Abhishek Sharma

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Technical Interview Questions

commonly asked during Campus
Placement Drives
Preparing for Success: A Comprehensive Guide to
Common Technical Interview Questions in Campus
Placement Drives

Abhishek Sharma
Jul 25, 2023 · 42 min read
 2

Table of contents
Data Structure and Algorithms [DSA]
Database Management Systems [DBMS]
Object Oriented Programming
Software Engineering
Operating System [OS]
Computer Networks
Coding Questions and Solutions

Data Structure and Algorithms [DSA]

◆ Define the data structure.

A data structure is a mechanical or logical way that data is organized
within a program. The organization of data is what determines how a
program performs. There are many types of data structures, each with
its own uses. When designing code, we need to pay particular attention
to the way data is structured. If data isn't stored efficiently or correctly
structured, then the overall performance of the code will be reduced.
◆ What is Stack?
Stack is an ordered list in which, insertion and deletion can be
performed only at one end which is called the top. It is a recursive data
structure having a pointer to its top element. The stack is sometimes
called a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) list i.e. the element which is inserted
first in the stack will be deleted last from the stack.
◆ Define Push and Pop in Stack.
PUSH and POP operations specify how data is stored and retrieved in a
stack.
PUSH: PUSH specifies that data is being "inserted" into the stack.
POP: POP specifies data retrieval. It means that data is being
deleted from the stack.
◆ Define Queue.
A queue is a linear data structure that allows users to store items in a
list in a systematic manner. The items are added to the queue at the
rear end until they are full, at which point they are removed from the
queue from the front. A good example of a queue is any queue of
customers for a resource where the first consumer is served first.
◆ Define Array.
Arrays are defined as the collection of similar types of data items
stored at contiguous memory locations. It is the simplest data structure
in which each data element can be randomly accessed by using its
index number.
◆ Define LinkedList.
A linked list can be thought of as a series of linked nodes (or items)
that are connected by links (or paths). Each link represents an entry
into the linked list, and each entry points to the next node in the
sequence. The order in which nodes are added to the list is determined
by the order in which they are created.
Here's a chart depicting various LinkedList operations in DSA, along
with their definitions and the time complexities for the best, worst, and
average cases:
 Operation Definition Best Case
Insertion (Front) Add an element at the O(1)
beginning of the
LinkedList.
Insertion (End) Add an element at the O(1)
end of the LinkedList.
Insertion (Middle) Add an element at a O(1) to O(N)
specific position in the
LinkedList.
Deletion (Front) Remove the first O(1)
element from the
LinkedList.
Deletion (End) Remove the last O(N)
element from the
LinkedList.
Deletion (Middle) Remove an element O(1) to O(N)
from a specific position
in the LinkedList.
Search Find an element in the O(1)
LinkedList.
Access (By Index) Access an element by O(1)
its index in the
LinkedList.
Traverse Visit all elements in the O(N)
LinkedList.

◆ Define Binary Tree.

A Binary Tree is a hierarchical data structure in computer science
consisting of nodes, where each node can have at most two children,
commonly referred to as the left child and the right child. The topmost
node is called the root, and nodes with no children are called leaf
nodes. Binary trees are widely used for efficient searching, sorting, and
organizing data.
Maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of height K , 2k+1-1
where k >= 1 .
◆ Define AVL Tree.
AVL trees are height-balancing binary search trees named after their
inventors Adelson, Velski, and Landis. The AVL tree compares the
heights of the left and right subtrees and ensures that the difference is
less than one. This distinction is known as the Balance Factor.
Formula to find Balance Factor, BalanceFactor = height(left-subtree) −
height(right-subtree)

◆ Define Graph.
A graph G can be defined as an ordered set G(V, E) where V(G)
represents the set of vertices and E(G) represents the set of edges
that are used to connect these vertices. A graph can be seen as a
cyclic tree, where the vertices (Nodes) maintain any complex
relationship among them instead of having parent-child relations.
Path: A Path is the sequence of adjacent vertices connected by
the edges with no restrictions.
Cycle: A Cycle can be defined as the closed path where the initial
vertex is identical to the end vertex. Any vertex in the path can not
be visited twice
Circuit: A Circuit can be defined as a closed path where the initial
vertex is identical to the end vertex. Any vertex may be repeated.
◆ What is the difference between Null and Void?

Null is a value, whereas Void is a data type identifier.

 A null variable simply indicates an empty value, whereas a void is
used to identify pointers as having no initial size.
◆ What is Binary Search Tree (BST)?
A binary search tree is a data structure that stores items in sorted
order. In a binary search tree, each node stores a key and a value. The
key is used to access the item and the value is used to determine
whether the item is present or not. The key can be any type of value
such as an integer, floating point number, character string, or even a
combination of these types. The value can be any type of items such
as an integer, floating point number, character string, or even a
combination of these types. When a node is added to the tree, its key
is used to access the item stored at that node. When a node is
removed from the tree, its key is used to access the item stored at that
node.
◆ Difference between BFS and DFS.

Breadth First Search (BFS) Depth First Search (DFS)

It stands for “Breadth-First It stands for “Depth First Search”
Search”
BFS (Breadth First Search) finds DFS (Depth First Search) finds the
the shortest path using the shortest path using the Stack data
Queue data structure. structure.
We walk through all nodes on the DFS begins at the root node and
same level before passing to the proceeds as far as possible through the
next level in BFS. nodes until we reach the node with no
unvisited nearby nodes.
When compared to DFS, BFS is When compared to BFS, DFS is faster.
slower.
BFS performs better when the DFS performs better when the target is
target is close to the source. far from the source.
◆ Searching Techniques overview in a single chart.

Technique Definition Best Case Complexity

Linear Search Sequentially searches O(1)
for an element in a
list/array.
Binary Search Searches for an O(1)
element in a sorted
list/array.
Jump Search Jumps ahead by a fixed O(1)
step in a sorted
list/array.
Interpolation Search Searches in uniformly O(1)
distributed sorted
list/array.
Exponential Search Utilizes exponential O(1)
growth to search in a
sorted list/array.
Hash Table Lookup Uses a hash function to O(1)
search for elements in a
hash table.

