1.

1 - Graphs and Graphing Utilities

There are several kinds of graphs that the TI-82 or TI-83 will do, but they are
accessed from the same key. The [y=] key and the [2nd] [y=] or [StatPlot] key.
The two major kinds of plots may cause confusion when mixed, so it is best to
turn off all unnecessary plots before trying to graph an equation.

To turn off all statistical plots, hit [StatPlot] and choose option 4 - PlotsOff. Hit
enter to finish the command.

To turn off a regular plot, one can either hit [Clear] while on an equation, or
arrow to the left so that the cursor is on the equal sign, and press enter to
toggle the display of that equation.

Graphing Equations with the Calculator

Equations must be solved explicitly for y before being placed into the
calculator. In other words, y must be written as a function of x before entering
the equation into the calculator.

Sometimes, equations can't be solved for y. Other times, the result is not a
function. In this case, you may need two y functions.

x2 + y2 = 16 has the solutions y = + sqrt(16 - x2) and y = - sqrt(16 - x2)

When you solve the above equation, you get two values for y. Put the positive
square root in y1and the negative square root in y2. Alternatively, you can
specify that y2= -y1. On the TI-82, the y1 variable can be found under [2nd]
[Vars] (or [Y-Vars]), Function. On the TI-83, it is found under [Vars], Y-Vars,
Function.

Zoom Settings

There are several zoom settings that we will be using in this class.

Standard

The standard zoom setting sets the domain and range to [-10,10] and the
scale to 1. If you're not familiar with the interval notation [-10,10], please refer
to the preliminary chapter.
When moving the cursor in the standard setting, the x-step is 0.21276596 and
the y-step is 0.32258065. These are not "nice" values, and often cause
problems when trying to find exact values by tracing. They also cause
problems with the graph when there are vertical asymptotes (rational
expressions) or at the endpoints of the domain (as was illustrated in class with
the circle).

Decimal

The decimal zoom setting sets up the screen so that the x-step is 0.1 and the
y-step is 0.1. This makes the values much nicer to look at, but gives you a
much smaller window.

The domain for the decimal setting is [-4.7,4.7] and the range is [-3.1,3.1].
This also helps us figure out the size of the screen. If each pixel (dot on the
screen) is 0.1 apart, then there are 95 pixels horizontally and 63 pixels
vertically.

Square

Because the size of the screen is not the same, graphs have a tendency to
not come out looking right. The square zoom setting is a way to remedy that.

In the decimal setting, the horizontal and vertical steps are both 0.1, so the
images will appear square, but in the standard setting, the horizontal and
vertical steps are 0.213 and 0.323 respectively.

The square decimal leaves the larger interval of the domain or range alone
and changes the settings on the smaller one. If the domain and range are the
same length (as in a standard setting), the domain is changed.

Zoom Out / Zoom In

If you want to maintain a square setting, but you need a larger portion of the
viewing window to be shown, you can use the Zoom Out or Zoom In settings.
Each of these require a position to zoom in or out about. So, after you choose
the Zoom In or Zoom Out, you will need to position the cursor to where you
want the center of the zoom to be and press enter.

The zoom factor is four. That is, if you zoom out, you will see sixteen times as
much area (four times the horizontal and four times the vertical makes sixteen
times the area). As an example, assume your domain is [-10,10] and your
range is [-5,5]. If you zoom out with the origin as the center of the zoom, your
new domain will be [-40,40] and hte new range will be [-20,20].

When zooming in, the factor is one-fourth. In other words, a zoom in done
after a zoom out (with the same center for both) will return to the previous
settings.

Box

The zoom box option is like the zoom in option, except that you specify two
corners of a box, and then the area between those corners is displayed.

Stat

The zoom statistics setting is useful when you have a statistical plot that you
want to include all the data for. The plot will set the Xmin and Xmax so that all
of the data is visible. If you are graphing a scatter plot, so that there are both x
and y data values, then the Ymin and Ymax will also be changed so that all of
the data is visible.

Trig

Sets the domain to be from -2π to +2π with the scale to be π/2. The range is
[-4,4] with a scale of 1. This is a nice setting to use when graphing
trigonometric functions, but we won't be doing that in this class, so you can
pretty much ignore it.

Determining the Viewing Window

When you're trying to determine what the viewing window is, you should put
the equation into the calculator so that you will be able to see when the graph
matches the picture. Take into account the number of tick marks and the min
and max settings.

The first thing to do is try to find some important points on the graph like y-
intercepts, x-intercepts, or maximums and minimums. If you can figure out
where it's at on the graph from the calculator, you can then figure out what the
scale is (how far apart the ticks are). Once you have that, it's pretty easy to
find the viewing window by just counting the number of ticks to each side of
zero.
1.2 - Lines in the Plane
Slope of a Line
The slope is represented by the letter m.

The slope of a non-vertical line is defined several ways. It is the rise over the
run. It is the change in y over the change in x.

For two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) where x1≠ x2, the slope is m = ( y2 - y1 ) / ( x2 -
x1 )

If the slope is positive, the line rises from left to right. If the slope is negative,
the line falls from left to right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. If the
slope is undefined, the line is vertical.

Point-Slope Form of a Line

The equation of the non-vertical line passing through the points (x1,y1) and
(x2,y2) and having slope m is given by the equation:

y - y1 = m ( x - x 1 )

Which point you call point 1 and which point you call point 2 does not matter.

We almost never leave the equation of a line in point-slope form, but use it as
a stepping ground to a final answer. One exception to this is when we're
finding the asymptotes to hyperbolasin conic sections.

