Module -2 Understanding and Conceptualizing interaction cognitive

aspects and social emotional interaction

Introduction
In design projects, generating new ideas requires conceptualizing them based on the functionality of the proposed
product. This process is often referred to as creating a proof of concept. Within the double diamond framework, it
serves as an initial exploration to define the project area and investigate potential solutions.

Key reasons for developing a proof of concept include:

 Reality Check: Scrutinizing fuzzy ideas and assumptions about the product's benefits in terms of feasibility.
 Articulation of Building Blocks: Helping designers clarify the fundamental components necessary for
product development.
 User Experience Clarity: Forcing designers to explain user interactions and understanding of the product.

Conceptualizing Interaction
When conceptualizing interaction, it is essential to consider various aspects such as conceptual models, interface
metaphors, interaction types, and overarching paradigms, visions, theories, models, and frameworks.

Example: Voice-Assisted Mobile Robot

Consider a designer's idea of a voice-assisted mobile robot to assist waiters in restaurants. The initial question to
address is the purpose of the robot. Potential benefits include:

 Taking orders and entertaining customers.

 Providing customized recommendations for different customer needs.

However, these benefits do not directly address a specific problem. A more concrete problem might be the difficulty

Addressing Unknowns

In the early stages of a design project, especially for new products, many unknowns must be considered. It is
beneficial to trace the origins of novel ideas, including sources of inspiration and relevant theories or research that
can support these ideas.

Example:-Overview of 3D and Curved TVs

3D and curved TVs were introduced with much excitement, promising an enhanced viewing experience for movies,
sports, and dramas. However, both technologies failed to gain widespread acceptance. This section explores the
assumptions and claims behind these technologies and the reasons for their shortcomings.

Assumptions and Claims of 3D TV

 Assumption 1: Consumers would be willing to wear glasses to experience 3D content.

 Assumption 2: Consumers would pay a premium for 3D-enabled TVs.
 Claim: The enhanced clarity and color detail of 3D would be highly enjoyable, as evidenced by positive
feedback from 3D films in cinemas.
Assumptions and Claims of Curved TV

 Assumption 1: Curved TVs would allow viewers to optimize their viewing angles in their living rooms.
 Claim: The curvature would enhance the viewing experience, making it more immersive.

Common Issues with Both Technologies

Both 3D and curved TVs faced a critical question: Could the enhanced cinema experience translate into a desirable
home viewing experience? The assumption was that home viewing was inferior to cinema viewing, leading to the
claim that consumers would pay more for a better experience. However, the reality was different.

Usability Problems with 3D TV

 Many users experienced motion sickness while watching 3D content.

 3D glasses were often lost and made multitasking difficult (e.g., channel surfing, texting).
 As a result, many consumers stopped using their 3D TVs after a short period.

Challenges Faced by Curved TV

While curved TVs did not require glasses, they also failed to capture the market due to:

 The perceived benefits of the curve being minimal compared to the higher cost.
 For some, the aesthetic appeal was overshadowed by the inconvenience of the design.

Conceptual Models as Blueprints

Once assumptions and claims are established, a conceptual model can serve as a shared blueprint for the design
team. This model can be represented textually or diagrammatically and is useful for:

 Communicating ideas across various departments (business, engineering, finance, etc.).

 Guiding the development of detailed design aspects.
 Producing simpler designs that align with user tasks.
 Facilitating faster development and improving customer uptake.
 Reducing the need for extensive training and customer support.

Conceptual Models in Interaction Design

Definition and Purpose

A model is a simplified description of a system or process that aids in understanding its functionality. In interaction
design, a specific type of model known as a conceptual model is utilized to articulate the problem and design space.
Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson (2002) define a conceptual model as “a high-level description of how a system
is organized and operates” (p. 26). This abstraction outlines user interactions with a product and the necessary
concepts for effective engagement.

Benefits of Conceptual Models

Conceptual models provide a working strategy and framework of general concepts and their interrelations. Key
benefits include:

 Clarifying design thinking before implementation.

  Facilitating discussions on user experience and design methods.
 Supporting intuitive operations that enhance user engagement.