◆ Sorting Techniques overview in a single chart.

Sorting Technique Definition Best Case

Bubble Sort Compares adjacent O(n)
elements and swaps
them if they are in the
wrong order. Repeats
until the array is sorted.
Selection Sort Divides the input array O(n^2)
Sorting Technique Definition Best Case
into two parts: the
sorted part and the
unsorted part.
Repeatedly selects the
smallest element from
the unsorted part and
moves it to the sorted
part.
Insertion Sort Builds the final sorted O(n)
array one item at a
time. Iterates through
the input array, and for
each element, finds its
correct position in the
sorted part.
Merge Sort Divides the input array O(n log n)
into two halves, sorts
each half recursively,
and then merges them
back together.
Quick Sort Chooses a pivot O(n log n)
element, partitions the
array into two sub-
arrays (elements
smaller than pivot and
elements greater than
pivot), and recursively
sorts the sub-arrays.
Heap Sort Builds a max-heap from O(n log n)
the input array and
repeatedly extracts the
maximum element from
the heap to form the
sorted array.
Counting Sort Assumes that the input O(n + k)
consists of integers
within a specific range.
 Sorting Technique Definition Best Case
Counts the occurrences
of each element and
uses this information to
place elements in the
correct order.
Radix Sort Sorts the elements digit O(nk)
by digit, from the least
significant digit to the
most significant digit.

Database Management Systems [DBMS]

◆ What is Database Management Systems?

DBMS stands for "Database Management System." It is software that
facilitates the creation, organization, and manipulation of databases,
allowing users to store, retrieve, and manage data efficiently and
securely.
◆ Differentiate between DBMS and RDBMS.
DBMS (Database Management System):
Manages and organizes data in a database.
Supports basic operations like storing, retrieving, updating, and
deleting data.
May not enforce strict relationships between tables.
Example: File-based systems.
RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):
 A type of DBMS that organizes data into tables with predefined
relationships between them.
Enforces the ACID properties for transaction management.
Provides a structured way to define and manipulate data using SQL
(Structured Query Language).
Example: MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL.
◆ Explain the three levels of data abstraction in DBMS.
The three levels of data abstraction in DBMS are:
1. Physical Level: Deals with how data is stored in the database at
the lowest level, focusing on data storage structures and access
methods.
2. Logical Level: Concerned with describing data in terms of the
database schema, defining the relationships and constraints.
3. View Level: Provides a customized, user-specific view of the data,
showing only the relevant information, hiding the underlying
complexity of the database.
◆ What is normalization, and why is it important in database design?
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database
efficiently by reducing redundancy and dependency. It is important in
database design to eliminate data anomalies, improve data integrity,
and optimize storage space.
◆ Define ACID properties.
ACID properties of a transaction in a DBMS are:
1. Atomicity: A transaction is treated as a single, indivisible unit of
work. It either fully succeeds (commits) or fully fails (rolls back) if
 an error occurs.
2. Consistency: A transaction brings the database from one valid
state to another. It ensures that all constraints and rules are
followed during the transaction.
3. Isolation: Each transaction is executed in isolation from others,
ensuring that the intermediate states of one transaction are not
visible to others until it is committed.
4. Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its changes are
permanent and survive system failures. The changes become a
permanent part of the database.
◆ What are the primary key and foreign key? How are they related?
A primary key is a unique identifier for a record in a database table,
ensuring each row has a distinct value. It uniquely identifies a single
record.
A foreign key is a field in a table that points to the primary key of
another table, creating a relationship between the two tables.
In summary, a primary key uniquely identifies records within its table,
while a foreign key establishes a link to the primary key of another
table, enabling the establishment of relationships between tables in a
database.
◆ What are the different types of joins in SQL?

INNER JOIN: Returns only the matching rows from both tables.
LEFT JOIN (or LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the left
table and matching rows from the right table.
RIGHT JOIN (or RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the
right table and matching rows from the left table.
 FULL JOIN (or FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows when there is a
match in either the left or right table.
SELF JOIN: Joins a table with itself based on a related column.
CROSS JOIN: Produces a Cartesian product of rows from both
tables (all possible combinations).
NATURAL JOIN: Joins tables based on columns with the same
name, eliminating duplicate columns. (Less commonly used due to
ambiguity risks)
◆ Explain the differences between DELETE, TRUNCATE, and DROP
commands in SQL.
DELETE: Removes rows one by one from a table based on the
specified condition. It is a DML (Data Manipulation Language)
command and can be rolled back.
TRUNCATE: Removes all rows from a table in one shot. It is a DDL
(Data Definition Language) command and cannot be rolled back. It
also resets identity/auto-increment values.
DROP: Completely removes a table from the database, along with
its data and structure. It is a DDL (Data Definition Language)
command and cannot be rolled back.
◆ What is the role of the COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements in a
transaction?
COMMIT: The COMMIT statement is used to permanently save the
changes made in a transaction to the database.
ROLLBACK: The ROLLBACK statement is used to undo the
changes made in a transaction and restore the database to its
state before the transaction started.
◆ Aggregate Functions in SQL.
Aggregate functions in SQL are functions used to perform calculations
on sets of values and return a single result. Common aggregate
functions include SUM() , COUNT() , AVG() , MAX() , and MIN() .
◆ Write a SQL query to fetch data from multiple tables using JOIN.

COPY

SELECT employees.employee_id, employees.employee_name, employees.sa

departments.department_name FROM employees
JOIN departments
ON employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

◆ Write a query to find the highest/lowest value in a specific column

of a table.
COPY

-- -- Finding out the Highest Value of a particular column

SELECT MAX(column_name) AS highest_value
FROM table_name;

-- Finding out the Lowest Value of a particular column

SELECT MIN(column_name) AS lowest_value
FROM table_name;

◆ Write the SQL query to get the third maximum salary of an

employee from a table named employees.
COPY

SELECT DISTINCT salary

FROM employees
 ORDER BY salary DESC
LIMIT 2, 1;

◆ Display the first and last record from the Employee table.

