AI in BTech Semester 3

rgpv b.tech cs-ai/ml 3 semester subject - Artificial Intelligence (al-304)

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Unit-3 :- Probabilistic reasoning, Baye's theorem, semantic networks, scripts, schemas, frames,
conceptual dependency, forward and backward reasoning.

Here’s an explanation of the key topics in Unit-3 of Artificial Intelligence (AL-304) for RGPV, presented in
detailed but easy-to-understand points:

1. Probabilistic Reasoning

Definition: Probabilistic reasoning deals with using probability to model uncertainty in decision-
making or predictions. It is widely used in AI to handle incomplete or uncertain information.
Key Components:
Random Variables: Variables that take on values based on the outcome of a random event.
Probability Distributions: Functions that assign probabilities to events or outcomes.
Applications in AI:
Diagnosis systems (e.g., medical diagnosis).
Prediction models in machine learning.

2. Bayes' Theorem

Definition: A mathematical formula that describes the probability of an event based on prior
knowledge of related conditions.
Formula:

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 P (B∣A) ⋅ P (A)
P (A∣B) =
P (B)
​

Where:
P (A∣B): Probability of event A given event B (posterior probability).
P (B∣A): Probability of event B given event A.
P (A): Prior probability of A.
P (B): Total probability of B .
Applications in AI:
Spam email detection.
Fault diagnosis systems.
Predictive analytics.

3. Semantic Networks

Definition: A data structure representing relationships between concepts in a graph format, where
nodes represent concepts, and edges represent relationships.
Key Features:
Uses nodes and arcs to represent knowledge.
Allows inheritance (e.g., if a bird can fly, then a sparrow, which is a bird, can also fly).
Applications in AI:
Natural Language Processing (NLP).
Knowledge representation.
Question-answering systems.

4. Scripts

Definition: Predefined frameworks or templates that describe the sequence of events in a specific
context or scenario.
Example: A restaurant script may include steps like entering, ordering, eating, and paying.
Applications in AI:
Modeling common human activities.
Understanding text or speech in specific contexts.

5. Schemas

Definition: Structures or frameworks that organize knowledge and guide understanding based on
past experiences.
Example: A "classroom schema" might include elements like a teacher, students, desks, and a
blackboard.
Applications in AI:
Memory modeling.
Pattern recognition.
Problem-solving frameworks.

6. Frames

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 Definition: Data structures for dividing knowledge into substructures with "slots" (attributes) and
"fillers" (values for those attributes).
Example: A "car" frame might have slots for color, make, model, and engine type.
Key Features:
Hierarchical organization.
Inheritance of properties.
Applications in AI:
Expert systems.
Scene understanding.

7. Conceptual Dependency

Definition: A model for representing the meaning of natural language sentences in terms of
actions and their dependencies.
Key Features:
Focuses on capturing meaning rather than syntax.
Uses predefined primitive actions (e.g., TRANSFER, GIVE).
Applications in AI:
Machine translation.
Text summarization.

8. Forward and Backward Reasoning

Forward Reasoning:

Definition: Starts from known facts and applies inference rules to derive conclusions.
Example: From "All humans are mortal" and "Socrates is human," deduce "Socrates is mortal."
Applications in AI:
Decision-making systems.
Knowledge-based systems.

Backward Reasoning:

Definition: Starts from a goal (hypothesis) and works backward to verify if facts support the goal.
Example: To prove "Socrates is mortal," check if facts about humans and mortality support this.
Applications in AI:
Diagnostic systems.
Expert systems.

Key Relationships and Applications

These concepts combine to create intelligent systems capable of reasoning, decision-making, and
problem-solving.
Widely applied in fields like robotics, natural language understanding, automated reasoning, and
expert systems.

Let me know if you’d like any of these topics explained further!

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 Unit-4 :- Game playing techniques like minimax procedure, alpha-beta cut-offs etc, planning,
Study of the block world problem in robotics, Introduction to understanding, natural
language processing (NLP), Components of NLP, application of NLP to design
expert systems.

Here’s a detailed and easy-to-understand breakdown of Unit-4 topics for Artificial Intelligence (AL-304)
under RGPV:

1. Game Playing Techniques

a. Minimax Procedure

Definition: An algorithm used in decision-making for two-player games like chess or tic-tac-toe.
How It Works:
Each player aims to maximize their gain (maximizing player) or minimize their opponent's
gain (minimizing player).
The algorithm generates a game tree where:
Max nodes: Represent the current player trying to maximize the score.
Min nodes: Represent the opponent trying to minimize the score.
The best move is determined by recursively evaluating the tree.
Example: Used in chess engines to determine the best move.
Limitation: Computationally expensive for games with large state spaces.

b. Alpha-Beta Cut-offs

Definition: An optimization to the Minimax algorithm that reduces the number of nodes evaluated
in the game tree.
How It Works:
Two variables, alpha (best already guaranteed for maximizer) and beta (best already
guaranteed for minimizer), are maintained.
Branches of the tree are pruned if they cannot influence the final decision.
Advantages:
Makes the algorithm faster.
Enables handling deeper game trees.

