UNIT-I

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

Boolean algebra: De-Morgan's theorem, switching functions and simplification using K
maps & Quine-McCluskey method, Design of adder, subtractor, comparators, code
converters,encoders, decoders,multiplexers and demultiplexers.
INTRODUCTION:
In 1854, George Boole, an English mathematician, proposed algebra for
symbolically representing problems in logic so that they may be analyzed
mathemnatically. The mathematical systems founded upon the work of Boole are called
Boolean algebra in his honor.
The application of a Boolean algebra to certain engineering problems was
introduced in 1938 by C.E. Shannon.
For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates
formulated by E.V. Huntington in 1904.
Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebra:
from which
Thepostulates of a mathematical system forms the basic assumption
it is possible to deduce the theorems, laws and properties of the system.
structures are
The most common postulates used to formulate various
i) Closure:
elementsof S, the
A set S is closed w.r.t. a binary operator, if for every pair of
binary operator specifies a rule for obtaininga unique element of S.
1, 0 ¬B.
The result of each operation with operator (+) or () is either 1 or 0 and
i) Identity element:
there
A set S is said to have an identity element w.r.t a binary operation * on S, if
exists an element e ¬S with the property,

e*x=x* e=x

Eg: 0+0 = 0 0+ 1 =1+ 0=1 a) x+ 0=x

1.1=1 1.0=0.1=1 b) x.1=X
 ii) Commutative law:
A binary operator * on aset S is said to be commutative if,
x*y=y *x for all x, y¬S
Eg: 0+ 1= 1+ 0 =1 a) x+ y= y+ x
0.1=1.0 =0 b) x. y= y. x

iv) Distributive law:

lII *and are two binary operation ona set S, " is said to be distributive over +
whenever,
x. (y+ z) = (x. y) + (x. z)
Similarly, + is said to be distributive over " whenever,
x+ (y. z) = (x+ y). (x+ z)

v) Inverse:
A set S having the identity element e, w.r.t. binary operator * is said to
have an
inverse, whenever for every x¬S, there exists an element x'ESsuch that,
x. x' ¬e

a) x+ x=1, since 0+ 0 =0+ 1 and 1+ 1'=1+ 0 =1

b) x. x=1, since 0. 0' = 0.1 and 1. 1' =1.0 = 0

Summary:
Postulatesof Boolean algebra:
POSTULATES (a) (b)
Postulate 2 (ldentity) x+0=x
X.1= x
Postulate 3 (Commutative) X+ y=y+ x
Postulate 4 (Distributive) r x (y+ z) = xy+ xz
X.y=y.x
x+ yz = (x+ y). (xt z)
Postulate 5 (Inverse) x+x' =1
x. x = 0
Basic theorem and properties of Boolean algebra:
Basic Theorems:
The theorems, like the postulates are listed in pairs; cach relation is the dual of the
one paired with it. The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no
proof. The theorems must be proven from the postulates. The proofs of the theorems with
one variable are presented below. At the right is listed the number of the postulate that
justifies each step of the proof.
1) a) xt x = x
x+ x= (x+ x).1 by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= (x+ x). (x+ x) 5(a) [x+x= 1]
= X+ xx' 4(b) [ x+yz = (xty)(x+)l
= x+ 0 5(b) [x. x-0]
= X 2(a) [x+0 =x]

b) x. x = x
x. x= (x. x) +0 by postulate 2(a) [x+ 0 =x]
= (x. x) + (x. x) 5(b) [x. x = 0]
=x (x+x) 4(2) [x (y+z) =(xy)+ (xz)]
=x (1) 5(a) [x+x=1]
=X 2(b) [ x.1 =x]
2) a) x+ 1=1
x+1 =1. (x+ 1) by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 =x]
= (x+ x). (x+ 1) 5(a) [ x+ x=1]
=X+x.1 4(b) [ x+yz= (xty)(x+z)]
=x+x 2(b) [x. 1=x]
=1 5(a) [x+ x=1]