COPY

SELECT * FROM Employee ORDER BY employee_id LIMIT 1

UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM Employee ORDER BY employee_id DESC LIMIT 1;

◆ Display the total salary of each employee after adding 18%

increment in the salary.
COPY

SELECT employee_id, employee_name, salary, (salary * 1.18) AS total

FROM Employee;

◆ Write an SQL query for creating a new column named password for
each of the employees. Password format, the first three characters of
their name + the last three digits of their phone number.
COPY

ALTER TABLE Employee

ADD password VARCHAR(100);

UPDATE Employee
SET password = CONCAT(SUBSTRING(employee_name, 1, 3), RIGHT(phone_n
◆ Write a query to return the number of employees whose DOB is
between 01/01/1990 to 01/01/2001 and are grouped according to
gender.
COPY

SELECT gender, COUNT(*) AS number_of_employees

FROM Employee
WHERE date_of_birth BETWEEN '1990-01-01' AND '2001-01-01'
GROUP BY gender;

Object Oriented Programming

◆ What do you understand by OOP?

OOP stands for object-oriented programming. It is a programming
paradigm that revolves around the object rather than function and
procedure. In other words, it is an approach for developing applications
that emphasize on objects. An object is a real word entity that contains
data and code. It allows binding data and code together.
◆ What are the four main features of OOPs?
The four main features of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) are:
1. Encapsulation: Bundling data (attributes) and methods (functions)
together as objects to hide the internal implementation details and
expose only relevant functionalities.
2. Abstraction: Simplifying complex real-world entities into classes
and objects, providing a clear interface for interaction while hiding
unnecessary details.
3. Inheritance: Creating new classes (derived or child classes) based
on existing classes (base or parent classes), inheriting their
attributes and methods to promote code reusability.
4. Polymorphism: The ability of objects to take on multiple forms,
allowing different classes to be treated as instances of a common
superclass and enabling method overriding and method
overloading.
◆ Differentiate between a class and an object in OOP.

Class: A class in Object-Oriented Programming is a blueprint or

template that defines the properties (attributes) and behaviors
(methods) that objects of that class will have.
Object: An object is an instance of a class, created from the class
blueprint. It represents a specific entity and encapsulates its own
set of data and behavior defined by the class.
◆ Define Method Overloading and Method Overriding.

Method Overloading: Method overloading is a feature in OOP

where multiple methods in the same class have the same name but
differ in the number or type of parameters they accept. It allows a
single method name to perform different tasks based on the input
provided.
Method Overriding: Method overriding is a concept in OOP where
a subclass provides a specific implementation for a method that is
already defined in its superclass. The subclass method with the
same name and signature as the superclass method replaces the
superclass method's behavior in the subclass.
◆ What are the different types of Polymorphism? How we can
achieve them?
1. Compile-time Polymorphism (Static Polymorphism):
Achieved through method overloading.
Multiple methods with the same name but different
parameters are defined in a class.
The appropriate method is determined at compile-time based
on the number or types of arguments passed.
2. Runtime Polymorphism (Dynamic Polymorphism):
Achieved through method overriding.
A subclass provides a specific implementation for a method
that is already defined in its superclass.
The appropriate method is determined at runtime based on the
actual object type rather than the reference type.
Both types of polymorphism enable a single method name to behave
differently based on the context, leading to more flexible and reusable
code in Object-Oriented Programming.
◆ What is Abstract Class and Interface?

Abstract Class:
An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated and serves
as a blueprint for other classes.
It may contain abstract methods (without implementation) and
concrete methods (with implementation).
Subclasses (derived classes) must provide implementations for all
abstract methods defined in the abstract class.
Interface:
An interface is a collection of abstract methods and constants.
It defines a contract for classes that implement it, specifying the
methods they must provide.
Classes can implement multiple interfaces, enabling multiple
inheritances in Java and other languages that support interfaces.
◆ What is Multithreading in Java?
Multithreading in Java is the ability of a program to execute multiple
threads (small units of a process) concurrently, allowing it to perform
multiple tasks simultaneously and make better use of available
resources. Each thread runs independently, and the Java Virtual
Machine (JVM) manages their execution, switching between them
rapidly to create the illusion of parallelism. Multithreading enhances the
performance of Java applications, especially in scenarios where tasks
can be executed concurrently, such as handling user interfaces,
background processing, or network communication.
◆ What is Thread in Java?
A thread in Java is the smallest unit of execution within a process. It
allows a program to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, making it
possible to achieve concurrent execution and better utilize CPU
resources. Threads share the same memory space and resources of
their parent process, but each thread has its own execution path,
allowing independent execution of code segments concurrently.
◆ What is Constructor in Java?
In Java, a constructor is a special method within a class that is
automatically called when an object of that class is created. It is used
to initialize the object's state and perform any setup operations
required for the object to function correctly. Constructors have the
same name as the class and do not have a return type, not even void.
They can be used to set default values, allocate memory, or perform
any other necessary tasks before the object is ready for use.
◆ What is Method in Java?
In Java, a method is a block of code that performs a specific task or
operation. It is a fundamental building block of object-oriented
programming. Methods are defined within classes and can be called to
execute the code they contain. They help in organizing and reusing
code, making programs more efficient and maintainable.
Example of a method that adds two numbers and returns the result:
COPY

public int addNumbers(int a, int b) {

int sum = a + b;
return sum;
}

◆ What is Deadlock in Java?