2. Planning

Definition: The process of generating a sequence of actions to achieve a specific goal from a given
initial state.
Types of Planning in AI:
State-space planning: Focuses on states and transitions.
Partial-order planning: Allows non-linear order of actions when the order does not matter.
Hierarchical planning: Breaks tasks into smaller sub-tasks.
Applications:
Robotics (e.g., motion planning).
Scheduling tasks in AI systems.

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3. Study of the Block World Problem in Robotics

Definition: A classic AI problem involving rearranging a set of blocks to match a goal state using a
robot arm.
Key Features:
Blocks can be stacked or placed side by side.
The robot has constraints, such as lifting one block at a time.
Significance:
Demonstrates the application of reasoning and planning algorithms.
Forms the basis for studying problem-solving in AI.

4. Introduction to Understanding

Definition: Involves interpreting and processing information to make it meaningful for AI systems.
Key Areas:
Understanding natural language.
Understanding visual data (e.g., images, videos).
Recognizing patterns and relationships in data.

5. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

Definition: A branch of AI that focuses on enabling machines to understand, interpret, and

generate human language.

Components of NLP:

Morphological Analysis: Breaking down words into their base forms (e.g., "playing" → "play").
Syntactic Analysis: Analyzing sentence structure using grammar rules.
Semantic Analysis: Understanding the meaning of words and sentences.
Pragmatic Analysis: Interpreting context and intent in communication.

Applications of NLP:

Chatbots and virtual assistants (e.g., Alexa, Siri).

Sentiment analysis in social media.
Machine translation (e.g., Google Translate).
Document summarization and information retrieval.

6. Application of NLP to Design Expert Systems

Expert Systems: AI systems designed to mimic human experts in specific domains (e.g., medical
diagnosis).
Role of NLP:
Enables natural language interaction with the system.
Helps process user queries and generate understandable responses.
Example:
A medical expert system that uses NLP to understand symptoms described by a patient and
provide recommendations.

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Summary

This unit focuses on problem-solving in AI, from game strategies to language processing and robotics.
Key highlights include:

1. Efficient algorithms for games (Minimax, Alpha-Beta).

2. Planning methods for achieving goals in complex environments.
3. Understanding block world problems for robotic applications.
4. Exploring NLP as a core component for building intelligent systems.

Let me know if you'd like further details on any topic! 😊

More deep in Mini max working

Deep Explanation of Minimax Algorithm Working

The Minimax algorithm is a cornerstone in game theory and artificial intelligence for decision-making
in competitive environments. Let’s break it down step by step:

1. Objective

To find the optimal move for a player assuming that the opponent also plays optimally.
It works for two-player, turn-based, zero-sum games (e.g., chess, tic-tac-toe) where one player’s
gain is the other’s loss.

2. Key Concepts

a. Players:

Maximizing Player: Tries to maximize their score or utility.

Minimizing Player: Tries to minimize the maximizing player’s score.

b. Game Tree:

A tree structure that represents all possible moves in the game.

Nodes: Represent game states.
Edges: Represent moves between states.
Leaf Nodes: Represent final game states with a utility or score value (e.g., win = +10, loss =
-10, draw = 0).

c. Utility Value:

A numerical value assigned to the outcome of a game state from the perspective of the maximizing
player.

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3. Algorithm Working

Step 1: Generate the Game Tree

Create a tree structure representing all possible moves from the current state until the end of the
game.

Step 2: Assign Utility Values to Leaf Nodes

Evaluate the final game states (leaf nodes) and assign scores.
For example, in tic-tac-toe:
Win: +10
Loss: -10
Draw: 0

Step 3: Backpropagate Utility Values

Traverse the tree backward, starting from the leaf nodes.

Maximizing Player: Chooses the maximum value from child nodes.
Minimizing Player: Chooses the minimum value from child nodes.

Step 4: Select the Optimal Move

The maximizing player selects the move corresponding to the highest value at the root of the tree.

4. Example: Tic-Tac-Toe (Simplified)

Initial State

Current board state:

markdown

X | O |
-----------
O | X |
-----------
| |

Maximizing player (X) to move.

Game Tree Construction

Each node represents a possible board state after a move.

Assign Utility Values

Leaf nodes are evaluated:

Win: +10 (X wins).
Loss: -10 (O wins).

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 Draw: 0.

Backpropagation

From the leaf nodes, utility values are propagated upward:

Minimizing player (O) selects the minimum value from its child nodes.
Maximizing player (X) selects the maximum value.

5. Pseudocode

python

def minimax(node, depth, isMaximizingPlayer):

if node is a terminal node:
return utility(node)

if isMaximizingPlayer:
maxEval = -infinity
for each child of node:
eval = minimax(child, depth + 1, False)
maxEval = max(maxEval, eval)
return maxEval
else:
minEval = +infinity
for each child of node:
eval = minimax(child, depth + 1, True)
minEval = min(minEval, eval)
return minEval

6. Advantages of Minimax

Guarantees optimal play if the opponent also plays optimally.