b)x .0= 0

3) (x)=x
From postulate 5, we have x+t x=1 and x.x'=0, which defines the complemernt
of x. The complement of x is x and is also (x').
Therefore, since the complement is unique,
(x'Y = x.
 4) Absorption Theorem:
a) x+ xy = x
xt xy=x. 1+t xy
by postulate 2(b) [x. 1=x]
= x (1+ y)
4(a) [x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x (1)
= X.
by theorem 2(a) [x+1=x]
by postulate 2(a) [x. 1 = x]
b) x. (x+ y) =x
x. (x+ y) = x. x+ x.y
=xt x.y 4(a) [ x(ytz) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= X.
by theorem 1(b) [X. X= x]
by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
c) x+ xy = x+ y
x+ xy = Xt xy+ x'y
= x+ y (x+ x) by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
=xt y (1) by postulate 4(a) [>x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x+ y 5(a) [x+ x =1]
2(b) (x. 1= x]
d) x. (x'ty) = xy
x. (x'+y) = x.x'+ xy
= 0+ xy by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) =
(xy)+ (xz)]
= xy. 5(b) [x. x' =0]
2(a) [x+ 0= x]

Properties of Boolean algebra:

1. Commutative property:

Boolean addition is
x+ y= y+ x
commutative, given by
According to this
makes no difference. property, the order of the OR
operation conducted on the variables
Boolean algebra is also
X. y=y. x
commutative over multiplication given by,
This means that the
order of the AND
difference. operation conducted on the variables
makes no
 2. Associative propcrty
The associative
property of additin is given by,
A+ (B+ C) - (A+B) +C
The OR operation of several
the variables. variables results in the same, regardlen of the
grouping of
lhe associative law of multiplication is given hy,
A. (B. C) =(A.B) .C
It makes no difference inwhat order the
of several variables. variables are grouped during the AND operation

3. Distributive property:
TheBoolean addition is distributive over
Boolean multiplication, given by
A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)
The Boolean addition is distributive over
Boolean addition, given by
A. (B+C) =(A.B)+ (A.C)

4. Duality:
It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the
postulates of Boolean
algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are
If the dual of an algebraic expression is desired, we
interchanged.
simply interchange OR and
AND operators and replace 1's by O's and O's by 1's.
x+ x=1 is x. x=0
Duality isa very important property of Boolean algebra.
 Summary:
Theorems of Boolean algebra:
THEOREMS (a) (b)
1
2
ldempotency x +x= X X.X= X
x+1= 1 X.0=0
3
Involution (xY =x
4
Absorption xt xy = X x (x+ y) =x
5
x+ xy =xt y x. (x+ y)= xy
Associative x+(y+ z)= (x+ y)+ z x (yz) = (xy) z
6
DeMorgan's Theorem (xt yl'= x.y' (x. y)'= xty'

DeMorgan's Theorems:
Two theorems that are an
DeMorgan. important part of Boolean algebra were
proposed by
The first
the complements.theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of
(AB)' =A'+ B'
The second theorem states that
the complement of a sum is
complements. equal to the product of the
(A+ B)' = A. B

Consensus Theorem:
In
the termn simplification
of
Boolean expression, an expression of the form
BCis redundant and AB+ A'C+ BC,
AC. The theorem used for thiscan be eliminated to form the equivalent
stated as, simplification is known as consensus expression AB+
theorem and is
AB+ AC+ BC = AB+ A'C
The dual form of
consensus theorem is stated as,
(A+B) (A+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A'+C)
BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS:
Minimization of Boolean
The Boolean expressionsExpressions:
can be simplified by applying properties, laws and
theotemsof Boolean algebra.
Simplity the following Boolean funtions to a minimum number of literals
1. x(N*y)
xx+ xy
-0+ xy [x*0=x]
= Xy.

2. x+y
=xt xy + x'y [x+ xy= x]
= xt y (xtx)
= xt y (1) [x+ x= 1]|
= x+ y.

