Dr.

N Ditshego
Lecturer
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Botswana

Office No: 248/213

Ext: 4229
Email: [email protected]

EEB 341
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

CHAPTER 2
DIGITAL CIRCUITS

1
 Lecture Overview
 Analog vs Digital
 Logic Variables
 Logic Functions
 AND, OR, NOT
 Combining Functions
 Truth Tables
 Logic Gates
 Logic Networks
 Analysis using Truth Tables
 Analysis using Timing Diagrams
 Equivalent Logic Networks

2
 Analogue vs Digital
 Analogue Circuits: Signals may take on a continuous range of
values between some minimum and maximum levels
 Classic example: Record player, Analogue Telephone
 Recent examples: Terrestrial Television, FM Radio, AM radio

 Digital Circuits: Signal values are restricted to a few discrete values

 Binary logic: Only two possible values, 0 and 1
 Decimal logic: Ten possible values, from 0 to 9
 Since each signal value is represented by a digit, or multiple digits, such logic
circuits are called digital circuits

3
Analogue vs Digital - resolution
 Assume we have an analogue signal, and we want to represent it
digitally with only two possible values (1 bit)
1200

1000

800

600
Analogue

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

1200

1000

800
Analogue
600

2 Values
400
(1-bit digital)

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-200

4
 Analogue vs Digital - resolution
 Assume we have an analogue signal, and we want to represent it
digitally with only four possible values (2 bits)
1200

1000

800

600
Analogue

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

1200

1000

800
Analogue
600

4 Values
400
(2 bit digital)

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-200

5
 Analogue vs Digital - resolution
 Assume we have an analogue signal, and we want to represent it
digitally with 16 values (4 bits)
1200

1000

800

600
Analogue

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

12 00

10 00

80 0

A n a lo g u e
60 0

16 Values
40 0 (4 bit digital)

20 0

0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 0

-200

6
Analogue vs Digital - sample rate
 Assume we have an analogue signal, and we want to represent it
digitally with 16 values (4 bits), sampling at 10 Hz
1200

1000

800

600
Analogue

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

1200

1000

800 A n a lo g u e

600
16 Values
400
(4 bit digital)
200 10 Hz

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

7
Analogue vs Digital - sample rate
 Assume we have an analogue signal, and we want to represent it
digitally with 16 values (4 bits), sampling at 100 Hz
1200

1000

800

600
Analogue

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

1200

1000

800 A n a lo g u e

600
16 Values
400
( 4 b it digital)
100 Hz
200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

8
Logic Gates

9
10
Binary Logic: Signals and Functions
 Binary signals can assume only two possible values
 0 or 1
 OFF or ON
 LOW or HIGH
 FALSE or TRUE

 Simplest binary element is controllable switch with two states

11
Example: Light Controlled by Switch

12
Binary Switch: OFF or ON

 The state of the light, L, as a function of the state of the switch, x

 If x = 0 (switch is off), then L = 0 (light is off)
 If x = 1 (switch is on), then L = 1 (light is on)
 This relationship described by the logic expression
L(x) = x
 L(x) is the logic function
 x is the input variable
 L is the output variable

13
 AND Function

 Connect two switches in series, with control inputs x1 and x2

 L = 1 (light is on), if x1 = 1 AND x2 = 1 (both switches are on)
 L = 0 (light is off), otherwise (if either of the switches are off)

 The logic expression for the AND operation is:

L(x1, x2) = x1 AND x2 or L(x1, x2) = x1 · x2
 where “ · ” is called the AND operator, or the product operator,and
implements the AND function.

14
 OR Function

 Connect two switches in parallel, with control inputs x1 and

x2
 L = 1 (light is on), if x1 = 1 OR x2 = 1 (if either or both of the switches are on)
 L = 0 (light is off), otherwise (both switches are off)

 The logic expression for the OR operation

is: L(x1, x2) = x1 OR x2 or L = x1 + x2

 where “ + ” is called the OR operator, or the sum operator, and

implements the OR function.
15
Combining Functions (OR, AND)

 Parallel-series connection of three switches, inputs x1, x2 and x3

 If (x1 = 1 OR x2 = 1) AND x3 = 1, then L = 1
 The light is on, if x3 is on, and, at the same time, at least one of x1 or x2 is on