Deadlock in Java is a situation where two or more threads are unable to
proceed with their execution because each of them is waiting for a
resource (such as a lock or a shared variable) that is held by another
thread in the same set of threads. As a result, all the threads become
blocked, and the application comes to a standstill, unable to make any
further progress. Deadlocks are undesirable and need to be carefully
handled to ensure the smooth execution of multithreaded Java
programs.
◆ Define Collection Frameworks in Java.
Collection Frameworks in Java provide a set of pre-built data
structures and algorithms to efficiently store, manage, and manipulate
collections of objects. They offer interfaces and classes like List, Set,
Map, etc., which are widely used for organizing, searching, and
processing data. Collection Frameworks simplify coding tasks, promote
code reuse, and enhance the performance and scalability of Java
applications.
◆ What is an Exception in Java?
An exception in Java is an event that occurs during the execution of a
program, disrupting the normal flow of code due to an error or
unexpected situation. When an exception occurs, Java creates an
object representing the specific error and throws it to indicate that
something went wrong. Exception handling mechanisms, such as try-
catch blocks, allow programmers to handle these exceptions
gracefully, ensuring the program doesn't crash and providing a way to
recover from errors.
◆ What is Exception Handling in Java?
Exception handling in Java is a mechanism used to deal with errors and
unexpected situations that occur during the execution of a program. It
allows developers to handle exceptions gracefully, preventing the
program from crashing and providing a way to recover from errors.
◆ What do you mean by public static void main (String[] args) in Java?
Let's break down the components of this method signature:
1. : It is an access modifier that indicates the method can be
public

accessed from anywhere in the program. It allows the JVM to call

the main method from outside the class.
2. static : It is a keyword that denotes that the method belongs to the
class and not to an instance of the class. The main method is
called by the JVM without creating an instance of the class, hence
it must be static.
3. : It is the return type of the method, indicating that the main
void

method does not return any value.

4. main : It is the name of the method and serves as the identifier for
the JVM to recognize it as the entry point.
5. String[] args : It is the parameter of the main method. It is an array
of strings that allows you to pass command-line arguments to the
Java program.
◆ Define JVM, JDK, JRE, Byte Code.

JVM (Java Virtual Machine):

JVM is an integral part of the Java Runtime Environment (JRE).
It is a virtual machine that enables Java programs to run on any
platform, providing a platform-independent execution environment.
JVM interprets Java bytecode and converts it into machine-
specific code during runtime.
JDK (Java Development Kit):
JDK is a software development kit provided by Oracle (previously
Sun Microsystems) for developing Java applications.
It includes tools such as the Java compiler (javac), debugger (jdb),
and other utilities needed for Java development.
JDK also contains JRE, allowing developers to run Java programs
during development.
JRE (Java Runtime Environment):
JRE is the runtime environment required to run Java applications
and applets.
 It includes the JVM, Java libraries, and other supporting files
needed to execute Java programs.
JRE does not contain development tools; it is used for running Java
applications only.
Bytecode:
Bytecode is an intermediate representation of Java source code
after it is compiled by the Java compiler.
It is a set of instructions in the form of bytecode, which is platform-
independent and can be executed by the JVM.
Java source code (.java files) is compiled into bytecode (.class
files), and the JVM interprets and executes this bytecode on any
platform.
◆ Advantages of using Java.

1. Platform Independence: Java programs can run on any platform

with a Java Virtual Machine (JVM), ensuring cross-platform
compatibility.
2. Object-Oriented: Java's object-oriented approach promotes
modularity, reusability, and easier maintenance of code.
3. Robust and Secure: Java's strong type-checking and exception
handling make it robust and less prone to errors. Its built-in
security features protect against malicious code.
4. Garbage Collection: Automatic memory management through
garbage collection reduces the risk of memory leaks and manual
memory management errors.
5. Rich Standard Library: Java provides a vast standard library with a
wide range of APIs, making development faster and more efficient.
6. Multithreading: Built-in support for multithreading allows
concurrent execution, improving performance on multi-core
processors.

Software Engineering

◆ What is SDLC, and what are its different phases?

SDLC stands for Software Development Life Cycle. It is a systematic
approach used to design, develop, and maintain software. The different
phases of SDLC are:
1. Requirements Gathering: Collecting and understanding the needs
of the software to be developed.
2. Analysis and Planning: Analyzing requirements, feasibility, and
creating a development plan.
3. Design: Creating a detailed blueprint of the software's architecture
and functionality.
4. Implementation: Writing code based on the design and creating
the actual software.
5. Testing: Verifying the software for errors, bugs, and functionality
issues.
6. Deployment: Releasing the software for users.
7. Maintenance: Regularly updating and enhancing the software to
meet changing requirements and fixing issues.
These phases ensure a structured approach to software development,
resulting in a high-quality product.
◆ Explain the Waterfall model.

The Waterfall model is a linear and sequential software development

approach. It follows a structured and rigid process where each phase
must be completed before moving on to the next one. The phases of
the Waterfall model include:
1. Requirements: Gather and document all the project requirements.
2. Design: Create a detailed design plan based on the gathered
requirements.
3. Implementation: Develop the software based on the design
specifications.
4. Testing: Verify and validate the software to identify defects and
errors.
5. Deployment: Deploy the tested software to the production
environment.
6. Maintenance: Provide ongoing support and updates to the
software.
In the Waterfall model, there is minimal room for changes or iterations
once a phase is completed, making it suitable for well-defined projects
with stable requirements. However, it may not be the best fit for
complex or uncertain projects where requirements are likely to change
during development.
◆ What is Agile Methodology?
Agile methodology is an iterative and incremental approach to software
development. It prioritizes flexibility, customer collaboration, and
delivering working software in short iterations called "sprints." Teams
work in close collaboration with stakeholders, adapt to changing
requirements, and focus on continuous improvement throughout the
development process. This approach promotes quick response to
feedback, embraces change, and aims to deliver valuable software
efficiently and effectively.
◆ What is the role of a Scrum Master in Agile development?
The Scrum Master is a facilitator and coach in Agile development. Their
primary role is to ensure that the Scrum team follows the Agile
principles and Scrum framework effectively. They remove obstacles,
promote communication, and help the team achieve their goals,
fostering a collaborative and efficient development environment.
◆ What are the key differences between verification and validation in
the SDLC context?
Verification: Focuses on ensuring that the software is built correctly,
adhering to its specified requirements and design. It involves reviews,
inspections, and walkthroughs to check for errors and compliance.
Validation: Focuses on ensuring that the software meets the
customer's actual needs and expectations. It involves testing the
software to ensure it functions as intended and satisfies the user's
requirements.
◆ What is the V-model.
The V-model is a software development model that emphasizes a
strong relationship between each development phase and its
corresponding testing phase. It is called the "V-model" because of its
V-shaped representation, where the development and testing phases
are shown to be mirror images of each other. In this model, each
development stage is associated with a testing phase, ensuring that
requirements are properly validated and verified throughout the
development process. The V-model helps to catch defects early and
promotes a systematic approach to software development and testing.
◆ What is RAD?
RAD stands for Rapid Application Development in SDLC. It is a software
development methodology that emphasizes quick prototyping and
iterative development to accelerate the application development
process. RAD focuses on user involvement, feedback, and
collaboration between developers and clients to deliver software
solutions more rapidly and efficiently.

