split in TWO.
• Pushing the copied Chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell.
• This ensures that each Cell ends with a complete copy of the
organism’s genetic code.

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Cytokinesis

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 Prophase
• Chromatin condenses to form
paired chromosomes (sister
chromatids).
• Centrioles move to each pole.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Nuclear membrane breaks
down.
Chromatin, Chromosome, Centromere, Sister
Chromatids
• Chromatin: The material that
chromosomes are made of
• Centromere: A constricted
region of a chromosome that
joins sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids: Identical
copies of a chromosome that are
joined at the centromere

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 Metaphase
• Spindle fibers attach to
centromere.
• Chromosomes line up
at metaphase plate.
 Anaphase
• Spindle fibers shorten.
• Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposite poles.
 Telophase
• Cell membrane pinches inwards.
• Nuclear membranes reform

Watch this Video!

 Cytokinesis
• Cytoplasm splits in two
• Cells return to interphase

Watch this Video!

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the parent cell chromosomes — which were duplicated
during S phase — condense and become thousands of times
more compact than they were during interphase.
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Checkpoint (STEP Metaphase during Mitosis)

Spindles are protein structures that divide

DNA in a cell during mitosis

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 If the issue can be fixed:
The cell will pause until it fixes the issue

If the issue can not be fixed:

The cell will do APOPTOSIS : Self-Destructs

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Plant vs. Animal Cell
 Go Phase
• Cells can enter a resting phase called Go.
• E.g., some nerve cells in the brain stop
dividing when the brain is developed and
cannot reenter the cell cycle.
 Visualizing the Cell Cycle
• The stages of the cell cycle are used to understand
the process.
• In reality it is a continuous process.
• These animations and video depict this:
• http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitosis.html
• http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AhgRhXl7w_g
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