TensorFlow

TensorFlow is a software library for machine learning

TensorFlow
and artificial intelligence. It can be used across a range
of tasks, but is used mainly for training and inference
of neural networks.[3][4] It is one of the most popular
deep learning frameworks, alongside others such as
PyTorch and PaddlePaddle.[5][6] It is free and open-
source software released under the Apache License 2.0.

It was developed by the Google Brain team for

Google's internal use in research and TensorFlow logo
production. [7][8][9] The initial version was released Developer(s) Google Brain Team[1]
under the Apache License 2.0 in 2015.[1][10] Google Initial release November 9, 2015
released an updated version, TensorFlow 2.0, in
Repository github.com/tensorflow
September 2019.[11]
/tensorflow (https://github.com/t
TensorFlow can be used in a wide variety of ensorflow/tensorflow)

programming languages, including Python, JavaScript, Written in Python, C++, CUDA

C++, and Java,[12] facilitating its use in a range of Platform Linux, macOS, Windows,
applications in many sectors. Android, JavaScript[2]
Type Machine learning library
License Apache 2.0
History
Website tensorflow.org (http://tensorflow.
org)

DistBelief
Starting in 2011, Google Brain built DistBelief as a proprietary machine learning system based on deep
learning neural networks. Its use grew rapidly across diverse Alphabet companies in both research and
commercial applications.[13][14] Google assigned multiple computer scientists, including Jeff Dean, to
simplify and refactor the codebase of DistBelief into a faster, more robust application-grade library,
which became TensorFlow.[15] In 2009, the team, led by Geoffrey Hinton, had implemented generalized
backpropagation and other improvements, which allowed generation of neural networks with
substantially higher accuracy, for instance a 25% reduction in errors in speech recognition.[16]

TensorFlow
TensorFlow is Google Brain's second-generation system. Version 1.0.0 was released on February 11,
2017.[17] While the reference implementation runs on single devices, TensorFlow can run on multiple
CPUs and GPUs (with optional CUDA and SYCL extensions for general-purpose computing on graphics
processing units).[18] TensorFlow is available on 64-bit Linux, macOS, Windows, and mobile computing
platforms including Android and iOS.
Its flexible architecture allows for easy deployment of computation across a variety of platforms (CPUs,
GPUs, TPUs), and from desktops to clusters of servers to mobile and edge devices.

TensorFlow computations are expressed as stateful dataflow graphs. The name TensorFlow derives from
the operations that such neural networks perform on multidimensional data arrays, which are referred to
as tensors.[19] During the Google I/O Conference in June 2016, Jeff Dean stated that 1,500 repositories
on GitHub mentioned TensorFlow, of which only 5 were from Google.[20]

In March 2018, Google announced TensorFlow.js version 1.0 for machine learning in JavaScript.[21]

In Jan 2019, Google announced TensorFlow 2.0.[22] It became officially available in September 2019.[11]

In May 2019, Google announced TensorFlow Graphics for deep learning in computer graphics.[23]

Tensor processing unit (TPU)

In May 2016, Google announced its Tensor processing unit (TPU), an application-specific integrated
circuit (ASIC, a hardware chip) built specifically for machine learning and tailored for TensorFlow. A
TPU is a programmable AI accelerator designed to provide high throughput of low-precision arithmetic
(e.g., 8-bit), and oriented toward using or running models rather than training them. Google announced
they had been running TPUs inside their data centers for more than a year, and had found them to deliver
an order of magnitude better-optimized performance per watt for machine learning.[24]

In May 2017, Google announced the second-generation, as well as the availability of the TPUs in Google
Compute Engine.[25] The second-generation TPUs deliver up to 180 teraflops of performance, and when
organized into clusters of 64 TPUs, provide up to 11.5 petaflops.

In May 2018, Google announced the third-generation TPUs delivering up to 420 teraflops of performance
and 128 GB high bandwidth memory (HBM). Cloud TPU v3 Pods offer 100+ petaflops of performance
and 32 TB HBM.[26]

In February 2018, Google announced that they were making TPUs available in beta on the Google Cloud
Platform.[27]

Edge TPU
In July 2018, the Edge TPU was announced. Edge TPU is Google's purpose-built ASIC chip designed to
run TensorFlow Lite machine learning (ML) models on small client computing devices such as
smartphones[28] known as edge computing.