Historical Note

Linear Interpolation is using the equation of a line to approximate a value

which falls between two known points. Linear Interpolation is often used when
looking up values in a table, and the value you need is not in the table, but
between two values which are in the table. In the good old days before there
were calculators, we used linear interpolation to find logarithms and
trigonometric values. Now, the calculators have those functions built into
them, so there is less need to use interpolation. Linear Interpolation is still
used some in statistics, but for most things, we just use the value from the
table which is closer or less likely to cause a more serious error (don't worry if
that didn't make sense, take a statistics course, and it will).
Linear Extrapolation is the process of using the equation of a line to
approximate a value which falls outside two known points.

Slope-Intercept Form of a Line

The equation of the non-vertical line crossing the y-axis at the point (0,b) and
having slope m is given by the equation:
y = m x + b

The point-slope form can be placed into the slope-intercept form with a little
algebra.

The slope-intercept form of a line is what must be placed into the calculator to
get it to graph the line.

General Form of a Line

In general, the general form of anything will be the form where all the
variables and constants are on the left side of the equation, in decreasing
degree of the terms and alphabetically for those terms that have the same
degree.

For a line, that means ax + by + c = 0

a and b can not both be zero, if they were, then you would have c=0, which is
a constant, not a linear function.

Vertical and Horizontal Lines

Vertical lines are lines that have all the x-coordinates the same. So, the
equation of a vertical line is x=a (where a is that common abscissa).

Horizontal lines are lines that have all the y-coordinates the same. So, the
equation of a horizontal line is y=b (where b is that common ordinate).

Parallel Lines
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect. The slope of
parallel lines is the same.
Perpendicular Lines
Perpendicular lines are lines in the same plane that intersect at a right angle.
The product of non-vertical and non-horizontal perpendicular lines is negative
one. Another way of saying that is that the slopes of perpendicular lines are
opposite reciprocals of each other.

Calculator
Using the graphing calculator to graph lines is pretty straightforward. Solve for
y and enter the expression into the calculator. Solving for y is equivalent to
putting the equation into slope-intercept form.

One warning though for users of the TI82 calculator. Be careful with slopes
that are fractions.

Consider the following equations.

 y = 1/2x + 2
 y = x/2 + 2
 y = (1/2)x + 2
 y = 1/2*x + 2
 y = 0.5x + 2
 y = 0.5*x + 2

All of the above except for the first one will give you the graph of a line. The
first one will give you the graph of a rational function.

The TI82 incorrectly gives implied multiplication a higher preference than

division and assumes that when people put an expression without a
multiplication symbol after a division symbol, they wish to have the whole
expression in the denominator.

The TI-82 takes y=1/2x + 2 as y = 1/(2x) + 2, which is a rational function, not a

line.

Some people use a slash (/) to indicate division. You should use a horizontal
division bar for division. A slash is okay when there is no implied multiplication
in the denominator.

The TI83 properly handles the expression and all six expressions above will
graph properly.
1.3 - Functions
Definitions
Relation

A rule that associates a value in the domain with a value in the range.

Function

A function is a relation (rule) that assigns each element in the domain to

exactly one element in the range.

Domain

The set of all the values which may be input into a function. That is, the
set of all the values the independent variable may assume. Graphically,
the domain is the set of all the x-coordinates.

Range

The set of all the values which are output when the function is evaluated
at all the input values from the domain. That is, the set of all the values
the dependent variable may assume. Graphically, the range is the set of
all the y-coordinates.

Independent Variable

Typically, the independent variable is x. However, the independent

variable is the variable which is free to assume different values
independently of the other variable. Most of what we're going to do in
this class will only involve one independent variable, but realize that it is
possible to have more than one independent variable.

Dependent Variable

Typically, the dependent variable is y. However, the dependent variable

is the variable which is determined based on the value of the
independent variable(s). If a function is written as y=3x+2, then y
depends on x, but x doesn't depend on y (in the form it's written in). So,
x is independent of y, but y is dependent of x.
Implied Domain

The set of all real numbers for which the expression is defined.

How is a function different from a relation?

Here are some guidelines for determining whether a relation is a function or

not.

1. Each and every element in the domain (x) must be matched with an
element in the range (y).
2. Every element in the domain (x) can only be matched with one element
in the range (y).
3. Different elements in the domain can go to the same element in the
range. A y-coordinate may be repeated, but an x-coordinate may not.
4. Some values in the range don't have to be used at all

Function Notation

Function notation is used to name functions for easy reference. Imagine if

every function in the world had to start off with y=. Pretty soon, you would
become confused about which y= you were talking about. This is the way
antecedents work in English. If you just say "it" is red, you really don't have
any clue which "it" you're talking about. You need some other way of naming
things. Enter function notation.

Function Definition

 f(x) = 3x + 2
 g(x,y) = x2 + 3y

In this example, the f is a function of x. That is, x is the independent variable,

and the value of f depends on what x is. Also, g is a function of both x and y.