Operating System [OS]

◆ What is an operating system?

An operating system is software that acts as an intermediary between
users and computer hardware. It manages computer resources,
provides a user interface, and enables the execution of applications
and tasks on a computer system.
◆ What are the different types of operating systems?

1. Single-User, Single-Tasking OS: Supports only one user and

allows running a single task at a time.
2. Single-User, Multi-Tasking OS: Allows a single user to run multiple
tasks simultaneously.
3. Multi-User OS: Supports multiple users running multiple tasks
concurrently.
4. Real-Time OS: Prioritizes tasks to meet strict timing constraints for
time-sensitive applications.
5. Batch OS: Executes tasks in batches without user interaction.
 6. Time-Sharing OS: Shares CPU time among multiple users in short
time slices.
7. Distributed OS: Manages networked computers as a single
system.
8. Embedded OS: Designed for specific devices or embedded
systems with limited resources.
9. Mobile OS: Developed for smartphones and mobile devices.
10. Virtualization OS: Hosts multiple virtual machines on a single
physical machine.
◆ What is the difference between a multiprogramming and
multitasking operating system?
Multiprogramming and multitasking are often used interchangeably, but
there is a subtle difference between the two:
Multiprogramming Operating System:
Involves running multiple programs simultaneously by dividing CPU
time into small slices and switching between them.
Each program gets a short burst of CPU time before being
switched out, allowing for overlapping execution.
Goal: To maximize CPU utilization and keep the CPU busy at all
times.
Multitasking Operating System:
Involves executing multiple tasks or processes concurrently on a
single CPU.
The CPU switches between tasks quickly, giving users the illusion
of running tasks simultaneously.
 Goal: To improve user experience and responsiveness by allowing
efficient task switching.
In summary, multiprogramming focuses on keeping the CPU busy by
interleaving small slices of different programs, while multitasking
emphasizes efficient task switching to provide a responsive user
experience.
◆ Explain the concept of virtual memory?

Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by modern

operating systems to provide the illusion of having more RAM (Random
Access Memory) than physically available. It allows processes to use
more memory than is physically installed in the system.
In virtual memory, each process has its own separate address space,
and the memory addresses used by the processes are virtual. These
virtual addresses are translated into physical addresses by the
hardware and the operating system.
◆ Describe the difference between a process and a thread.
A process is an independent unit of execution with its own memory
space, whereas a thread is a smaller unit of execution within a process
that shares the same memory space. Processes are heavyweight, while
threads are lightweight.
◆ What is Deadlock in operating systems?
Deadlock in operating systems is a situation where two or more
processes are unable to proceed with their execution because each
process is waiting for a resource that is held by another process in the
same group, resulting in a circular waiting dependency. As a result,
none of the processes can make progress, leading to a standstill in the
system's operation.
◆ How do you prevent deadlock in an operating system? Explain
deadlock avoidance and deadlock detection.
1. Deadlock Prevention:
Deadlock prevention involves structuring the system in a way
that makes it impossible for deadlocks to occur.
Techniques like resource allocation policies, resource ordering,
and ensuring a single instance of resource allocation can be
used to prevent deadlocks.
However, prevention may lead to resource underutilization and
may not always be feasible.
2. Deadlock Avoidance:
Deadlock avoidance involves dynamically analyzing the
resource allocation to avoid potential deadlocks.
It employs algorithms like Banker's algorithm to determine if a
resource allocation request can lead to a deadlock.
Resources are allocated only if the system remains in a safe
state after the allocation.
It ensures better resource utilization, but it requires advance
knowledge of resource needs.
3. Deadlock Detection:
Deadlock detection involves periodically checking the system
for deadlock occurrence.
Resource allocation graphs or other algorithms can be used to
detect cycles in resource allocation.
Once a deadlock is detected, the system can take corrective
 actions like process termination or resource preemption to
resolve the deadlock.
◆ What are the various process states in a process life cycle?
The various process states in a process life cycle are:
1. New: The process is being created but not yet ready for execution.
2. Ready: The process is prepared to run and is waiting for CPU time.
3. Running: The process is currently being executed by the CPU.
4. Blocked (Wait): The process is unable to proceed and is waiting for
an event (e.g., I/O) to complete.
5. Terminated: The process has finished its execution and has been
terminated, either voluntarily or forcefully.
◆ What is thrashing?
Thrashing is a situation in a virtual memory system where the majority
of the time is spent swapping data between main memory and disk,
instead of executing actual instructions. It occurs when the system is
constantly trying to load and evict pages from memory, leading to a
significant decrease in performance.
◆ What is a page fault?
A page fault is a type of exception that occurs in computer systems
with virtual memory when a process attempts to access a page of
memory that is currently not in the main physical memory (RAM). The
operating system then handles this exception by fetching the required
page from secondary storage (such as the hard disk) into RAM,
allowing the process to proceed with its execution.
◆ Describe the role of the memory manager in an operating system.
The memory manager in an operating system is responsible for
allocating and deallocating memory resources to processes, ensuring
efficient memory utilization, and handling memory protection to
prevent unauthorized access to memory locations.
◆ What is kernel?
The kernel is the core part of an operating system that acts as a bridge
between software applications and the computer hardware. It manages
system resources, controls hardware access, and enables
communication between software and hardware components.
◆ Explain the role of the I/O manager in an operating system.
The I/O manager in an operating system is responsible for coordinating
and managing Input/Output (I/O) operations between the CPU,
memory, and peripheral devices. It handles the communication and
data transfer to ensure efficient utilization of resources and smooth
functioning of the system.