3. (x+ y) (x+ y')

= x.x+ xy'+ xy+ yy
= x+ xy'+ xy+ 0 [x. x= 01; ly. y'= 0]
=x (1+ y' y)
=x (1) [1ty= 1]

4. xy t xz + yz.
= xy + xz + yz( x+ x) [x+x=1]
= xy + xz t xyz + xyz
Re-arranging,
= xy + xyz + x'z txyz
= xy (1+ z) + xz (1+y) [1+y= 1]
= xy+ x'z.

5. xy+ yz+ y'z

= xy+ z (y+ y)
= xy+ z (1) Iy+y'=1]
= xy+ z.

6. (x+ y) (x'+ z) (y+ z)

 - (x+ y) (x'+ z) [dual form of consensus theorem,
(A+ B) (A+ C) (B+ C) = (A+ B) (A'+ C)]

7. N'y+xy+ x'y'
y(x'+ x) + x'y' |x (y+ z) xy+ xz|
=y (1) +x'y' |x+ x= 1]
= y+ x'y' [x+ x'y= xty']
=y+ x'.

8. x+ xy'+ x'y
= x (1+ y)+ x'y
= x (1) + x'y [1+ x= 1]
= x+ x'y [x+ xy = xt y]
= x+ y.

9. AB + (AC)' + AB'C (AB + C)

= AB + (AC)' + AAB'BC+ AB'CC
= AB + (AC)' + 0+ AB'CC
[B.B' = 0]
= AB + (AC)' + AB'C
= AB + A'+ C +AB'C [C.C=1]
= AB + A' + C'+ AB' [(AC)' = A' + C]
=A'+ B+ C'+ AB'
[C'+ AB'C = C'+ AB
Re- arranging, [A'+ AB = A' +B]
= A'+ AB'+ B+ C!
= A'+ B'+ B+ C! [A'+ AB = A' + B]
=A' +1+ C' [B'+ B= 1]
=1 [A+ 1= 1]

10. (x+ y) (x+ y)

=xx+ x'yt yxt y.y
= 0+ x'y+ xy+ y
=y (x'+t x+ 1) [ x.x=0]; [ x. x= x]
= y(1)
=y. [1+ x =1]
11. xy+ xyzt xy (wt z)
= xy (1+ z+ w+ z)
=xy (1)
= xy. [1+ x=1]
12. xy+ xyz+ xyz'+ x'yz
= xy (1+t z+ z')+ x'yz
 =xy (1)+x'yz
=xy+ x'yz |1*x-1|I
=y(xt xz)
*y (xt z).

13. xyz+ xy'z+ xyz'

*xy (z+ z) +xy'z
xyt xy'z
x(y+ y'z) [x* x'y *x* yl
- x(y+ z)

14. N'y'z'4 x'yz'+ xy'z'+ xyz'

-xz' (y'+ y)+ xz (y'+ y)
= x'z'+ xz' |x+x* 1|
= z' (x+ x)
=z' [x+ x= 1]

15.w'xyz'+ xyz'+ xy'z'+ xy'z

= xyz' (w'+ 1) + xy'z't xy'z
= xyz'+ xy'z'+ xy'z [1+x= 1]
= xz' (y+ y) + xy'z
= xz'+ xy'z [x+ x= 1|
=x (z'+ y'z)
=x (z'+ y'). [x* xy'=x+ y]

16. w'xy'z+ w'xyz+ wxz

=w'xz (y'+ y)+ wxz
= w'xz (1)+ wxz [x+x= 1]
= w'xzt wxz
= Xz (wt w)
= XZ. [x+x'= 1]

17. x'y'z'+ xy'z+ x'yz'+ xyzt xy'z'