The notation f(x) does not mean f times x. It means the "value of f evaluated at
x" or "value of f at x" or simply "f of x"

Function Evaluation

f(3) = 3(3) + 2 = 9 + 2 = 11

f(3) does not mean f times 3. It means the "value of f evaluated when x is 3".
f(t) = 3(t) + 2 = 3t + 2

Whatever is in parentheses on the left side of the function (t in this case) is

substituted for the value of the independent variable on the right side.

f(x+h) = 3(x+h) + 2 = 3x + 3h + 2

Every occurrence of the independent variable is replaced by the quantity in

parentheses. A common mistake is to take a quantity and apply linear or
affine transformations to it.

f(x+h)

 f(x+h) does not equal f(x) + h = 3x+2 + h

 f(x+h) does not equal f(x) + f(h) = 3x+2 + 3h+2 = 3x + 3h + 4
 f(x+h) does equal 3(x+h) + 2 = 3x + 3h + 2

f(3x)

 f(3x) does not equal 3 * f(x) = 3( 3x+2) = 9x + 6

 It does equal 3(3x) + 2 = 9x + 2

You also specify which function you want to use when you use function
notation. Consider

g(2,1) = 22 + 3(1) = 4 + 3 = 7

Since the order of the independent variables in the original definition was x
and then y, the function g is evaluated when x=2 and y=1.

g(1,2) is something completely different. In this case, x=1 and y=2.

g(1,2) = 12 + 3(2) = 1 + 6 = 7

Okay, so it's not completely different, but it is found in a different manner.

Piecewise Definitions

Sometimes, functions are a little more complex than the simple functions
we've described so far. If different rules are used for different values of the
independent variable, then we can use a piecewise definition.
Consider the function shown and the following evaluations.

f(2.1) = 2(2.1) = 4.2

Since 2.1 is in the interval [1,3), we use the second piece of the definition, f(x)
= 2x.

f(-2) = 3 - (-2)2 =3 - 4 = -1

Since -2 is in the interval (-∞,-1), we use the first piece of the definition, f(x) =
3-x2

f(3) = 5 - (3) = 5 - 3 = 2

Since 3 is not included in the second piece, but it is included in the third piece
on the interval [3,+∞) we use the third piece of the definition, f(x) = 5 - x.

f(0) is undefined

Since 0 doesn't fall into any of the domains, the function is undefined there.
When all of the domains are combined, the domain of the function f, is the set
of all real numbers except [-1,1). You could also write it as (-∞,-1)U[1,+∞). The
symbol U stands for the union of two sets.

Piecewise Functions and the Calculator

You can put piecewise functions into the graphing calculator. The TI82 and
TI83 calculators have a [Test] key obtained by pressing [2nd] [Math]. Under this
key, you will find the different test operators (equal to, not equal to, greater
than, greater than or equal to, less than, and less than or equal to).

When the calculator evaluates a test expression (x<1), it will return the value
of 1 if the statement is true and the value of 0 if the statement is false. This
works really well with multiplication, because multiplying by 1 won't change
the expression, and multiplying by 0 will make the expression 0.

y = (1 - x2)*(x<-1)

Consider just the first part of the piecewise definition from above. If x<-1, then
the calculator will return (1-x^2). If x is not less than negative one, then the
calculator will return 0. That's not the proper value to return (it should be
undefined), but it will graph on the x-axis and won't show up because the axis
is already there. So, it has the semblance on graphing correctly.

The complete piecewise function can be defined for the calculator as:

y = (1-x2)*(x<-1) + 5x*(1≤x and x<3) + (5-3x)*(x≥3)

The "and" keyword can be found under [Test] Logic menu. Similarly, the ≤ and
≥ symbols can also be found under the [Test] menu. If you try to put in 1≤x<3
like we right, the calculator will interpret that as 1≤3 and always return true.

Be sure to use some kind of decimal setting or dot mode when you're viewing
a piecewise function. Otherwise, you may get some weird results.

Finding the Domain

Implied Domain

We defined implied domain earlier. It is the set of all real numbers where the
expression is defined.

1. Start off with all real numbers

 2. Exclude any values of the independent variable which cause division by
zero
3. Exclude any values of the independent variable which result in taking
the square root of a negative number. Square root can be replaced with
any even (4th, 6th, etc) root.

You do not need to state restrictions which result from the implied domain. In
other words, if there is an (x-2) in the denominator, you do not need to state
that x cannot be 2.

Other Exclusions

Sometimes, you will need to exclude other values.

1. Problem Constraints - these are used in applications. Here are some

examples
o If x is the length of the side of a triangle, then x can't be negative
o If x is the position on a 12' teeter totter at which the fulcrum must
be positioned, then x must be between 0 and 12.
o If x is the number of people in a room, then x can't be negative.
2. Stated Restrictions - sometimes the problem will just come out and say
you can't use a specific value, or that you can only use specific values.
These aren't in the implied domain, so they need to be stated.

If you ever simplify a function, and a value which was in the implied domain is
no longer in the implied domain, then it needs to become a stated restriction.
Example, divide (x2-4) by (x-2). The implied domain is x cannot equal 2
because that would cause division by zero. However, if you factor the
numerator as (x-2)(x+2), then (x-2) in the numerator divides out with the (x-2)
in the denominator and you're left with just (x+2). The fact that x cannot be 2
is no longer implied by a simple x+2 in the numerator, so you must now state
that x cannot be 2.

Combining Domains

When you have a function which is a composition of several pieces, the

values in the domain must be able to be used in all parts of the function. Let's
say the numerator has a square root of x in it (so that x must be non-negative)
and the denominator has an x-2 in it (so that x cannot be 2). When you
combine those domains, you get all values of x that are non-negative except
2.
In other words, the domain for the function is the intersection of all the
domains of the individual parts.

Now, let's say the numerator has a square root of x in it (so that x must be
non-negative) and the denominator has an x+2 in it (so that x cannot be -2).
When you combine those domains, you get all values of x that are non-
negative except -2. Well, you don't need to state that x cannot be -2 since
you've already said that x is non-negative. So, in this case, the domain would
be all non-negative values of x.

