INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE ELEMENTS & DESIGN AND MECHANISM

1. Introduction to Machine Elements & Design

Definitions:
a) Machines: A machines is defined as an apparatus for applying mechanical power, consisting of a
number of interrelated parts each having a definite function OR a machine is a combinations of rigid
or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing useful work.
Types of Machines: Machines can be divided into four groups:
(i) Machines for Power Production: Examples, Internal Combustion Engines, Electrical Motors,
Generators, Turbines etc
(ii) Machines for production of different kinds of goods: Examples, Machines tools, Sewing
Machines, Printing Machines, Mills etc.
(iii) Machines for Transportation of both Goods and People: Examples, Conveyors, lifts,
motorcars, trains etc
(iv) Machines for calculations, controls and Operations: Examples, Computers, calculators,
robots etc
Parts of Machines: A machines usually consists of the following parts:
(i) Engine: This transform the External energy into Mechanical one
(ii) Mechanism: For transmission and modification of motion
(iii) Working (Executing) Organ: This performs the required function of the machines. Example,
car tyres, cutting tools etc
(iv) Control and Operation System: This controls various activities in the machines. Example
brakes in controlling the movement of the car
b) Machine Elements: A machine element is an elementary part of a machine made as one piece from
one material. Examples of machine elements are bolts &Nuts, Shafts, bearing, piston, valves,
connecting rods etc.
c) Machine Design: Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation.
Classifications of machine design: There may be several types of design such as:
(i) Adaptive design: This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or systems
adopted for a new application. This type of design needs no specific knowledge or skills. The
designer only makes minor alteration or modification in the existing designs of the product.
(ii) Developmental design: Here we start with an existing design but finally a modified design is
obtained. A new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental design. The final
product may differ quite markedly from original product
(iii) New design: This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing scientific
principles. This type of design needs research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Types of design based on methods:
(i) Rational design: This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and
thereby deciding their dimensions. The design depend on mathematical formulae of principles
of mechanics
(ii) Empirical design: This is based on empirical formulae which in turn are based on experience
and experiments. For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the stresses
induced cannot be determined exactly but experience shows that the tightening force may be
given by P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg. There is
no mathematical backing of this equation but it is based on observations and experience.
 (iii) Industrial design: These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey,
external look, production facilities. These types of design depend upon the production aspects
to manufacture any machine component in the industry.
2. Mechanism:
A mechanism is a system of rigid bodies which have movable joints with each other employed to transmit
or modify some motion. If a mechanism is used to transmit force it becomes a machine. Mechanisms
consist of connected parts with the objective of transferring motion from a power source to an output.
Links are the individual parts of the mechanism.

2.1 Link (Kinematic Link)

This is a resistance body or an assembly of resistant bodies which go to make a part or parts of a
machine connecting other parts which have relative motion to it. A link need not to be a rigid
body but must be a resistant body. Thus a link should have the two characteristics; it should have
relative motion and it must be a resistant body.
Types of Link:
a) Rigid link: does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
b) Flexible link: is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
Example: belts, ropes, chains and wires
c) Fluid link: is formed by having a fluid in a container and the motion is transmitted through
the fluid by pressure or compression only
Example: hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes

2.2 Pair(Kinematic Pair)

This is a joint of two elements that permits relative motion.
The relative motion between the elements or links that form a pair is required to be completely or
successfully constrained.

Classification of Kinematic pairs:

a) According to type of relative motion between elements; they include

i) Sliding pair.
One pair can only slide relative to the other. Sliding pair has a completely
constrained motion.
Examples: The piston & cylinder, tail stock on lathe bed
ii) Turning pair.
One pair can only turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another link. A turning pair
has a completely constrained motion.
Examples: A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a circular hole, Crankshaft
in a journal bearing in an engine, lathe spindle supported in head stock
iii) Rolling pair.
One pair rolls over another fixed link.
Example: Ball and roller bearings.
iv) Screw pair.
One element can turn about the other by screw threads.
Example: Lead screw of a lathe with nut.
v) Spherical pair.
One element (with spherical shape) turns or swivels about the other fixed element.
Examples: Ball and socket joint, attachment of a car mirror, pen stand.
 b) According to type of contact between the elements
i) Lower pair.
The two elements of a pair have a surface contact when relative motion takes place.
Surface of one element slides over surface of the other
Examples: Sliding pairs, turning pairs and screw pairs.
ii) Higher pair.
The two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when relative motion takes
place. The motion between the two elements is partly turning and partly sliding.
Examples: A pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and
roller bearings, and cam and follower.
c) According to type of closure/Nature of Mechanical constrains
i) Self-closed pair.
The two elements of a pair are connected together mechanically in such a way that
only required kind of relative motion occurs.
The lower pairs are self-closed pair.
ii) Force - closed pair.
The two elements of a pair are not connected mechanically but are kept in contact
by the action of external forces.
Example: The cam and follower, as it is kept in contact by the forces exerted by
spring and gravity.
2.3 Kinematic Chain

A combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a part of two pairs.
Relative motion between the links or elements is completely or successfully constrained.
Example:
Crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings which are fixed in a pair,
connecting rod with crank forms a second kinematic pair, piston with connecting rod forms a third
pair piston with cylinder forms a fourth pair.
The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain.
2.4 Examples of Mechanisms
2.4.1 Crank-Slider Mechanism
This mechanism is used in machines such as internal combustion engines reciprocating pump, gas
compressors etc. It modifies the rotary motion of the crank into translation motion of slider
(Cross-head) and vice versa.
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration of Crank-slider mechanism can be obtained
analytically and graphically

(a) Analytically, displacement, velocity and acceleration referring from inner dead centre
position are:

𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽
Displacement: 𝑿 = 𝒓(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) + 𝟐𝒏𝟐

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
Velocity:𝑽 = 𝝎𝒓 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + )
𝟐𝒏

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
Acceleration:𝒂 = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒏

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌 𝒍
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = =
𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒓
(b)

When displacement X is taken to be between G and O

𝒓𝟐
Displacement: 𝑿 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒍 − 𝟐𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽

𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
Velocity:𝑽 = −𝝎𝒓 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + )
𝟐𝒍

𝐫𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
Acceleration:𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + )
𝒍

(c) Displacement, Velocity and acceleration of a point along connecting link

Displacement

𝒓𝟐
𝑿𝒑 = 𝑿 − 𝒃 (𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽))
𝟐𝒍

𝒓𝒃
𝒀𝒑 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒍
Velocity

𝒓 𝒃
𝑽𝒙𝒑 = −𝒓𝝎 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + (𝟏 − ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽)
𝟐𝒍 𝒍
𝒃
𝑽𝒚𝒑 = 𝒓𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒍
 Acceleration

𝒓 𝒃
𝒂𝒙𝒑 = −𝒓𝝎𝟐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + [𝟏 − ] 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽)
𝒍 𝒍
𝒃
𝒂𝒚𝒑 = −𝒓𝝎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒍
(d) Graphical Method- Instant Centre Method

Let there be a plane body P having a non- linear motion relative to another plane body q. At any
instant the linear velocity of two points A and B on the body P are Va and Vb respectively in the
directions as shown in the figure 1 below. If a line is drawn perpendicular to the direction of Va
at A, the body can imagine to rotate about some points on this line. Similarly, the centre of
rotation of the body also lies on a line perpendicular to the direction of Vb at B. If the
intersection of the two lines is at I, the body P will be rotating about I at the instant. This point I
is known as the instantaneous centre of velocity or more commonly instantaneous centre of
rotation for the body P.

This property is true only for an instant and a new point will become the instantaneous centre
at the next instant. As the body P rotates about the point I at the instant and the velocity of any
point on the body is proportional to the distance of the point from I.

Instant center of a moving body: center which keeps changing from one instant to another

2.4.2 Cam and Follower Mechanism

Cam is a mechanical element which is used to deliver the reciprocating or oscillating motion to
another machine element known as follower. Cam and follower is a type of assembly, both
works together in any machine element. Cam and followers are the example of higher pair due
to the line contact between them

Example: The camshaft is driven by the engine. As the cam rotates, and the rocker (Follower)
arm in turn, imparts a linear, reciprocating motion to a valve stem. The rocker arm follower
needs to maintain contact with the cam surface to achieve the desired motion.
Classification of Cams
Cam are Classified according to:

(a) Shape
(b) Follower Movement
(c) Type of the Constraints

According to shape

(i)Wedge and Flat Cams

Examples of Cams according to shape are as shown in figures (a) to (d)

(ii) Radial or disc Cams

In radial or disc cams the shape of working surface (profile) is such that the follower
reciprocates in a plane at right angle to the axis of the cam as shown in figures (a) and (b)
(iii) Cylindrical Cams
Cylindrical cams have been shown in Figures (a) and (b). In Figure (a) the follower
reciprocates whereas in Figure (b) the follower oscillates. Cylindrical cams are also known
as barrel or drum cams.
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According to Follower Movement

Rise-return-rise (RRR)

In this type of cam, its profile or contour is such that the cam rises, returns without
rest or dwell, and without any dwell or rest, it again rises. Follower displacement
and cam angle diagram for this type of cam is shown in Figure (a).

Dwell, Rise-return Dwell (DRRD)

In this type of cam after dwell, there is rise of the follower, then it returns to its
original position and dwells for sometimes before again rising. Generally, this type
of cam is commonly used. Its displacement cam angle diagram is shown in Figure
(b).

Dwell-rise-dwell-return (DRDRD)

It is the most widely used type of cam. In this, dwell is followed by rise. Then the
follower remains stationary in the dwell provided and then returns to its original
position Figure (c).