= xy' (z'tz) + xy (z'+z)+ xy'z'
=xy' (1) +x*y (1)+ xy'z' [x+ x=1]
=xy' + Xy + xy'z'
=x(y'+y) + xy'z'
=x (1) +xy'z [x+ x=1]
=xt xy'z'
= x+y'z'. [x+ xy'=x+ y]
18. w'y (w'xz)' +w'xy'z +wx'y
=w'y (w'"+x+ z) + w'xy'z +wx'y
 *w'yww'yv*yz'+w'w'z'+wY
+w'y'z' + ww'y
Raranging
w\ytwx'y+w'yz' +w'y'r
=xy (w'+ w) +w'z' (+\v)
='y (1)+w'z' (y+y)
|xt x'y =xt yl
=x'ytw'z' (yt)
19. xv+x (yt z) +y (yt z)
= Nyt xyt zt vyt yz
[xt x= x<; [K. x= x]
[xt xy= x]
[x+ xy= x]

20. [xy' (z+ wy) +xyz

=[xy'z+ xy'wy+ x'y] z
-[xy'z+ 0+ xy]z (x.x= 0]
=xy'z z+ xy'z
= xy'z+ xy'z (x. X= x]
=y'z (x+ x)
=y'z (1) [x+ x'=1]
=y'z

21. xyz+ xy'z+xyzt xy'z+ xyz

= yz (x+x) + xy'z+ xyz'+ xy'z
=yz (1) +ye (x+ x) +xy'z [x+ x'= 1]
= yzt y'e (1) +xy'z [x+x'= 1]
= yz+ y'z+ xy'z
= yz+ y (z'+ xz)
=yz+ y (z'+ x) [x+ xy = x+ y]
=yzt y'zt xy'

22. [(xy)'+ x+ xy>

-[x+y+ x+ xy>'
=[x+ytxyl' [x+ x= x]
- [+y'+ x' [x'+ xy = xt y]
-[y+ 1|' [x+ x'= 1]
=[1 |' [1+x =1 I
=0.
23. [ xy+ xz'+ xy'z
= (xyl'.(xz'+ xy'z
 = (x'+ y). (x'+ z)+ xy'z
= x'x+xz'+ x'y'+ y'z'+ x'y'z
= x'+ x*z'+ x'y'+ y'z'+ x'y'z [x+ x= x]
=x+ xz'+ x'y'+ y' z'+ x'z]
=x'+x'z'+ x'y'+ y' [z'+ x] [x'+ xy =x+ y]
=x'+x'y'+ y' [z'+ x1 [x+ xy = x]
=x'+xy'+ y'z'+ x'y' [x+ xy = x]
=x'+ y'z'+ x'y'
=x+ y'z'. [x+ xy = x]

24. xy+ xy'( x'z)

=xy+ xy' (x+ z")
= xy+ xy' (x+ z) [x"=x]
= xy+ xy'x+ xy'z
= xy+ xy'+ xy'z [x. X= x]
= xy+ xy' [1+ z
= xy+ xy' [1] [1+ x=1]
= xy+ xy
=x( y+ y) [x+ x'=1]
=x [1]
=X.

25. [( xy't xyz)'+ x (y+ xy))'

=[ x(y'tyz)'+x (y+ xy)l' [X+xy =x+ yl; [ x+ x'y =x+ y]
=[x(y'+z)'+ x (y+ x)>'
= [x(y'+z)'+ xy+ x.)]'
=[(xy'+xz)'+xy+ x)]' [x. X= x]
=[(xy+xz)'+ x)] [x+ xy = x]
=[(xy')'. (xz)'+ x]'
=[(+y"). (x+z)+ x
=[(x+y). (x+z)+ x] [x"=x]
= [(x'+ y)+ x> [(x+ y) (xt z)= x+ yz]
=[x'+ y'+ x]' [x+ x=1]
= [1+ yz [1+ x=1]
= [1]
= 0.

26. [ (xy+ z) (x+ y)'+z) |'

=[(xy+ z) (x. y)+z) ]'
= [xy. x'y't xy. z+ e'. xy'+ z'. zl'
 [x. x'= 0]
=[0+ xyz+ xy'z'+ 0f
=[xyz+ x'y'z |
=(xyz)'.(x'y'z)'
=(x+y't z). (x"+ y"t z) [N=
-(xt y'+ z). (x+ y+ z).