TensorFlow Lite
In May 2017, Google announced a software stack specifically for mobile development, TensorFlow
Lite.[29] In January 2019, the TensorFlow team released a developer preview of the mobile GPU
inference engine with OpenGL ES 3.1 Compute Shaders on Android devices and Metal Compute Shaders
on iOS devices.[30] In May 2019, Google announced that their TensorFlow Lite Micro (also known as
TensorFlow Lite for Microcontrollers) and ARM's uTensor would be merging.[31]

TensorFlow 2.0
As TensorFlow's market share among research papers was declining to the advantage of PyTorch,[32] the
TensorFlow Team announced a release of a new major version of the library in September 2019.
TensorFlow 2.0 introduced many changes, the most significant being TensorFlow eager, which changed
the automatic differentiation scheme from the static computational graph to the "Define-by-Run" scheme
originally made popular by Chainer and later PyTorch.[32] Other major changes included removal of old
libraries, cross-compatibility between trained models on different versions of TensorFlow, and significant
improvements to the performance on GPU.[33]

Features

AutoDifferentiation
AutoDifferentiation is the process of automatically calculating the gradient vector of a model with respect
to each of its parameters. With this feature, TensorFlow can automatically compute the gradients for the
parameters in a model, which is useful to algorithms such as backpropagation which require gradients to
optimize performance.[34] To do so, the framework must keep track of the order of operations done to the
input Tensors in a model, and then compute the gradients with respect to the appropriate parameters.[34]

Eager execution
TensorFlow includes an “eager execution” mode, which means that operations are evaluated immediately
as opposed to being added to a computational graph which is executed later.[35] Code executed eagerly
can be examined step-by step-through a debugger, since data is augmented at each line of code rather
than later in a computational graph.[35] This execution paradigm is considered to be easier to debug
because of its step by step transparency.[35]

Distribute
In both eager and graph executions, TensorFlow provides an API for distributing computation across
multiple devices with various distribution strategies.[36] This distributed computing can often speed up
the execution of training and evaluating of TensorFlow models and is a common practice in the field of
AI.[36][37]

Losses
To train and assess models, TensorFlow provides a set of loss functions (also known as cost
functions).[38] Some popular examples include mean squared error (MSE) and binary cross entropy
(BCE).[38]

Metrics
In order to assess the performance of machine learning models, TensorFlow gives API access to
commonly used metrics. Examples include various accuracy metrics (binary, categorical, sparse
categorical) along with other metrics such as Precision, Recall, and Intersection-over-Union (IoU).[39]

TF.nn
TensorFlow.nn is a module for executing primitive neural network operations on models.[40] Some of
these operations include variations of convolutions (1/2/3D, Atrous, depthwise), activation functions
(Softmax, RELU, GELU, Sigmoid, etc.) and their variations, and other operations (max-pooling, bias-
add, etc.).[40]

Optimizers
TensorFlow offers a set of optimizers for training neural networks, including ADAM, ADAGRAD, and
Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD).[41] When training a model, different optimizers offer different modes
of parameter tuning, often affecting a model's convergence and performance.[42]

Usage and extensions

TensorFlow
TensorFlow serves as a core platform and library for machine learning. TensorFlow's APIs use Keras to
allow users to make their own machine-learning models.[33][43] In addition to building and training their
model, TensorFlow can also help load the data to train the model, and deploy it using TensorFlow
Serving.[44]

TensorFlow provides a stable Python Application Program Interface (API),[45] as well as APIs without
backwards compatibility guarantee for Javascript,[46] C++,[47] and Java.[48][12] Third-party language
binding packages are also available for C#,[49][50] Haskell,[51] Julia,[52] MATLAB,[53] Object Pascal,[54]
R,[55] Scala,[56] Rust,[57] OCaml,[58] and Crystal.[59] Bindings that are now archived and unsupported
include Go[60] and Swift.[61]

TensorFlow.js
TensorFlow also has a library for machine learning in JavaScript. Using the provided JavaScript APIs,
TensorFlow.js allows users to use either Tensorflow.js models or converted models from TensorFlow or
TFLite, retrain the given models, and run on the web.[44][62]

TFLite
TensorFlow Lite has APIs for mobile apps or embedded devices to generate and deploy TensorFlow
models.[63] These models are compressed and optimized in order to be more efficient and have a higher
performance on smaller capacity devices.[64]

TensorFlow Lite uses FlatBuffers as the data serialization format for network models, eschewing the
Protocol Buffers format used by standard TensorFlow models.[64]

TFX
TensorFlow Extended (abbrev. TFX) provides numerous components to perform all the operations needed
for end-to-end production.[65] Components include loading, validating, and transforming data, tuning,
training, and evaluating the machine learning model, and pushing the model itself into production.[44][65]

Integrations

Numpy
Numpy is one of the most popular Python data libraries, and TensorFlow offers integration and
compatibility with its data structures.[66] Numpy NDarrays, the library's native datatype, are
automatically converted to TensorFlow Tensors in TF operations; the same is also true vice versa.[66] This
allows for the two libraries to work in unison without requiring the user to write explicit data conversions.
Moreover, the integration extends to memory optimization by having TF Tensors share the underlying
memory representations of Numpy NDarrays whenever possible.[66]