1.4 - Graphs of Functions

Definitions

These definitions are mathematically loose (that means a mathematician

would pull his or her hair out but a normal person might understand them).

Graph of a function

The graph of a function f is the set of all ordered pairs ( x, f(x) ) where x
is in the domain of f.

Increasing Function

A function is increasing on an open interval if the function rises (positive

slope) on the interval as you move from left to right.

Decreasing Function

A function is decreasing on an open interval if the function falls

(negative slope) on the interval as you move from left to right.

Constant Function

A function is constant on an open interval if the function remains

constant (horizontal line segment) on the interval as you move from left
to right.

Relative Minimum

A function has a relative minimum at x=a if the function evaluated at x=a

is less than at any other point in the neighborhood surrounding x=a.
 A relative minimum is the lowest point in an open interval, but not
necessarily over the entire domain. Relative minimums occur when the
function is decreasing to the left of the point and increasing to the right
of the point.

Relative Maximum

A function has a relative maximum at x=a if the function evaluated at

x=a is greater than at any other point in the neighborhood surrounding
x=a. A relative maximum is the highest point in an open interval, but not
necessarily over the entire domain. Relative maximums occur when the
function is increasing to the left of the point and decreasing to the right
of the point.

Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer of a value is the largest integer less than or equal
to the value.

Symmetry about the y-axis

A relation is symmetric about the y-axis if for every point (x,y) on the
graph, the point (-x,y) is also on the graph.

Symmetry about the x-axis

A relation is symmetric about the x-axis if for every point (x,y) on the
graph, the point (x,-y) is also on the graph.

Symmetry about the origin

A relation is symmetric about the origin if for every point (x,y) on the
graph, the point (-x,-y) is also on the graph.

Even Function

A function is even if for every x in the domain of the function, f(-x) = f(x)

Odd Function

A function is odd if for every x in the domain of the function, f(-x) = -f(x)
Vertical Line Test

A relation is a function if all vertical lines drawn through the graph of the
relation intersect in no more than one point.

The contrapositive of that is often used.

If a vertical line intersects the graph of a relation in two or more points, then
the relation is not a function.

Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function is often called the Integer function (or Floor in
upper level mathematics), and is abbreviated INT on the calculator. You may
find the INT function on the calculator by going into the [Math] menu, arrowing
right to the NUM option, and then choosing the INT function (it's number 5 on
the TI83).

The Integer function is sometimes called the step function because of the stair
step effect obtained when graphing it. Be sure to use a decimal setting when
graphing the greatest integer function, or you will get weird results. You may
also want to use Dot mode instead of Connected mode when graphing the
Integer function. You can change modes on the TI series by hitting the [Mode]
key.

Mathematically, the greatest integer function is represented using a double left

bracket and double right bracket
Symmetry - Odd / Even Functions
Symmetry about the y-axis

Symmetry about the y-axis means that the left side of the graph is a
mirror image of the right side of the graph. Mathematically, a relation
which is symmetric about the y-axis has the property that for every point
(x,y) that is on the graph, the point (-x,y) is also on the graph. In other
words, to mirror something about the y-axis, take the opposite of all the
x-coordinates and leave the y-coordinates alone.

Symmetry about the x-axis

Symmetry about the x-axis means that the bottom side of the graph is a
mirror image of the top side of the graph. Mathematically, a relation
which is symmetric about the x-axis has the property that for every point
(x,y) that is on the graph, the point (x,-y) is also on the graph. In other
words, to mirror something about the x-axis, take the opposite of all the
y-coordinates and leave the x-coordinates alone.

Symmetry about the origin

Symmetry about the origin means that for every point (x,y) on the graph,
the point (-x,-y) is also on the graph. Graphically, to create symmetry
about the origin, take any point, draw an imaginary line through the
origin, and place a point on that line the same distance as the original
point was from the origin on the other side of the origin.

Even Function

A function is even if it is symmetric about the y-axis. Mathematically,

since the y-coordinates (values of the function) have to be equal, and
the x-coordinates are opposite, one can write: f(-x) = f(x).

There is a reason these functions are called even. If you have a

polynomial function in one variable, all of the exponents on the
independent variable will be even. Remember that a constant is the
zero power of the variable and zero is even.

Odd Function
 A function is odd if it is symmetric about the origin. Mathematically,
since both the x-coordinate and the y-coordinates are negated, one can
write: f(-x) = -f(x).

There is a reason these functions are called odd. If you have a

polynomial function in one variable, all of the exponents on the
independent variable will be odd. Remember that a constant is the zero
power of a variable and will be even, so if there is a constant term, it is
not an odd function.

1.5 - Shifting, Reflecting, and Stretching

Graphs
Definitions
Abscissa

The x-coordinate

Ordinate

The y-coordinate

Shift

A translation in which the size and shape of a graph of a function is not

changed, but the location of the graph is.

Scale

A translation in which the size and shape of the graph of a function is

changed.

Reflection

A translation in which the graph of a function is mirrored about an axis.

Common Functions

Part of the beauty of mathematics is that almost everything builds upon

something else, and if you can understand the foundations, then you can
apply new elements to old. It is this ability which makes comprehension of
mathematics possible. If you were to memorize every piece of mathematics
presented to you without making the connection to other parts, you will 1)
become frustrated at math and 2) not really understand math.

There are some basic graphs that we have seen before. By applying
translations to these basic graphs, we are able to obtain new graphs that still
have all the properties of the old ones. By understanding the basic graphs and
the way translations apply to them, we will recognize each new graph as a
small variation in an old one, not as a completely different graph that we have
never seen before. Understanding these translations will allow us to quickly
recognize and sketch a new function without having to resort to plotting points.