Core Components of Conceptual Models

The essential components of a conceptual model include:

 Metaphors and Analogies: These help users understand the product's purpose and usage (e.g., browsing
and bookmarking).
 Concepts: The task-domain objects users interact with, including their attributes and operations (e.g.,
saving, revisiting).
 Relationships: Connections between concepts, such as containment (e.g., one object containing another).
 Mappings: The relationship between concepts and the user experience the product supports (e.g., revisiting
pages through a list).

Organizing Concepts for User Experience

The organization of metaphors, concepts, and their relationships significantly influences user experience. Design
teams can debate various methods to support core concepts like saving, revisiting, and categorizing. This discussion
can lead to the exploration of new metaphors that integrate browsing, searching, and revisiting activities. The design
team can systematically determine the most effective ways to support users while browsing the Internet.

Challenges with Complex Conceptual Models

While effective conceptual models are often simple and intuitive, applications can become overly complex due to
successive upgrades. Users may resist changes to familiar methods, leading to frustration when features are altered
or removed. For instance, Facebook's revised newsfeed faced backlash from users who preferred the old interface.
Software companies must balance introducing new features with justifying the removal of existing ones.

Design Concept

A design concept is a collection of ideas for a design, often comprising scenarios, images, mood boards, or text
documents. An example includes an ambient display design aimed at encouraging stair use over elevators, featuring
animated lights embedded in the carpet.

Established Conceptual Models in Interface Applications

Most interface applications are based on established conceptual models. For example, online shopping websites
utilize a model that mimics the customer experience in a mall, including shopping carts and checkout processes.
Designers can leverage existing patterns for various user experience aspects, such as online forms and mobile
navigation.

Transformative Conceptual Models

Completely new conceptual models that transform daily activities are rare. Notable examples include:

 The Desktop: Developed by Xerox in the late 1970s, it changed office task performance.
 The Digital Spreadsheet: Created by Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston, it simplified accounting tasks.
 The World Wide Web: Developed by Tim Berners Lee, it made information browsing accessible to all.

These innovations expanded possibilities and made complex tasks more manageable, leading to the development of
e-readers and digital authoring tools that support online reading and associated activities.
Classic Conceptual Model: The Xerox Star

The Xerox Star interface, developed in 1981, revolutionized personal computing interfaces and is considered a
precursor to modern desktop interfaces. It utilized familiar office concepts, such as paper and folders, represented as
icons. Users could drag document icons as if moving physical papers, while also performing operations not possible
in the physical world, like sending files to a printer icon.

Interaction Types
Overview

Interaction types are essential for understanding user experience design. They represent the various ways users
interact with products or applications. Initially, four main types were identified: instructing, conversing,
manipulating, and exploring. A fifth type, responding, was later proposed, which involves proactive systems
initiating interactions. Understanding these types helps designers create effective conceptual models before selecting
specific interface styles.

Interaction Types

The five core interaction types are:

 Instructing: Users issue commands to a system through various methods such as typing, selecting from
menus, or using voice commands.
 Conversing: Users engage in a dialogue with the system, which responds in a human-like manner, often
used in advisory systems and chatbots.
 Manipulating: Users interact with digital or physical objects by moving, selecting, or altering them, often
using direct manipulation techniques.
 Exploring: Users navigate through virtual or physical environments, utilizing their knowledge of spatial
movement.
 Responding: The system initiates interactions based on context, prompting users to respond to
notifications or alerts.

Instructing

Instructing involves users telling the system what to do, such as asking for information or performing tasks. This
interaction can be executed through various means, including button presses, typing, or voice commands. The
efficiency of this interaction type is beneficial for repetitive tasks, such as saving or organizing files.

Example: Vending machines illustrate different levels of complexity in instructing. A simple machine requires a
single button press, while a more complex one necessitates multiple steps, which can lead to user errors.

Conversing

Conversing allows users to interact with systems as if they were having a conversation. This two-way
communication can be simple, like voice recognition systems, or more complex, involving natural language
processing. The conversational model is familiar to users, making it easier to engage with technology.

Example: Siri allows users to ask questions and receive answers in a conversational manner. However, automated
phone systems can become cumbersome, requiring users to navigate through multiple menus.

Manipulating
Manipulating focuses on users interacting with objects in a way that mimics physical actions. This includes moving,
selecting, and altering digital objects. Direct manipulation interfaces enhance user control and provide immediate
feedback, making tasks more intuitive.