Extensions
TensorFlow also offers a variety of libraries and extensions to advance and extend the models and
methods used.[67] For example, TensorFlow Recommenders and TensorFlow Graphics are libraries for
their respective functionalities in recommendation systems and graphics, TensorFlow Federated provides
a framework for decentralized data, and TensorFlow Cloud allows users to directly interact with Google
Cloud to integrate their local code to Google Cloud.[68] Other add-ons, libraries, and frameworks include
TensorFlow Model Optimization, TensorFlow Probability, TensorFlow Quantum, and TensorFlow
Decision Forests.[67][68]

Google Colab
Google also released Colaboratory, a TensorFlow Jupyter notebook environment that does not require any
setup.[69] It runs on Google Cloud and allows users free access to GPUs and the ability to store and share
notebooks on Google Drive.[70]

Google JAX
Google JAX is a machine learning framework for transforming numerical functions.[71][72][73] It is
described as bringing together a modified version of autograd (https://github.com/HIPS/autograd)
(automatic obtaining of the gradient function through differentiation of a function) and TensorFlow's
XLA (https://www.tensorflow.org/xla) (Accelerated Linear Algebra). It is designed to follow the structure
and workflow of NumPy as closely as possible and works with TensorFlow as well as other frameworks
such as PyTorch. The primary functions of JAX are:[71]

1. grad: automatic differentiation

2. jit: compilation
3. vmap: auto-vectorization
4. pmap: SPMD programming

Applications

Medical
GE Healthcare used TensorFlow to increase the speed and accuracy of MRIs in identifying specific body
parts.[74] Google used TensorFlow to create DermAssist, a free mobile application that allows users to
take pictures of their skin and identify potential health complications.[75] Sinovation Ventures used
TensorFlow to identify and classify eye diseases from optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans.[75]

Social media
Twitter implemented TensorFlow to rank tweets by importance for a given user, and changed their
platform to show tweets in order of this ranking.[76] Previously, tweets were simply shown in reverse
chronological order.[76] The photo sharing app VSCO used TensorFlow to help suggest custom filters for
photos.[75]

Search Engine
Google officially released RankBrain on October 26, 2015, backed by TensorFlow.[77]

Education
InSpace, a virtual learning platform, used TensorFlow to filter out toxic chat messages in classrooms.[78]
Liulishuo, an online English learning platform, utilized TensorFlow to create an adaptive curriculum for
each student.[79] TensorFlow was used to accurately assess a student's current abilities, and also helped
decide the best future content to show based on those capabilities.[79]

Retail
The e-commerce platform Carousell used TensorFlow to provide personalized recommendations for
customers.[75] The cosmetics company ModiFace used TensorFlow to create an augmented reality
experience for customers to test various shades of make-up on their face.[80]

Research
TensorFlow is the foundation for the automated image-captioning software DeepDream.[81]
 2016 comparison of original photo (left) and with TensorFlow neural style applied (right)

See also
Free and open-
source software
portal

Comparison of deep learning software

Differentiable programming
Keras

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Further reading
Moroney, Laurence (October 1, 2020). AI and Machine Learning for Coders (https://www.ore
illy.com/library/view/ai-and-machine/9781492078180/) (1st ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 365.
ISBN 9781492078197. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210607074743/https://www.
oreilly.com/library/view/ai-and-machine/9781492078180/) from the original on June 7, 2021.
Retrieved December 21, 2020.
Géron, Aurélien (October 15, 2019). Hands-On Machine Learning with Scikit-Learn, Keras,
and TensorFlow (https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/hands-on-machine-learning/978149203
2632/) (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 856. ISBN 9781492032632. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20210501010926/https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/hands-on-machine-learning/
9781492032632/) from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
Ramsundar, Bharath; Zadeh, Reza Bosagh (March 23, 2018). TensorFlow for Deep
Learning (https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/tensorflow-for-deep/9781491980446/)
(1st ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 256. ISBN 9781491980446. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20210607150529/https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/tensorflow-for-deep/978149198044
6/) from the original on June 7, 2021. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
Hope, Tom; Resheff, Yehezkel S.; Lieder, Itay (August 27, 2017). Learning TensorFlow: A
Guide to Building Deep Learning Systems (https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/learning-tens
orflow/9781491978504/) (1st ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 242. ISBN 9781491978504. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20210308153359/https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/learning-t
ensorflow/9781491978504/) from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved November 25,
2019.
Shukla, Nishant (February 12, 2018). Machine Learning with TensorFlow (1st ed.). Manning
Publications. p. 272. ISBN 9781617293870.

External links
Official website (http://www.tensorflow.org)
Learning TensorFlow.js Book (ENG) (https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/learning-tensorflowj
s/9781492090786/)

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