These are the common functions you should know the graphs of at this time:

 Constant Function: y = c
 Linear Function: y = x
 Quadratic Function: y = x2
 Cubic Function: y = x3
 Absolute Value Function: y = |x|
 Square Root Function: y = sqrt(x)
 Greatest Integer Function: y = int(x) was talked about in the last section.

Constant Function Linear Function Quadratic Function

Cubic function Absolute Value function Square Root function

Your text calls the linear function the identity function and the quadratic
function the squaring function.

Translations

There are two kinds of translations that we can do to a graph of a function.

They are shifting and scaling. There are three if you count reflections, but
reflections are just a special case of the second translation.
Shifts

A shift is a rigid translation in that it does not change the shape or size of the
graph of the function. All that a shift will do is change the location of the graph.
A vertical shift adds/subtracts a constant to/from every y-coordinate while
leaving the x-coordinate unchanged. A horizontal shift adds/subtracts a
constant to/from every x-coordinate while leaving the y-coordinate unchanged.
Vertical and horizontal shifts can be combined into one expression.

Shifts are added/subtracted to the x or f(x) components. If the constant is

grouped with the x, then it is a horizontal shift, otherwise it is a vertical shift.

Scales (Stretch/Compress)

A scale is a non-rigid translation in that it does alter the shape and size of the
graph of the function. A scale will multiply/divide coordinates and this will
change the appearance as well as the location. A vertical scaling
multiplies/divides every y-coordinate by a constant while leaving the x-
coordinate unchanged. A horizontal scaling multiplies/divides every x-
coordinate by a constant while leaving the y-coordinate unchanged. The
vertical and horizontal scalings can be combined into one expression.

Scaling factors are multiplied/divided by the x or f(x) components. If the

constant is grouped with the x, then it is a horizontal scaling, otherwise it is a
vertical scaling.

Reflections

A function can be reflected about an axis by multiplying by negative one. To

reflect about the y-axis, multiply every x by -1 to get -x. To reflect about the x-
axis, multiply f(x) by -1 to get -f(x).

Putting it all together

Consider the basic graph of the function: y = f(x)

All of the translations can be expressed in the form:

y = a * f [ b (x-c) ] + d
 Vertical Horizontal

Scale a b

Shift d c

acts normally acts inversely

Digression

Understanding the concepts here are fundamental to understanding

polynomial and rational functions (ch 3) and especially conic sections (ch 8). It
will also play a very big roll in Trigonometry (Math 117) and Calculus (Math
121, 122, 221, or 190).

Earlier in the text (section 1.2, problems 61-64), there were a series of
problems which wrote the equation of a line as:

x/a + y/b = 1

Where a was the x-intercept and b was the y-intercept of the line. The "a"
could really be thought of how far to go in the x-direction (an x-scaling) and
the "b" could be thought of as how far to go in the "y" direction (a y-scaling).
So the "a" and "b" there are actually multipliers (even though they appear on
the bottom). What they are multiplying is the 1 which is on the right side.
x+y=1 would have an x-intercept and y-intercept of 1.

Okay. Consider the equation: y = f(x)

This is the most basic graph of the function. But transformations can be
applied to it, too. It can be written in the format shown to the below.

In this format, the "a" is a vertical multiplier and the "b" is a horizontal
multiplier. We know that "a" affects the y because it is grouped with the y and
the "b" affects the x because it is grouped with the x.
The "d" and "c" are vertical and horizontal shifts, respectively. We know that
they are shifts because they are subtracted from the variable rather than
being divided into the variable, which would make them scales.

In this format, all changes seem to be the opposite of what you would expect.
If you have the expression (y-2)/3, it is a vertical shift of 2 to the right (even
though it says y minus 2) and it is a vertical stretching by 3 (even though it
says y divided by 3). It is important to realize that in this format, when the
constants are grouped with the variable they are affecting, the translation is
the opposite (inverse) of what most people think it should be.

However, this format is not conducive to sketching with technology, because

we like functions to be written as y =, rather than (y-c)/d =. So, if you take the
notation above and solve it for y, you get the notation below, which is similar,
but not exactly our basic form state above.

y = a * f( (x-c) / b ) + d

Note that to solve for y, you have had to inverse both the "a" and "d"
constants. Instead of dividing by "a", you are now multiplying by "a". Well, it
used to be that you had to apply the inverse of the constant anyway. When it
said "divide by a", you knew that it meant to "multiply each y by a". When it
said "subtract d", you knew that you really had to "add d". You have already
applied the inverse, so don't do it again! With the constants affecting the y,
since they have been moved to the other side, take them at face value. If it
says multiply by 2, do it, don't divide by 2.

However, the constants affecting the x have not been changed. They are still
the opposite of what you think they should be. And, to make matters worse,
the "x divided b" that really means multiply each x-coordinate by "b" has been
reversed to be written as "b times x" so that it really means divide each x by
"b". The "x minus c" really means add c to each x-coordinate.

So, the final form (for technology) is as above:

y = a * f [ b (x-c) ] + d

Ok, end of digression.

Normal & Inverse Behavior

You will notice that the chart says the vertical translations are normal and the
horizontal translations are inversed. For an explanation of why, read the
digression above. The concepts in there really are fundamental to
understanding a lot of graphing.

Examples
y=f(x)

No translation

y=f(x+2)

The +2 is grouped with the x, therefore it is a horizontal translation.