Example: In a word processor, users can drag and drop files, but some tasks, like replacing text, may be more
efficiently completed through command-based interactions.

Exploring

Exploring involves users moving through virtual or physical spaces, allowing them to interact with their
environment. This interaction type is prevalent in 3D virtual environments and augmented reality applications,
enabling users to learn and socialize in immersive settings.

Example: Virtual campuses and video games allow users to navigate and interact with various environments,
enhancing their experience through exploration.

Responding

Responding is characterized by the system taking the initiative to provide information or alerts based on user
context. This proactive interaction can enhance user engagement but may also lead to frustration if the system
misinterprets user needs.

Example: Fitness trackers notify users of milestones without prompting, but incorrect alerts can lead to annoyance.
The challenge lies in balancing useful information with user preferences.

Conclusion

Understanding these interaction types is crucial for designers to create effective user experiences. Each type has its
strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of interaction type can significantly impact usability and user satisfaction.

Definition of Cognition
Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in carrying out everyday activities. It encompasses a variety of
cognitive processes such as thinking, remembering, learning, daydreaming, decision making, seeing, reading,
writing, and talking. According to Norman (1993), cognition can be categorized into two main modes: experiential
and reflective cognition.

Experiential vs. Reflective Cognition

Experiential cognition is characterized by effective and effortless perception, action, and reaction to events. It
requires a certain level of expertise and engagement. Examples include:

 Driving a car
 Reading a book
 Having a conversation
 Playing a video game

Reflective cognition, on the other hand, involves deeper thinking, comparison, and decision-making, leading to
creativity and new ideas. Examples include:

 Designing
 Learning
  Writing a book

Both modes are essential for daily life and require different types of technological support.

Cognitive Processes
Cognition can also be described through specific processes, including:

 Attention
 Perception and recognition
 Memory
 Learning
 Reading, speaking, and listening
 Problem solving, planning, reasoning, decision making

These processes are often interdependent, meaning multiple processes may be involved in a single activity. For
instance, studying for an exam requires attention, perception, reading, thinking, and memory.

Attention

Attention is the process of selecting what to focus on from available information. It involves both auditory and
visual senses. Examples include:

 Listening for your name in a waiting room

 Scanning newspaper results for your team's performance

The ease of focusing on relevant information depends on:

1. Clear Goals: Knowing what you want helps in matching it with available information.
2. Information Presentation: The way information is displayed can influence how easily it can be attended
to.

For example, a well-structured display can significantly reduce the time taken to find specific information compared
to a poorly structured one.

Perception

Perception is how we acquire information from our environment through our senses and transform it into
experiences. It is a complex process that involves memory, attention, and language. Vision is the dominant sense for
most individuals, followed by hearing and touch. Effective interaction design must ensure that information is
presented in a way that can be easily perceived and recognized.

Memory

Memory is crucial for recalling knowledge and enabling appropriate actions. It allows us to recognize faces,
remember names, and recall past interactions. However, we cannot remember everything, and a filtering process
determines what information is retained. This process can lead to forgetting important information while
remembering trivial details.

Memory involves:
  Encoding: The initial process of determining which information is attended to and how it is interpreted.
 Context: The context in which information is encoded affects its retrievability. For example, recognizing
someone out of their usual context can be challenging.
 Recognition vs. Recall: People generally find it easier to recognize information than to recall it, especially
with visual stimuli.

Learning with Technology

Learning can be approached in two ways:

 Using a computer-based application to perform tasks.

 Utilizing a computer-based application to gain knowledge on a specific topic.

Jack Carroll (1990) and his colleagues emphasize the importance of designing user-friendly interfaces that facilitate
skill development in computer applications. A key finding is that learners struggle with traditional instruction
manuals and prefer a hands-on approach, often referred to as "learning through doing."

Effective Learning Environments

Direct interfaces are beneficial for exploratory learning, allowing users to easily "undo" actions and revert to
previous states if mistakes occur. Carroll also advocates for a "training-wheels" approach, which limits novice users
to basic functions initially, gradually introducing more complex features as they gain experience. This method
simplifies the learning process and helps learners focus on fundamental operations before tackling advanced tasks.

Interactive Technologies in Learning

Various technologies, including web-based platforms, multimedia, and virtual reality, have been explored to
enhance learning. These interactive technologies offer unique ways to represent and engage with information,
providing learners with diverse methods to explore concepts that traditional media (like books and videos) cannot
offer.