 The logic expression for the parallel-series logic function is:

L(x1, x2 , x3) = (x1 OR x2) AND x3
or
L = (x1 + x2) · x3

16
NOT Function

 Inverting Circuit
 Closed switch will short circuit light and prevent current from flowing through it
 Extra series resistor to ensure closed switch does not short-circuit power supply!
 The light will turn on when the switch is off.
 If x = 0 (switch is off), then L = 1 (light is on)
 If x = 1 (switch is on), then L = 0 (light is off)

 The logic expression for the NOT operation is

L(x)  NOT x or L(x)  x
 The output variable L is the inverse, or complement, of the input
variable x
17
 Impractical to use overbar notation on keyboard, when using CAD
tools, so alternate notations are used:
x = x’ = !x = ~x = NOT x
( /x or _x also used for schematic diagrammes)
 Complement operation can also be applied to logic expressions, e.g.
if y  x  x then y  x  x
1 2 1 2

Thus y  0 if either x1=1 or x2=1

Thus y will only be 1 when neither x1 nor x2 equals 1, or x1 = x2 = 0

 The following notations are also equivalent

x1  x2 = (x1 + x2)’ = !(x1 + x2) = ~(x1 + x2) = NOT (x1 + x2)

18
 Alternate notation
 In Boolean algebra, the symbols · and + are used for AND and OR
 In ordinary arithmetic, the symbols · and + are used for multiplication
and addition

 When designing digital circuits that perform arithmetic, the following

alternate notation is used for AND and OR:

OR: x y

AND: x y

19
 Truth Tables
 Logic function also be represented with a table, called a truth table

 First two columns give all combinations of input values

 Third column gives output of AND function for each combination
 Last column gives output of OR function for each combination
20
 Truth table grows exponentially in size with number of inputs
 Truth table with 3 inputs has 8 rows (see 3-input AND and OR)

 Truth table with 4 inputs has 16 rows

 Truth table with n inputs has 2n rows
21
 Logic Gates
 Logic gates are circuit elements that implement logic functions
electronically with transistors
 AND, OR and NOT gates are represented with graphic symbols

x1
(a) AND gate x1  x2
x2

x1
(b) OR gate x1 + x 2
x2

(c) NOT gate x x

22
 Logic Gates
 Logic gates with multiple inputs

x1
x2
(a) AND gate with n inputs x1  x2    xn

xn

x1
x2
(b) OR gate with n inputs x1 + x2 +  + xn

xn

23
 Logic Network
 The three basic logic functions (AND, OR and NOT) can be
combined to form logic functions of any complexity
 Any logic function can be implemented with a logic circuit consisting
of a network of logic gates

x1
x2
= x 1 + x2   x3
x3

 A combination of logic symbols in a drawing is called a circuit

diagram, or schematic

24
 Analysis of a Logic Network
 Analysis : The task of determining the logic function of an existing
logic network
 Synthesis : The task of designing a new logic network that will
implement a desired logic function

x1
x1  x1  x2 
x1
A
x1 x1 x2 B
x2
x2

f  x1  x1  x2 

25
 Analysis via Truth Table
 Apply all possible combinations of input signals and determine
output signal for each combination

x1 0011 1100
A
1101 f
0001 B
0101
x2

x x f (x , x ) A B
1 2 1 2
1 0
0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1

26
 Analysis via Timing Diagram
 Graphical representation of signals with respect to time
0011 1100
x
1 A
1101
f
0 0 0 1 B
0101
x
2

1
x
1 0

x 1
2 0

1
A
0
1
B
0
1
f
0 Time

27
 Timing Diagrams
 Timing diagrams useful for indicating functional behaviour of circuits
 Idealized waveforms assume output signals respond to changes in
input signals in zero time
 With practical logic gates, which are implemented in electronics,
there is a delay between a change in input values and the
corresponding change in the output value
 Timing diagrams correspond to measurements taken with
oscilloscopes and logic analyzers
 Timing diagrams also generated by CAD tools to show designer
expected behaviour of given circuit before actually implemented

28
 Equivalent Circuits
 The following circuits produce the same outputs for the same
combinations of inputs, but with different networks

x1 0011 1100
A
1101 f
0001 B
0101
x2

0 01  1 1 1 0 0
x
1
1 1 0 1
0 10 1 g
x
2

 Subtle difference. Can you spot it?