Computer Networks

◆ Differentiate between a hub, switch, and router.

Here's the differentiation between a hub, switch, and router:
1. Hub:
Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
Broadcasts incoming data to all connected devices on the
network.
Provides no intelligence and does not filter or manage network
traffic.
 Inefficient for larger networks due to unnecessary data
collisions and bandwidth wastage.
2. Switch:
Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
Efficiently forwards data only to the intended recipient based
on MAC addresses.
Creates dedicated communication channels between devices,
reducing data collisions.
Manages network traffic using MAC address tables for faster
data transmission.
3. Router:
Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Connects multiple networks and directs data packets between
them.
Uses IP addresses to determine the best path for data to
reach its destination.
Provides network segmentation, enhancing security and
efficiency.
◆ Explain the OSI.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual
framework that standardizes network communication into seven
distinct layers. Each layer serves a specific function and interacts with
the layers above and below it. The model promotes interoperability
between different network technologies and allows for easier
development and troubleshooting of network protocols and
applications.
◆ What is the TCP/IP model?
The TCP/IP model is a networking framework used for communication
between devices over the internet. It consists of four layers:
1. Application Layer: Provides network services directly to
applications, such as email, web browsing, and file transfer.
Examples of protocols in this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
2. Transport Layer: Manages end-to-end communication between
devices. It ensures data delivery, flow control, and error detection.
Notable protocols in this layer are TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
3. Internet Layer: Handles the routing of data packets across
networks and provides logical addressing through IP (Internet
Protocol).
4. Link Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data over the
local network. It includes protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
◆ Describe the key differences between IPv4 and IPv6.
Key differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
1. Address Length:
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, limiting it to approximately 4.3
billion unique addresses.
IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, providing an astronomically
larger address space of approximately 340 undecillion unique
addresses.
2. Address Configuration:
IPv4 addresses are typically assigned statically or dynamically
using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
 IPv6 addresses can be automatically assigned using stateless
address auto-configuration (SLAAC) or manually assigned.
3. Security:
IPv4 lacks built-in security features, making it more
susceptible to certain attacks.
IPv6 incorporates IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) as a
mandatory part of the protocol suite, providing enhanced
security.
◆ What is subnetting?
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller sub-
networks, known as subnets. It helps optimize network performance,
manage IP addresses efficiently, and enhance security by grouping
devices with similar requirements together. Subnetting is a
fundamental concept in IP networking, allowing for more efficient use
of available IP address space and facilitating better network
organization and management.
◆ What is DNS?
DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is a fundamental technology
used on the internet to translate human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com ) into numerical IP addresses (such as 192.0.2.1) that

computers can understand. DNS acts like a phonebook of the internet,

enabling users to access websites and services using easy-to-
remember domain names rather than complex IP addresses.
◆ Define MAC address and IP address.
MAC address (Media Access Control address): A unique identifier
assigned to a network interface card (NIC) in a device. It is used for
communication within a local network and ensures data is delivered to
the correct device on the same network.
IP address (Internet Protocol address): A numeric label assigned to
each device connected to a network using the Internet Protocol. It
enables devices to be identified and located on a network, allowing
data to be routed and transmitted across the internet.
◆ What is the meaning of 10Base-T?
It is used to specify the data transfer rate. In 10Base-T, 10 specify the
data transfer rate, i.e., 10Mbps. The word Base specifies the baseband
as opposed to broadband. T specifies the type of cable which is a
twisted pair.
◆ What is DHCP?
DHCP stands for "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol." It is a network
protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses and other network
configuration information to devices within a network. This allows
devices to join a network and obtain the necessary network settings
without manual configuration, making network setup and management
more efficient.
◆ Differentiate between half-duplex and full-duplex communication.
Half-duplex communication: In half-duplex communication, data can
be transmitted in both directions, but not simultaneously. Devices take
turns sending and receiving data, like a walkie-talkie, where one party
talks while the other listens.
Full-duplex communication: In full-duplex communication, data can be
transmitted in both directions simultaneously. Devices can send and
receive data simultaneously, similar to a telephone conversation where
both parties can talk and listen at the same time.
◆ What is the purpose of a firewall?
The purpose of a firewall is to act as a security barrier between a
private internal network and the outside internet or other untrusted
networks. It helps to monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules, preventing
unauthorized access and protecting the internal network from potential
threats and attacks.
◆ What is a VPN?
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a secure and encrypted connection
that allows users to access the internet or a private network from a
remote location, ensuring privacy, anonymity, and data security.
◆ Explain the concept of bandwidth in networking.
Every signal has a limit of upper range frequency and lower range
frequency. The range of limit of the network between its upper and
lower frequency is called bandwidth.
◆ What is Star topology in computer networks?
Star topology is a type of network topology used in computer
networks. In this configuration, all network devices are connected to a
central hub or switch through individual point-to-point links. The
central hub acts as a central connection point for all the devices in the
network.
◆ What is a node and link?
A network is a connection setup of two or more computers directly
connected by some physical mediums like optical fiber or coaxial cable.
This physical medium of connection is known as a link, and the
computers that it is connected are known as nodes.