Challenges for First-Time Users

When introducing a cell phone to someone unfamiliar with it, such as a grandparent or child, their behavior often
reflects their reliance on prior knowledge of land-line phones. Key differences in operation can lead to confusion:

 Cell phones require powering on, while land-lines do not.

 Area codes must be included for calls, even locally, which is not the case with land-lines.
 Users must press a "make a call" button, unlike simply lifting a receiver.

First-time users may struggle with these additional steps, such as forgetting to press the "accept a call" button or the
"end a call" button, which can lead to frustration.

Language Processing: Reading, Speaking, and Listening

Reading, speaking, and listening share similarities but also exhibit distinct characteristics:

 The meaning of sentences remains consistent across modes.

 Reading is often quicker than listening or speaking due to the ability to scan text.
 Listening generally requires less cognitive effort than reading or speaking.
 Written language tends to be more grammatical compared to spoken language.
 Individual preferences vary; some may prefer reading while others favor listening or speaking.
  Dyslexia and hearing/vision impairments can hinder language processing abilities.

Various applications have been developed to support language skills, including interactive books, speech-
recognition systems, and cognitive aids for those with disabilities.

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

Cognitive processes such as problem-solving, planning, reasoning, and decision-making involve reflective
cognition. These processes require individuals to think critically about options and potential consequences. For
instance, when planning a route, one may consult maps or seek advice, weighing the pros and cons of different
paths. This reflective thinking is essential for effective decision-making.

Frameworks for Cognition

This section discusses the application of theories and conceptual frameworks to interaction design, focusing on three
main approaches to cognition: mental models, information processing, and external cognition.

Mental Models

Mental models are internal representations that users develop to understand how to use a system effectively. A
successful system is based on a conceptual model that facilitates learning and usage. Users create mental models that
help them infer how to perform tasks and respond to unexpected situations.

 Users develop knowledge of how to use a system and how it works.

 Engineers may have a "deep" mental model, while average users may have a "shallow" understanding.
 Mental models allow users to make predictions and inferences about system behavior.

For example, when returning to a cold house, users may incorrectly believe that setting the thermostat to the highest
temperature will heat the house faster, demonstrating a flawed mental model based on a general "more is more"
principle.

Erroneous mental models are common, as seen when people repeatedly press buttons at pedestrian crossings or
elevators, believing it will hasten the response. Similarly, when a computer cursor freezes, users often press random
keys without understanding how it might help.

Improving mental models can enhance user efficiency and problem-solving. Suggestions for achieving this include:

 Educating users about system functionality.

 Designing systems to be more transparent and intuitive.
 Providing useful feedback and clear instructions.
 Offering context-sensitive guidance tailored to user experience levels.

Information Processing

The information processing approach conceptualizes the mind as a series of ordered processing stages, likening it to
a digital computer. This model allows predictions about human performance, such as reaction times and bottlenecks
due to information overload.

 The human processor model outlines cognitive processes during computer interaction.
  It helps compare different interfaces based on user task performance.

However, traditional information processing models often overlook the role of external representations in cognition.
Everyday cognitive activities frequently involve interactions with the environment, such as using cues to navigate or
relying on external tools for memory and computation.

Critics argue that existing models are too simplistic and do not account for real-world cognitive activities. There is a
growing trend to study cognition in context, leading to frameworks like external cognition and distributed cognition.

External Cognition

External cognition focuses on how people interact with various external representations and tools to aid cognitive
processes. These tools include books, multimedia, and technology, which enhance our ability to perform cognitive
tasks.

 Externalizing information can reduce memory load.

 Computational offloading allows users to utilize tools for complex calculations.
 Annotating and cognitive tracing help users track changes and optimize tasks.

Examples of externalizing include using calendars and to-do lists to manage tasks, which help reduce cognitive load
by providing reminders. Computational offloading is illustrated by using pen and paper or calculators to simplify
complex calculations.

Annotating involves modifying external representations, such as crossing off items on a shopping list, while
cognitive tracing refers to rearranging items to reflect changes in task priorities.

Design principles based on external cognition suggest providing external representations that reduce memory load
and facilitate computational offloading. Effective information visualizations can help users make inferences and
manage complex data more efficiently.