27. (x+ y) (x'z+ z) (y'+ xz)'

=(x+ y)(x'z+ z) (y". (xz))
=(x+ y)(xtz) (y. (xz)) [x+ xy= xt yl [<"= x]
=(xt y) (*'+ z) (y. (x+z)
= (x.x'+ xz+ x'y+ yz) (x'y+ yz')
=(0+ xz+ xyt yz) (x'yt yz')
- (xzt xy+ yz) (x'y+ yz)
=XZ. x'y+ xz. yz'+ xy. xy+ xy. yz'+ yz. x'y+ yz. yz' [x. x'= 0]: x. x= x]
=0+ 0+ xy+ xyz'+ x'yz+ 0
=x'yt xyzt xyz
=xy (1+ z'+ z)
=xy (1) [1+x=1]
=Xy.

28. Y= m (1, 3, 5, 7)
-xy'z+ *yzt xy'z+ xyz
=*z(y'ty) +xz(yty)
=xz(1)t xz (1) [x+x=1]
=xz+ xz
=z(x+ x)
=z (1) [x+x=1]
=Z.

COMPLEMENT OFA FUNCTION:

 Ihe complement of a function F is F' and is obtained from an interchange of 0's for
1's and 1's for O's in the value of F.The complement of a function may be derived
algebraically through DeMorgan's theorem.
the two
DeMorgan's theorems for any number of variables resemble in form
similar to the method used
variable case and can be derived by successive substitutions
in the preceding derivation. These theorems can be generalized as -
(A+ B+ C+ D+ ... + F)'=A'B'C'D'.. F

(A BCD... F)' =A'+B'+ C'+ D'+ ... +F.

Find the complement of the following functions,

1. F=xyz'+ xy'z
F-(<yz+ xy'z)'
= (x"+ y't z").(x'+y"+z)
= (x+ y'+ z). (x+ yt z).

2. F= (xy + y'z + xz) x.

F'= (xy+y'z + xz) x]'
=(xy +y'z+ xz)' tx
=[(xy) .(y»z)'.(xz)] +x
=[(x+y). (y+z). (x'+zl)]+x
=[(xy+ x'z'+ 0+ y'z') (x'+z')] +x
=x'x'yt x'xz+ x'y'z'+ xyz'+ xz'z'+ y'z'z'+ x
[x+ x= x], [x. x = x]
=x'y+xz'+ xy'z+ x'yz+ xz'+ y'z+ x
=xy+x'z+ xz (y'+ y) + y'zt x [x+ x= 1]
=x'yt xz'+ x'z (1) + y'z'+ x
=x'yt xz'+ y'z+x'
= x'y+ x+ x'z'+ y'z
=x'(y+1) +x'z+ y'z' [y+1= 1]
=x (1+2) +y'z' y+1=1]
=x+y'z

3. F=x (y'z'+ yz)

F- (x(y'z't yz)]'
 xyz

x+ xyz'+
xy'z'
x'+xy.w'yz+
xyz'+
xy. wxz+
x+ wyz't
xtwy.0+x'ytxyz'
wxz'+
z)+
(w+x+z)
w'tw'x'. x'y'(1+
w'x'yxy'+
+
z+xy.z' z)+ FORMS:
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yy)(w'tx+
(w'+x+z) x+
xyt w'+ xy. w'x'y't 1+ xyz
w'xy'+ STANDARD
w'y( xy(1)+
xy+ xy) xy. z+ xyz'
=x+(y"+z").
(y'+
z) z). (wxz) w't w'y. w'xy+w'x z)+
y+
=*x*xy't
yxt
yy' wxz) y) xx+xy+ xy'+
w'y(1)+
(yz) (y'+ w'y. w'x.z+ y+
(x+
yz)'=x+
=x+ (y'zy.
(y'z+ (xty)
=
(xy').
=(xy)' WXZ (xy'Y w'yt w'yt
z). xy't y) w'ytw'y+w'x(1+y'+ w'y+ AND
F'(xy'+
x'=y) xy. xy'+ (wxy)
=xy't (w'x+
w't w'x (1)+
(y+ 4.Fxy'+
x'y + (wtx+ (w'x+ wxtw'x+ =wxt CANONICAL
+ (wx'y
wx'y
wx.
=x+
- = = = = = = =
f= f= =
5.
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ABC'+ ABC+ A'BC
= ABC+ ABC'+ AB'C+ AB'C+ A'BC
= myt m6t ms+ m4t m3
= m(3, 4, 5, 6, 7). 1