Coding Questions and Solutions

◆ Reverse a String: Write a function to reverse a given string. (e.g.,
"hello" -> "olleh")
COPY

public class StringReversal {

public static String reverseString(String input) {
char[] charArray = input.toCharArray();
int left = 0;
int right = input.length() - 1;

while (left < right) {

char temp = charArray[left];
charArray[left] = charArray[right];
charArray[right] = temp;

left++;
right--;
}

return new String(charArray);

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

String inputString = "hello";
String reversedString = reverseString(inputString);
System.out.println("Reversed String: " + reversedString);
}
}

◆ Print numbers from 1 to 100 without using any loop.

COPY
 public class PrintNumbersWithoutLoop {

public static void main(String[] args) {

printNumbers(1);
}

public static void printNumbers(int n) {

if (n <= 100) {
System.out.println(n);
printNumbers(n + 1);
}
}
}

◆ Swap two numbers without using a third variable.

COPY

public class SwapNumbers {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int num1 = 5;
int num2 = 10;

System.out.println("Before swapping:");
System.out.println("num1 = " + num1);
System.out.println("num2 = " + num2);

// Swap the numbers without using a third variable

num1 = num1 + num2;
num2 = num1 - num2;
num1 = num1 - num2;

System.out.println("\nAfter swapping:");
System.out.println("num1 = " + num1);
 System.out.println("num2 = " + num2);
}
}

◆ Print the second-highest element of an array.

COPY

public class SecondHighestElement {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] arr = {10, 5, 20, 8, 15, 12};

int secondHighest = findSecondHighest(arr);

if (secondHighest != Integer.MIN_VALUE) {
System.out.println("Second highest element: " + secondH
} else {
System.out.println("Array does not have a second highes
}
}

public static int findSecondHighest(int[] arr) {

int highest = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
int secondHighest = Integer.MIN_VALUE;

for (int num : arr) {

if (num > highest) {
secondHighest = highest;
highest = num;
} else if (num > secondHighest && num != highest) {
secondHighest = num;
}
}
 return secondHighest;
}
}

◆ Check whether a given number is prime or not.

COPY

import java.util.Scanner;

public class PrimeNumberChecker {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter a number to check if it's prime: ")

int number = scanner.nextInt();

boolean isPrime = isPrimeNumber(number);

if (isPrime) {
System.out.println(number + " is a prime number.");
} else {
System.out.println(number + " is not a prime number.");
}

scanner.close();
}

public static boolean isPrimeNumber(int number) {

if (number <= 1) {
return false;
}

// Optimized loop: check divisors up to the square root of

 for (int i = 2; i <= Math.sqrt(number); i++) {
if (number % i == 0) {
return false;
}
}

return true;
}
}

◆ Implement the binary search algorithm to find the index of a given

element in a sorted array.
COPY

public class BinarySearch {

// Binary search function
public static int binarySearch(int[] arr, int target) {
int left = 0;
int right = arr.length - 1;

while (left <= right) {

int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;

// If the target is found, return the index

if (arr[mid] == target) {
return mid;
}
// If the target is greater than the middle element, se
else if (arr[mid] < target) {
left = mid + 1;
}
// If the target is smaller than the middle element, se
else {
right = mid - 1;
 }
}

// If the target is not found, return -1

return -1;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] sortedArray = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 };
int target = 11;
int index = binarySearch(sortedArray, target);

if (index != -1) {
System.out.println("Element found at index: " + index);
} else {
System.out.println("Element not found in the array.");
}
}
}

◆ Check for Palindrome: Write a function to check if a given string is a

palindrome. (e.g., "racecar" -> True, "hello" -> False)
COPY

public class PalindromeChecker {

public static boolean isPalindrome(String str) {
int left = 0;
int right = str.length() - 1;

while (left < right) {

if (str.charAt(left) != str.charAt(right)) {
return false;
}
left++;
 right--;
}

return true;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

String str1 = "racecar";
String str2 = "hello";
System.out.println(str1 + " is a palindrome? " + isPalindro
System.out.println(str2 + " is a palindrome? " + isPalindro
}
}

◆ Find the Maximum Subarray Sum: Given an array of integers, find

the contiguous subarray with the largest sum. (e.g., [-2, 1, -3, 4, -1, 2,
1, -5, 4] -> Maximum subarray sum: 6)
COPY

public class MaximumSubarraySum {

public static int maxSubarraySum(int[] nums) {
if (nums == null || nums.length == 0) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input array is null
}

int maxSum = nums[0];

int currentSum = nums[0];

for (int i = 1; i < nums.length; i++) {

// Choose the larger between the current element and th
currentSum = Math.max(nums[i], currentSum + nums[i]);

// Update the maximum sum seen so far

 maxSum = Math.max(maxSum, currentSum);
}

return maxSum;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] nums = {-2, 1, -3, 4, -1, 2, 1, -5, 4};
int result = maxSubarraySum(nums);
System.out.println("Maximum subarray sum: " + result); // O
}
}

◆ Find the unique characters in a String. (Eg. Hello, Output: H, e, o)

COPY

import java.util.HashSet;

public class UniqueCharactersFinder {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String inputString = "Hello";
String uniqueCharacters = findUniqueCharacters(inputString)
System.out.println("Unique characters in the input string:
}

public static String findUniqueCharacters(String input) {

HashSet<Character> uniqueChars = new HashSet<>();
StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();

for (char c : input.toCharArray()) {

if (!uniqueChars.contains(c)) {
uniqueChars.add(c);
result.append(c);
}
 }

return result.toString();
}
}

◆ Check for Anagrams: Write a function to check if two strings are

anagrams of each other. (e.g., "listen" and "silent" are anagrams)
COPY

import java.util.Arrays;

public class AnagramChecker {

public static boolean areAnagrams(String str1, String str2) {

// Remove any spaces and convert both strings to lowercase
str1 = str1.replaceAll("\\s", "").toLowerCase();
str2 = str2.replaceAll("\\s", "").toLowerCase();