Since it is added to the x, rather than multiplied by the x, it is a shift and
not a scale. Since it says plus and the horizontal changes are inversed,
the actual translation is to move the entire graph to the left two units or
"subtract two from every x-coordinate" while leaving the y-coordinates
alone.

y=f(x)+2

The +2 is not grouped with the x, therefore it is a vertical translation.

Since it is added, rather than multiplied, it is a shift and not a scale.
Since it says plus and the vertical changes act the way they look, the
actual translation is to move the entire graph two units up or "add two to
every y-coordinate" while leaving the x-coordinates alone.

y=f(x-3)+5

This time, there is a horizontal shift of three to the right and vertical shift
of five up. So the translation would be to move the entire graph right
three and up five or "add three to every x-coordinate and five to every y-
coordinate"

y=3f(x)

The 3 is multiplied so it is a scaling rather than a shifting. The 3 is not

grouped with the x, so it is a vertical scaling. Vertical changes are
 affected the way you think they should be, so the result is to "multiply
every y-coordinate by three" while leaving the x-coordinates alone.

y=-f(x)

The y is to be multiplied by -1. This makes the translation to be "reflect

about the x-axis" while leaving the x-coordinates alone.

y=f(2x)

The 2 is multiplied rather than added, so it is a scaling instead of a

shifting. The 2 is grouped with the x, so it is a horizontal scaling.
Horizontal changes are the inverse of what they appear to be so instead
of multiplying every x-coordinate by two, the translation is to "divide
every x-coordinate by two" while leaving the y-coordinates unchanged.

y=f(-x)

The x is to be multiplied by -1. This makes the translation to be "reflect

about the y-axis" while leaving the y-coordinates alone.

y=1/2 f(x/3)

The translation here would be to "multiply every y-coordinate by 1/2 and

multiply every x-coordinate by 3".

y=2f(x)+5

There could be some ambiguity here. Do you "add five to every y-

coordinate and then multiply by two" or do you "multiply every y-
coordinate by two and then add five"? This is where my comment earlier
about mathematics building upon itself comes into play. There is an
order of operations which says that multiplication and division is
performed before addition and subtraction. If you remember this, then
the decision is easy. The correct transformation is to "multiply every y-
coordinate by two and then add five" while leaving the x-coordinates
alone.
y=f(2x-3)

Now that the order of operations is clearly defined, the ambiguity here
about which should be done first is removed. The answer is not to
"divide each x-coordinate by two and add three" as you might expect.
The reason is that problem is not written in standard form. Standard
form is y=f[b(x-c)]. When written in standard form, this problem
becomes y=f[2(x-3/2)]. This means that the proper translation is to
"divide every x-coordinate by two and add three-halves" while leaving
the y-coordinates unchanged.

y=3f(x-2)

The translation here is to "multiply every y-coordinate by three and add

two to every x-coordinate". Alternatively, you could change the order
around. Changes to the x or y can be made independently of each
other, but if there are scales and shifts to the same variable, it is
important to do the scaling first and the shifting second.

Translations and the Effect on Domain & Range

Any horizontal translation will affect the domain and leave the range
unchanged. Any vertical translation will affect the range and the leave the
domain unchanged.

Apply the same translation to the domain or range that you apply to the x-
coordinates or the y-coordinates. This works because the domain can be
written in interval notation as the interval between two x-coordinates. Likewise
for the range as the interval between two y-coordinates.

In the following table, remember that domain and range are given in interval
notation. If you're not familiar with interval notation, then please check
the prerequisite chapter. The first line is the definition statement and should
be used to determine the rest of the answers.

Graph Translation Domain Range

y=f(x) none (-2,5) [4,8]

 y=f(x-2) right 2 (0,7) [4,8]

y=f(x)-2 down 2 (-2,5) [2,6]

y=3f(x) multiply each y by 3 (-2,5) [12,24]

y=f(3x) divide each x by 3 (-2/3,5/3) [4,8]

y=2f(x-3)-5 multiply each y by 2 and subtract 5; (1,8) [3,11]

add 3 to every x

y=-f(x) reflect about x-axis (-2,5) [-8,-4]

y=1/f(x) take the reciprocal of each y (-2,5) [1/8,1/4]

Notice on the last two that the order in the range has changed. This is
because in interval notation, the smaller number always comes first.

Really Good Stuff

Understanding the translations can also help when finding the domain and
range of a function. Let's say your problem is to find the domain and range of
the function y=2-sqrt(x-3).

Begin with what you know. You know the basic function is the sqrt(x) and you
know the domain and range of the sqrt(x) are both [0,+infinity). You know this
because you know those six common functions on the front cover of your text
which are going to be used as building blocks for other functions.

Function Translation Domain Range

 Begin with what y=sqrt(x) None [0,+infinity) [0,+infinity)
you know

Apply the y=-sqrt(x) Reflect about x- [0,+infinity) (-infinity,0]

translations axis

y=2-sqrt(x) Add 2 to each [0,+infinity) (-infinity,2]

ordinate

y=2-sqrt(x- Add 3 to each [3,+infinity) (-infinity,2]

3) abscissa

So, for the function y=2-sqrt(x-3), the domain is x≥3 and the range is y≤2.

And the best part of it is that you understood it! Not only did you understand it,
but you were able to do it without graphing it on the calculator.

There is nothing wrong with making a graph to see what's going on, but you
should be able to understand what's going on without the graph because we
have learned that the graphing calculator doesn't always show exactly what's
going on. It is a tool to assist your understanding and comprehension, not a
tool to replace it.

It is this cohesiveness of math that I want all of you to "get". It all fits together
so beautifully.

1.6 - Combinations of Functions

Arithmetic Combinations of Functions

The sum, difference, product, or quotient of functions can be found easily.