4. Y (A, B, C) = AC+ AB+ BC

=AC(B+ B')+ AB (C+ C)+ BC (A+ A)
= ABC+ AB'C+ ABC+ ABC'+ ABC+t A'BC
= ABC+ ABC+ ABC'+ A'BC
- Jm (3, 5, 6, 7).

5. Y (A, B, C, D) = AB+ ACD

= AB (C+ C) (D+ D') + ACD (B+ B')
= (ABC+ ABC') (D+ D') + ABCD+ AB'CD
ABCD
= ABCD+ ABCD'+ ABCD+ ABC'D'+ ABCD+
= ABCD+ ABCD'+ ABCD+ ABC'D'+ AB'CD.

Canonical Product of sum expression:

literals then the POS is known as standard
If each term in POS form contains all called Maxterm
term in standard POS form is
(or) Canonical POS formn. Each individual
canonical form.
C)
F (A, B, C) =(A+ B+ C). (A+ B'+ C).(A+ B+
F (x,y, z) = (x+ y'tz'). (xt yt z). (x+ y+ z)
standard POS form:
Steps to convert general POS to
sum term if any.
1. Find the missing literals in each
each sum term having missing literals by ANDing the literal and its
2. OR
complement. the
the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in
3. Expand
Sum term.
repeated sum terms if any.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting

of the functions:
Obtain the canonical POS expression
1. Y= A+ B'C
= (A+ B') (A+ ©) [A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)]
= (A+ B+ C.C) (A+ C+ B.B')
= (A+ B+C))(A+ B+C) (A+ B+ C) (A+ B'+ C)
= (A+ B'+C).(A+ B+C). (A+ B+ C)
= M2. M3. Mo
= [|M (0, 2, 3)
2. Y= (A+B) (B+C) (A+C)
= (A+B+C.C) (B+ C+ A.A') (A+C+B.B')
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A'+B+C) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+) (A+B+C) (A'+B+C) (A+B+©)
(A+B+C)
= Mo. M1. M4. M2
= J|M (0, 1, 2, 4)
3. Y=A. (B+ C+ A)
- (A+ B.B'+ C.C). (A+ B+ C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+ B+C") (A+B+C)
= (A+B+) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+ B'+C)
= Mo. M1. M2. M3
= J[M (0, 1, 2, 3)

4. Y= (A+B') (B+C) (A+C)

=(A+B+C.C)(B+C+ A.A) (A+C+ B.B')
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A'+B+C) (A+B+C") (A+B+C)
=(A+B+C) (A+B'+C") (A+B+C) (A'+B+C) (A+B+C)
= M2. M3. Mo. M4. M1
= J|M (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