Dwell-rise-dwell (DRD)

As may be seen in the follower-displacement verses cam angle diagram, shown in

Figure (d) in this cam, the fall is sudden which necessities enormous amount of force
for this to take place.
According to Type of Constraint of the Follower

Pre-loaded Spring Cam

For its proper working there should be contact between the cam and the follower
throughout its working, and it is achieved by means of a pre-loaded spring as shown
in Figures (a) and (b)

Positive Drive Cam

In this case, the contact between the cam and the follower is maintained by
providing a roller at the operating end of the follower. This roller operates in the
groove provided in the cam. The follower cannot come out of the groove, as shown
in Figures

Gravity Drive Cam

In this type of cam, the lift or rise of the follower is achieved by the rising surface of
the cam (Figure below) and the follower returns or falls due to force of gravity of the
follower. Such type of cams cannot be relied upon due to their uncertain
characteristics
Classification of Followers
The followers may be classified as discussed below
1. According to the surface in contact. The followers according to the surface in contact are as
follows:
(a) Knife edge follower. When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge, it is called a
knife edge follower, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). The sliding motion takes place between the contacting
surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and the cam surface). Itis seldom used in practice because the small area
of
contacting surface results in excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists
between the follower and the guide.
(b)Roller follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller follower, as
shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). Since the rolling motion takes place between the contacting surfaces (i.e. the
roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is greatly reduced. In roller followers also the side
thrust exists between the follower and the guide. The roller followers are extensively used where
more space is available such as in stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft engines.
(c) Flat faced or mushroom follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a perfectly flat
face, it is called a flat-faced follower, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (c). It may be noted that the side thrust
between the follower and the guide is much reduced in case of flat faced followers. The only side
thrust is due to friction between the contact surfaces of the follower and the cam. The relative motion
between these surfaces is largely of sliding nature but wear may be reduced by off-setting the axis of
the follower, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (f ) so that when the cam rotates, the follower also rotates about its
own axis. The flat faced followers are generally used where space is limited such as in cams which
operate the valves of automobile engines.
Note : When the flat faced follower is circular, it is then called a mushroom follower.
(d) Spherical faced follower. When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape, it is
called a spherical faced follower, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (d). It may be noted that when a flat-faced
follower is used in automobile engines, high surface stresses are produced. In order to minimize these
stresses, the flat end of the follower is machined to a spherical shape.

Fig. 2.1: Classifications of followers.

2. According to the motion of the follower. The followers; according to its motion, are of the
following two types:
(a) Reciprocating or translating follower. When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam
rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower. The followers as shown in Fig.
2.1 (a) to (d) are all reciprocating or translating followers.
(b) Oscillating or rotating follower. When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into
predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating follower. The
follower, as shown in Fig 2.1 (e), is an oscillating or rotating follower.
3. According to the path of motion of the follower. The followers, according to its path of motion,
are of the following two types:
(a) Radial follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the centre of
the cam, it is known as radial follower. The followers, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a) to (e), are all radial
followers.
(b) Off-set follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis of the cam
centre, it is called off-set follower. The follower, as shown in Fig. 2.1 ( f ), is an off-set follower.
Note : In all cases, the follower must be constrained to follow the cam. This may be done by springs,
gravity or hydraulic means. In some types of cams, the follower may ride in a groove.

2.4.3 Quick return Mechanism

3.1 Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

Used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary internal combustion engines. Link AC
(link 3) is fixed. Link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine. Driving
crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about fixed center C. A sliding block attached to crank
pin at B slides along the slotted bar AP and thus causes AP to oscillate about the pivoted point A. A
short link PR transmits motion from AP to ram which carries tool and reciprocates along line of
stroke R1 R2. The line of stroke of ram is perpendicular to AC.
AP1 & AP2 are tangential to the circle and cutting tool is at the end of the stroke. Forward or cutting
stroke occurs when crank rotates from position CB1 to CB2 (angle b) in the clockwise direction.
Return stroke occurs when crank rotates from position CB2 to CB1 (angle a) in clockwise direction.
Since crank has uniform angular speed, therefore,

Since tool travels a distance of R1 R2 during cutting and return stroke, therefore travel of tool or
length of stroke

3.2 Whitworth quick return motion mechanism

Used in shaping and slotting machines. Link CD (link 2) is fixed. Link 2 corresponds to a crank in a
reciprocating steam engine. Driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed.
Slider (link 4) attached to crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link 1) which oscillates at a
pivoted point D. Connecting rod PR carries ram at R to which a cutting tool is fixed.
Motion of tool is constrained along line RD

When driving crank CA moves from position CA1 to CA2 (or link DP from position DP2 to DP1)
through an angle a in clockwise direction, tool moves from left hand end of its stroke to right hand
end through a distance 2 PD. When driving crank moves from position CA2 to CA1 (link DP from
DP1 to DP2) through an angle b in clockwise direction, tool moves back from right hand end of its
stroke to left hand end.

Time taken during left to right movement of ram (cutting stroke) will be equal to time taken by
driving crank to move from CA1 to CA2. Time taken during right to left movement of ram (return
stroke) will be equal to time taken by driving crank to move from CA2 to CA1. Since crank link CA
rotates at uniform angular velocity therefore time taken during cutting stroke is more than time taken
during return stroke.
Mean speed of ram during cutting stroke is less than mean speed during return stroke. Ratio between
time taken during cutting & return strokes is given by