Sum

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

Difference

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

Product

(f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)

Quotient

(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), as long as g(x) isn't zero.

The domain of each of these combinations is the intersection of the domain of

f and the domain of g. In other words, both functions must be defined at a
point for the combination to be defined. One additional requirement for the
division of functions is that the denominator can't be zero, but we knew that
because it's part of the implied domain.

Basically what the above says is that to evaluate a combination of functions,

you may combine the functions and then evaluate or you may evaluate each
function and then combine.

Examples

In the following examples, let f(x) = 5x+2 and g(x) = x2-1. We will then
evaluate each combination at the point x=4. f(4)=5(4)+2=22 and g(4)=42-1=15

Expressio Combine, then evaluate Evaluate, then

n combine

(f+g)(x) (5x+2) + (f+g) 42+5(4)+1 f(4)+g(4 22+15

(x2-1) (4) =16+20+1 ) =37
=x2+5x+1 =37

(f-g)(x) (5x+2) - (f-g)(4) -42+5(4)+3 f(4)-g(4) 22-15

(x2-1) =-16+20+3 =7
=-x2+5x+3 =7

(f·g)(x) (5x+2)*(x2 (f·g)(4) 5(43)+2(42)- f(4)·g(4) 22(15

-1) 5(4)-2 )
=5x3+2x2- =5(64)+2(16) =330
5x-2 -20-2
 =330

(f/g)(4) (5x+2)/(x2- (f/g)(4) [5(4)+2]/[42- f(4)/g(4) 22/15

1) 1]
=22/15

As you can see from the examples, it doesn't matter if you combine and then
evaluate or if you evaluate and then combine.

In each of the above problems, the domain is all real numbers with the
exception of the division. The domain in the division combination is all real
numbers except for 1 and -1.

Composition of Functions

While the arithmetic combinations of functions are straightforward and fairly

easy, there is another type of combination called a composition.

A composition of functions is the applying of one function to another function.

The symbol of composition of functions is a small circle between the function
names. I can't do that symbol in text mode on the web, so I'll use a lower case
oh "o" to represent composition of functions.

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ]
 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ]

These are read "f composed with g of x" and "g composed with f of x"
respectively.

The function on the outside is always written first with the functions that follow
being on the inside. The order is important. Composition of functions is not
commutative.

Examples of Composition of Functions

That doesn't sound that bad. Let's look at a few examples.

f(x)=5x+2 and g(x)=x2-1

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ x2-1 ] = 5( x2-1 ) + 2 = 5x2- 5 + 2 = 5x2-3

  (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ 5x+2 ] = ( 5x+2 )2 - 1 = 25x2 + 20x + 4 - 1 =
25x2 + 20x + 3

f(x) = sqrt(x) and g(x) = 4x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 4x2 ] = sqrt( 4x2 ) = 2 | x |

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x) ] = 4 ( sqrt(x) )2 = 4x, x ≥ 0

This example probably needs some explanation. From the prerequisite

chapter, the square root of (x2) is the absolute value of x. The square of (the
square root of x) is x, but this assumes that x is not negative because you
couldn't find the square root of x in the first place if it was. This is a case
where the implied domain (because of the square root) is no longer implied
(because the square root is gone), so you have to explicitly state it (I told you
it all fit together).

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) and g(x) = 1 - x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 1-x2 ] = sqrt ( [1-x2] - 4 ) = sqrt ( -x2 - 3 ) = ø

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x-4) ] = 1 - [ sqrt(x-4) ]2 = 1 - ( x-4 ) = 5 - x, x
≥4

If the last example needed some explanation, then this one definitely needs
some, too. Let's take the easier one (gof)(x) first. There was an implied
domain of x ≥ 4 because of the square root, but after squaring it, it was no
longer implied, so it needed to be stated explicitly.

Okay, now for the harder one (fog)(x). I'll give the simple explanation here and
the more complete one later. After simplifying, you got the square root of (-x2 -
3). -x2-3 is always negative, no matter what real number x is, and you can't
take the square root of a negative number, so it is always undefined (for the
set of reals).

Finding Domains on Composition of Functions

When you find a composition of a functions, it is no longer x that is being

plugged into the outer function, it is the inner function evaluated at x. So there
are two domains that we have to be concerned about. If we consider (fog)(x),
we see that g is evaluated at x, so x has to be in the domain of g. We also see
that f is evaluated at g(x), so g(x) has to be in the domain of f.
  For (fog)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into g and gives you a
value g(x) that can be plugged into f to get f(g(x))
 For (gof)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into f and gives you a value
f(x) that can be plugged into g to get g(f(x)).

But, it's not as bad as it looks, either. Let's consider that last example again.

Function Domain Range

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) x ≥ 4 y≥0

g(x) = 1-x2 all reals y≤1

When you find (fog)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of g, which means x is a real number (pretty

easy to do)
2. g(x) must be in the domain of f, which means that 1-x2^2 ≥ 4 (when you
try to solve this, you get the empty set)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you
find the intersection of everything and nothing is nothing (the empty set), so
the function is defined nowhere and undefined everywhere.

When you find (gof)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of f, which means that x ≥ 4 (not too bad)

2. f(x) must be in the domain of g which means that the sqrt(x-4) must be a
real number (that occurs when x ≥ 4, which we already have stated from
the first part)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you
find the intersection to be x ≥ 4, so that is the where the composition is
defined.

Decomposition of Functions

Decomposition of functions is the reverse of composition of functions. Instead

of combining two functions to get a new function, you're breaking apart a
combined function into its separate components. There is often more than one
way to decompose a function, so your answers may vary from the books.