5. Y= xy+ xz
= (xy+ x') (xy+ z) Using distributive law, convert the function into OR terms.
- (xtx) (y+x) (x+z) (y+z) [x+ x=1]
= (x+y) (xtz) (y+z)
= (xty+ z.z') (x+z+y.y') (y+z+ x.x)
- (x+ y+z) (x+ y+ z') (x+ y+ z) (x+ y'+ 2) (x+ y+ z) (x<t y+ z)
= (x+ y+ z) (x'+ y+ z')(x+ y+ z) (x+ y'+ z)
-M4. M5. Mo. M2
=|[M (0, 2, 4, 5).
KARNAUGH MAP MINIMIZATION:
The simplification of the functions using Boolean laws and theorems becomes
cOmpleX with the increase in the number of variables and terms. The map method, first
proposed by Veitch and slightly improvised by Karnaugh, provides a simple,
straighttorward procedure for the simplification of Boolean functions. The method is
called Veitch diagram or Karnaugh map, which may be regarded as a pictorial
representation of a truth table.
method for simplifying and
The Karnaugh map technique provides a issystematic
a diagram made up of squares, with
manipulation of Boolean expressions. A K-map minimized. For n
square representing one minterm of the function that is to be
cacn of squares. Each square or cell
Variables on aKarnaugh map there are 2n numbers fromn either minterm (sum-of
directly
represents one of the minterms. It can be drawn
products) or maxterm (product-of-sums) Boolean expressions.

Two- Variable, Three Variable and Four Variable Maps

maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four and five
Karnaugh
number of cells in a Karnaugh map is equal to the total number of possible
variables. The table. For three variables,
number of rows in a truth
input variable combinations as is the
variables, the number of cells is 24 = 16.
the number of cells is 23=8. For four BC
BC Bc BC BC
B

A|ABG ABC ABC ABC

A A AAB AB

AAB ABC ABC ABO

A A AAB AB

2-Variable map 3-Variable map

1-Variable map

CD
AB CD CD

ABABCD|ABCDABCDABCD

ABABCDABCDABCD ABCD

ABABCDABCDABCDABCD

ABABC5|ABCDABCDABCD

4-Variable map
 is not
e don't
, We
iing

rroduct terms are assigned to the cells of a K-map by labeling each row and each
cOlumn of a map with a variable,with its complement or with acombination of variables
cOmplements. The below figure shows the wav to label the rows &columns of a1, 2, 3
and 4- variable maps and the product terms
corresponding to each cell.
lt is important to note that when we move from one cell to the next
along any row
Or rom one cell to the next along any column, one and only one variable in the
product
erm changes (to a complement or to an uncomplemented form). Irrespective of number
of variables the labels along each row and column
must conform to a single chânge.
Hence gray code is used to label the rows and columns of K-map as shown below.
BC + Gray code Sequence
1 01 11 10

1111

I13
114 1L5 1117

1Variable map 2-Variable map 3 -Variable map

CD Gray code Sequence

AB 00 01 11 10

Gray code 1L1 1113 1112

Sequence
01

11 1M12 1M13 1M15 M14

10 11l11 1M10

4-Variable map

Grouping cells for Simplification:

The grouping is nothing but combining terms in adjacent cells. The simplification
is achieved by grouping adjacent 1's or 0's in groups of 2i, where i=1, 2, ... n and nis
the number of variables. When adjacent 1's are grouped then we get result in the sum of
product form; otherwise we get result in the product of sum form.

Grouping Two Adjacent 1's: (Pair)

Pair.
In a Karnaugh map we can group two adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called
 AB
00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB
00 00 01 11 10

01 1
01 1 01 1 1
11
11 11
1
10
10 10

ABD BCD
ABD

CD
AB CD
01 11 10 AR 00 01 11 AB 00 01 11 10
10
00
1 OC 00 1

01 01
(1 01

11 11 11

10 10 10 1 1

BCD ABD BCD ABD BCD

Examples of Pairs

Grouping Four Adjacent 1's: (Quad)

In a Karnaugh map we can group four adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called
Quad. Fig (a) shows the four l's are horizontally adjacent and Fig (b) shows they are
vertically adjacent. Fig (c) contains four l's in a square, arnd they are considered adjacent
to each other.
8
CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 01 11 10

00 1 00

01 1 1 1 01 1 01

11 11 11 1

10 10 1 10

(a) AB (6) CD (c) BD

 ARD
00 01 11 10 AB AB 11 10
00 01 11 10 01
00 1
00 1 1

01
01 01
11
1 11 11
10
1 1 10 10
1 1 1

(d) (e) (f)

AD BD BD
Examples of Quads
The four 1's in fig (d) and fig (e) are also adjacent, as are those in fig ()
the top and bottom rows are considered to be adjacent to each other because,
and the leftmost and
rightmost columns are also adjacent to each other.