29
DEFINATION

• A timing diagram is a graphical method for showing the exact output behaviour of a logic circuit
for every possible set of input condition.

• It is often used to describe the operation of digital devices because its visual characteristics are
much easier to understand than a wordy explanation

30
DEFINATION

• In most situations, logic signals applied to the input of logic devices are not at stationery levels.
Instead, they are voltages that change continuously with states

• To illustrate how logic gates respond to input signals in relation to time, timing diagrams have
been developed

31
Examples-Series switch and bulb

32
Example –Bulb is off at Time Period 1

33
Example –Bulb is off at Time Period 2

34
Example –Bulb is off at Time Period 3

35
Example –Bulb is off at Time Period 4

36
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM

37
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM1

38
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM2

39
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM3

40
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM4

41
AND-GATE TIMING DIAGRAM5

42
SUMMARY ON GATES
AND Definition: the output is true (1) if both inputs are
true (1).
logical operator

F = A.B = AB = “A and B” A B A. B
0 0 0
Boolean expression
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
F
Truth table
Symbol (aka. logic gate)

43
OR
Definition: the output is true (1) if either or both
inputs are true (1).
logical operator

F = A+B = “A or B” A B A+ B
0 0 0
Boolean expression
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
FF
Truth table
Symbol

44
NOT
Definition: the output is true (1) if the input is false
(0).
logical operator

F = A' = “ not A” A A'

Boolean expression 0 1
1 0
Truth table
A F = A'
Symbol

45
Order of Precedence

The order of precedence of the basic logic

operations is defined as follows:


– NOT
– AND
– OR
The order of precedence can be modified by using
parenthesis.


46
Functionally Complete

The AND, OR, and NOT operations comprise a

functionally complete set.


All logic functions can be expressed in terms of

these logic operations.


All logic circuits can be realized using the

associated logic gates.


47
NAND
Definition: the output is false (0) if both inputs are
true (1).

F = (A.B)' = “not (A and B)” A B (A . B)'

0 0 1
Boolean expression
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
F = (A.B)'
Truth table
Symbol
shorthand for inversion

48
NOR
Definition: the output is false (0) if either or both
inputs are true (1).

F = (A+B)' = “not (A or B)” A B (A+B)'

0 0 1
Boolean expression
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
FFFF = (A+B)'
Truth table
Symbol
shorthand for inversion

49
XOR
Definition: the output is true (1) if either but not both
inputs are true (1).

F = A xor B A B A xor B
0 0 0
Boolean expression
0 1 1
logical operator
1 0 1
1 1 0

Truth table
Symbol

50
XNOR
Definition: the output is false (0) if either but not
both inputs are true (1).

F = A xnor B
A B A xnor B
Boolean expression
logical operator
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Symbol
Truth table

51
Logic Circuits
Logic circuits are realized through the interconnection
of logic gates.


 Each logic gate represents a logical operation.

 This can be done using
 discrete components
Standard Logic Gates
programmable devices



 Read-only Memories (ROM)
 Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)
 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)

52
Standard Logic Gates
Device Logic Gate
74xx08 Quad 2-input AND gate
74xx32 Quad 2-input OR gate
74xx04 Hex Inverter (NOT gate)
74xx00 Quad 2-input NAND gate
74xx02 Quad 2-input NOR gate
74xx86 Quad 2-input XOR gate

Note: “xx” refers to the logic family

53
Standard Logic Gates
 Data sheets provide essential information:
 Logic Function
 Truth Table
 Pin-out
 Electrical Characteristics
 Timing Characteristics
 Package Description(s)
This information is necessary when building logic circuits
from discrete components.


 Each logic family has a unique set of characteristics.

54
Standard Logic Gates: 74xx08

pin-out

Truth table

55
Standard Logic Gates: 74xx32

pin-out

Truth table

56
Standard Logic Gates: 74xx04

pin-out

Truth table

57
Building a Logic Circuit
Circuit
Diagram
C
74xx08
B
74xx04
inputs 74xx32 F output

74xx08
A

Boolean
F = B'.C + A.B Expression

58
Building a Logic Circuit
VDD
Wiring
Diagram
components
7404

wires
7408 7432

A
inputs B
C output
F

59