// If the lengths of the strings are different, they cannot

if (str1.length() != str2.length()) {
return false;
}

// Convert strings to char arrays and sort them

char[] charArray1 = str1.toCharArray();
char[] charArray2 = str2.toCharArray();
Arrays.sort(charArray1);
Arrays.sort(charArray2);

// Compare the sorted arrays

return Arrays.equals(charArray1, charArray2);
}
 public static void main(String[] args) {
String str1 = "listen";
String str2 = "silent";
if (areAnagrams(str1, str2)) {
System.out.println(str1 + " and " + str2 + " are anagra
} else {
System.out.println(str1 + " and " + str2 + " are not an
}
}
}

◆ Fibonacci Series: Write code to generate the Fibonacci series up to

a given number N.
COPY

import java.util.Scanner;

public class FibonacciSeries {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter the value of N: ");

int N = scanner.nextInt();

System.out.println("Fibonacci series up to N:");

generateFibonacciSeries(N);

scanner.close();
}

public static void generateFibonacciSeries(int N) {

int first = 0;
int second = 1;
 System.out.print(first + " ");

while (second <= N) {

System.out.print(second + " ");
int next = first + second;
first = second;
second = next;
}
}
}

◆ Bubble Sort: Implement the bubble sort algorithm to sort an array

of integers.
COPY

import java.util.Arrays;

public class BubbleSort {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] arr = {64, 34, 25, 12, 22, 11, 90};

System.out.println("Original Array: " + Arrays.toString(arr

bubbleSort(arr);

System.out.println("Sorted Array: " + Arrays.toString(arr))

}

public static void bubbleSort(int[] arr) {

int n = arr.length;

for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {

 // Set a flag to check if any swaps are made in this pa
boolean swapped = false;

// Last i elements are already in place, so no need to

for (int j = 0; j < n - i - 1; j++) {
// Swap if the element found is greater than the ne
if (arr[j] > arr[j + 1]) {
int temp = arr[j];
arr[j] = arr[j + 1];
arr[j + 1] = temp;
swapped = true;
}
}

// If no two elements were swapped in this pass, the ar

if (!swapped) {
break;
}
}
}
}

◆ Reverse a Linked List: Write a function to reverse a linked list.

COPY

class ListNode {
int val;
ListNode next;

ListNode(int val) {
this.val = val;
this.next = null;
}
}
 public class ReverseLinkedList {

public ListNode reverse(ListNode head) {

if (head == null || head.next == null) {
return head; // If the list is empty or has only one no
}

ListNode prev = null;

ListNode current = head;
ListNode next = null;

while (current != null) {

next = current.next; // Store the next node.
current.next = prev; // Reverse the link by pointing th

// Move prev and current pointers one step forward.

prev = current;
current = next;
}

return prev; // The new head of the reversed list will be t

}
}

◆ Check for Balanced Parentheses: Write a function to check if a

given expression has balanced parentheses.
COPY

import java.util.Stack;

public class BalancedParenthesesChecker {

public static void main(String[] args) {

 String expression1 = "{[()]()}"; // Balanced expression
String expression2 = "((())"; // Unbalanced expression

System.out.println(expression1 + " is balanced: " + isBalan

System.out.println(expression2 + " is balanced: " + isBalan
}

public static boolean isBalanced(String expression) {

Stack<Character> stack = new Stack<>();

for (int i = 0; i < expression.length(); i++) {

char currentChar = expression.charAt(i);

if (currentChar == '(' || currentChar == '[' || current

stack.push(currentChar);
} else if (currentChar == ')' || currentChar == ']' ||
if (stack.isEmpty()) {
return false; // Unbalanced: Closing parenthesi
} else {
char topChar = stack.pop();
if ((currentChar == ')' && topChar != '(')
|| (currentChar == ']' && topChar != '[
|| (currentChar == '}' && topChar != '{
return false; // Unbalanced: Mismatched ope
}
}
}
}

return stack.isEmpty(); // Balanced if the stack is empty a

}
}

◆ Longest Common Subsequence: Given two strings, find the length

of their longest common subsequence.
COPY

public class LongestCommonSubsequence {

public static int findLCSLength(String str1, String str2) {

int m = str1.length();
int n = str2.length();

int[][] dp = new int[m + 1][n + 1];

for (int i = 0; i <= m; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j <= n; j++) {
if (i == 0 || j == 0)
dp[i][j] = 0;
else if (str1.charAt(i - 1) == str2.charAt(j - 1))
dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
else
dp[i][j] = Math.max(dp[i - 1][j], dp[i][j - 1])
}
}

return dp[m][n];
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

String str1 = "AGGTAB";
String str2 = "GXTXAYB";

int lcsLength = findLCSLength(str1, str2);

System.out.println("Length of Longest Common Subsequence: "
}
}
◆ Merge Two Sorted Arrays: Given two sorted arrays, merge them
into a single sorted array.
COPY

public class MergeSortedArrays {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] arr1 = {1, 3, 5, 7};
int[] arr2 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};

int[] mergedArray = mergeArrays(arr1, arr2);

System.out.println("Merged sorted array:");

for (int num : mergedArray) {
System.out.print(num + " ");
}
}

public static int[] mergeArrays(int[] arr1, int[] arr2) {

int n1 = arr1.length;
int n2 = arr2.length;
int[] mergedArray = new int[n1 + n2];

int i = 0, j = 0, k = 0;

// Compare elements of both arrays and add the smaller one

while (i < n1 && j < n2) {
if (arr1[i] < arr2[j]) {
mergedArray[k] = arr1[i];
i++;
} else {
mergedArray[k] = arr2[j];
j++;
}
k++;
}
 // Add any remaining elements from arr1, if any
while (i < n1) {
mergedArray[k] = arr1[i];
i++;
k++;
}

// Add any remaining elements from arr2, if any

while (j < n2) {
mergedArray[k] = arr2[j];
j++;
k++;
}

return mergedArray;
}
}

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