Grouping Eight Adjacent 1's: (Octet)

In aKarnaugh map we can group eight adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called Octet.
CD D
AB 00 01 11 10 AB
CD CD
01 11 10 AB 01, 11 10
00 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
01 1 1 01 01
1 1 1 1

11 1 1 11 11
1 1 1 1 1
10 10 10
1 1

(d) D (e) A (f

CD CD CD
AB 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 01 11 10

1 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 1

01 1 1 1 01 1

11 11 1 1 11

10 10 1 1 10/ 1 1 1

(a) (b) B (c)

 SiThemplification of Sum of
Products Expressions: (Minimal Sums)
generalizedtheprocedure
1. Plot to
simplify Boolean expressions as follows:
K-map
of product and place 1's in those cells corresponding to the 1's in the sum
2. expression. Place 's in the other
Check the K-map for adjacent 1's and encirclecells.those 1's which are not adjacent
toany other 1's. These are
called isolated 1's.
O. Check for those 1's which are adiacent to only one other 1 and encircle such
pairs.
*. Check for quads and octets of adjacent 1's even if it contains some 1's that have
already been encircled. While doing this make sure that there are minimum
number of groups.
D. Combine any pairs necessary to include any 1's that have not yet been grouped.
6. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all the groups.

Three- Variable Map:

1. Simplify the Boolean expression,
F(x, y, z) = m (3, 4, 6, 7).
Soln:
yz
X
11 10 00 01 11 10
00 01
1 X0
2

X1 1 1 1
6
X1 1

F= yz+ xz'

2. F(x, y, z) = Sm (0, 2, 4, 5,6).

Soln: yz y~
yz y~
10 00 01 11 10,
00 01 11
1
1
1 1 2

X1 0 1
1 1 1
x 1
xy

F=z'txy'
AB'C+ BC
3. F=A'C + A'B +
 A)
C)+ ABC + BC (A+
Soln:
B') + A'B (C+ ABC+ABC
=A'C(B+A'B'C+A'BC+A'BC+ AB'C+
=ABC+ ABC
A'BC'+ ABC +
=A'BC+ A'B'C+
m5+ my
Im3+ mj+ m2+
BC
=Em (1, 2, 3,5, 7) BC BC BC AB
BC 10
BC A 01 11
EE BC BC 00
BC 1 1
00 01 11 10 1
A 0
1 1
2 1 1
A1
A1
1 6 -C

F=C+ A¼B

AB'C'+ A¼B'C'
AB'C+ A'BC + A'BC +
4.
Soln: + m3 + m4 +
m0
= m5 + m1
= m (0, 1, 3, 4, 5) BC BC
BC Bã BC
BC A 11 10
BC BG BC BC 01
A 01 11 10 AC
00
A 0 (1 1 14
1 1 1
A 0 3
1 1
A 1
1 1
A1 4

F=A'C+ B'

Four - Variable Map:

 1.
Simplify the Boolean
Soln:
Y=
A'BC'D' A'expressi
+
BC'D +on,ABC'D' + ABCD + ABC'D + A'B'CD'
CD
AB
CD CD
AB
14
AB 1
BÇ.
1 1
AB

AB 0 1

ACD
Therefore,
Y= A'B'CD'+ AC'D+ BC

2. F (w, X, y, z) =) m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

Soln:

00 01 11 10 yz yz
00 1 1 1 1
1 3

01 1 1 1 1 1
5 6
W.

11 1 1 1 WE 1 1 1
12| 13| 15 14

10 1 1 wEL
11| 10

Therefore,
F= y'+ w'z'+ xz'

3. F= A'B'C'+ B'CD'+ A'BCD'+ AB'C'