Works well for smaller games like tic-tac-toe.

7. Limitations of Minimax

Exponential Complexity: For games like chess, the number of possible states grows exponentially,
making it computationally expensive.
Inflexibility: Assumes the opponent plays perfectly, which might not always be true.

8. Overcoming Limitations

Use Alpha-Beta Pruning to reduce the number of nodes evaluated.

Implement heuristics to estimate utility values for non-terminal states when the game tree is too
large.

Would you like to see how Alpha-Beta pruning enhances this process? 😊

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 Unit-5 :- Expert systems (ES) and its Characteristics, requirements of ES, components and
capability of expert systems, Inference Engine Forward & backward Chaining, Expert
Systems Limitation, Expert System Development Environment, technology, Benefits
of Expert Systems.

Here’s an in-depth explanation of Unit-5 topics for Artificial Intelligence (AL-304) under RGPV:

1. Expert Systems (ES) and Their Characteristics

Definition:

An expert system is a computer-based application that uses knowledge and inference rules to
solve complex problems typically requiring human expertise.

Characteristics:

1. Domain-Specific Knowledge: Focuses on a specific area like medicine, engineering, or finance.

2. Logical Reasoning: Applies rules to the knowledge base to draw conclusions.
3. Interactive Interface: Communicates with users through queries and suggestions.
4. Adaptability: Can learn or adapt over time in advanced implementations.
5. Explanation Capability: Provides reasoning behind conclusions.

2. Requirements of Expert Systems

1. Knowledge Base: A collection of domain-specific facts, rules, and heuristics.

2. Inference Engine: A reasoning mechanism to apply knowledge to solve problems.
3. User Interface: For user interaction and providing explanations or solutions.
4. Knowledge Acquisition Tools: Mechanisms to gather and update knowledge.
5. Memory and Storage: Sufficient computational resources for data processing.

3. Components and Capabilities of Expert Systems

Components:

1. Knowledge Base:
Stores facts and rules about the domain.
Example: Medical ES may contain symptoms, diseases, and treatments.
2. Inference Engine:
Applies logical reasoning to the knowledge base.
Uses forward chaining or backward chaining to deduce solutions.
3. User Interface:
Allows users to query the system and receive results or explanations.
4. Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem:
Helps developers add new knowledge or update existing knowledge.

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 5. Explanation Facility:
Explains reasoning or steps leading to a conclusion.

Capabilities:

1. Problem-Solving: Handles problems requiring reasoning and expertise.

2. Decision Support: Assists users in making informed decisions.
3. Learning and Adaptation: Advanced systems may refine their knowledge base over time.

4. Inference Engine

Forward Chaining:

Starts with known facts and applies inference rules to deduce new facts until a goal is reached.
Example: Diagnosing diseases based on symptoms.
Input: Fever and cough.
Rule: If fever + cough, then flu → Conclusion: Flu.

Backward Chaining:

Starts with a goal and works backward to check if facts support the goal.
Example: Verifying if a disease is flu.
Goal: Flu?
Rule: If fever + cough, then flu → Check: Fever? Cough?

5. Limitations of Expert Systems

1. Domain-Specific: Limited to a narrow field of expertise.

2. Lack of Common Sense: Cannot understand or process information outside its programming.
3. Maintenance Challenges: Updating the knowledge base can be complex.
4. Dependency on Data: Performance depends heavily on the quality and completeness of data.
5. Non-Adaptive: Basic systems do not learn or evolve over time.

6. Expert System Development Environment

Tools and platforms that aid in building and deploying expert systems.

Key Elements:

1. Knowledge Engineering Tools: Software to build and edit the knowledge base.
2. Development Languages: Prolog, LISP, or rule-based programming languages.
3. Inference Mechanisms: Frameworks for forward and backward reasoning.
4. Debugging Tools: To test and refine the system.

7. Expert System Technology

1. Rule-Based Systems: Use "if-then" rules to represent knowledge.

2. Case-Based Reasoning: Solves new problems by referring to past cases.
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 3. Fuzzy Logic: Handles uncertainty by reasoning in degrees (e.g., "high fever").
4. Neural Networks: Combine expert systems with machine learning for adaptability.

8. Benefits of Expert Systems

1. Efficiency: Solves problems faster than human experts in many cases.

2. Consistency: Provides uniform decisions without fatigue or emotional bias.
3. Accessibility: Makes expertise available in remote or underserved areas.
4. Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for multiple human experts.
5. Training and Education: Acts as a teaching tool for new professionals.

Summary

Expert systems are vital in automating complex decision-making processes across various fields like
medicine, finance, and engineering. They rely on a structured knowledge base, an inference engine for
reasoning, and a user interface for communication. Despite their limitations, expert systems offer
significant benefits in terms of speed, efficiency, and accessibility.

Let me know if you'd like more details on any of these topics! 😊

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