Basically, you want to look at the function and look for an "outside function"
and an "inside function". Another thing to look for is repeated patterns and
make that the inside function. The outside function is summarized as "the big
picture" and the inside function is "what you are doing the big picture to".

Examples

Write each function h as the composition of two functions f and g such that
h(x)=(fog)(x)

Outside Inside
h(x) Notes
f(x) g(x)

(1-x)3 x3 1-x The big thing going on is

cubing something, so the
outside function is a cubing
function. 1-x is what you're
cubing, so it's the inside
function.

sqrt(9-x) sqrt(x) 9-x The big thing going on is

taking the square root
(outside), 9-x is what you're
taking the square root of
(inside)

4/(5x2+2)2 4/x2 5x2+2 Looks like 4 over something

squared

4/x (5x2+2)2 An alternative, but correct

answer.

(x+2)2+2(x+2)+1 x2+2x+1 x+2 x+2 is repeated, so that's a

good choice for the inside
 function. Replace every
occurrence of the pattern by
x for the outside function

Difference Quotients

Difference quotients are what they say they are. They involve a difference and
a quotient. A difference quotient is really the slope of a secant line between
two points on a curve.

The formula for the difference quotient is: [ f(x+h) - f(x) ] / h

If you go on to calculus, you will be introduced to the concept of limits

(Calculus is Algebra with limits) and find as the two points on the curve get
closer together, the secant line turns into a tangent line, and the slope of the
secant line becomes the slope of the tangent line which is called the derivative
of the function and there are a whole lot of shortcuts for finding derivatives.
However, you're still in College Algebra and don't know about limits until
chapter 3 when we talk about asymptotes, so you'll have to find the difference
quotients by hand. The difference quotient is very important in Calculus, so if
you are going on, make sure you get this!

For polynomial functions, finding the difference quotient isn't that difficult.
Where you're going to run into trouble is with radical and rational functions.

Polynomial Functions

f(x) = 5x2 - 2

f(x+h) = 5(x+h)2 - 2 = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - ( 5x2 - 2 )

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - 5x2 + 2 = 10xh + 5h2
f(x+h) - f(x) = h ( 10x + 5h )

[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = h ( 10x + 5h ) / h = 10x + 5h

Rational Functions

The trick with rational functions is to get a common denominator and then
simplify.

f(x) = 3 / x

f(x+h) = 3 / (x+h)

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 / (x+h) - 3 / x

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 x / [ x(x+h)] - 3(x+h) / [x(x+h)]
f(x+h) - f(x) = ( 3x - 3x - 3h ) / [ x(x+h) ]
f(x+h) - f(x) = -3h / [x(x+h)]

[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = -3h / [x(x+h)] / h = -3 / [ x(x+h) ]

Radical Functions

The trick with a radical function is to rationalize the numerator by multiplying

by the conjugate of the numerator.
Don't worry that you're left with a radical in the denominator, it's okay in this
instance. It's much better than having a factor of h in the denominator
because in calculus, we're going to let h approach 0 and we'll want to just plug
a zero in for h. When given the choice of having a radical in the denominator
or division by 0, we'll pick a radical in the denominator anyday.

1.7 - Inverse Functions

Notation

The inverse of the function f is denoted by f -1 (if your browser doesn't support
superscripts, that is looks like f with an exponent of -1) and is pronounced "f
inverse". Although the inverse of a function looks like you're raising the
function to the -1 power, it isn't. The inverse of a function does not mean the
reciprocal of a function.

Inverses

A function normally tells you what y is if you know what x is. The inverse of a
function will tell you what x had to be to get that value of y.

A function f -1 is the inverse of f if

 for every x in the domain of f, f -1[f(x)] = x, and

 for every x in the domain of f -1, f[f -1(x)] = x

The domain of f is the range of f -1 and the range of f is the domain of f -1.

Graph of the Inverse Function

The inverse of a function differs from the function in that all the x-coordinates
and y-coordinates have been switched. That is, if (4,6) is a point on the graph
of the function, then (6,4) is a point on the graph of the inverse function.
Points on the identity function (y=x) will remain on the identity function when
switched. All other points will have their coordinates switched and move
locations.

The graph of a function and its inverse are mirror images of each other. They
are reflected about the identity function y=x.

Existence of an Inverse Function

A function says that for every x, there is exactly one y. That is, y values can
be duplicated but x values can not be repeated.

If the function has an inverse that is also a function, then there can only be
one y for every x.

A one-to-one function, is a function in which for every x there is exactly one y

and for every y, there is exactly one x. A one-to-one function has an inverse
that is also a function.

There are functions which have inverses that are not functions. There are also
inverses for relations. For the most part, we disregard these, and deal only
with functions whose inverses are also functions.

If the inverse of a function is also a function, then the inverse relation must
pass a vertical line test. Since all the x-coordinates and y-coordinates are
switched when finding the inverse, saying that the inverse must pass a vertical
line test is the same as saying the original function must pass a horizontal line
test.

If a function passes both the vertical line test (so that it is a function in the first
place) and the horizontal line test (so that its inverse is a function), then the
function is one-to-one and has an inverse function.

Finding Inverses Informally

The inverse of some functions, especially those where there is only one
occurrence of the independent variable, can be solved by undoing the
operations. To undo the operations, you must not only reverse the order, but
use the inverse operation.
Example 1

The function f(x) = 5x-2

1. Start with x: x
2. Multiply by 5: 5x
3. Subtract 2: 5x-2

The inverse f -1(x) = (x+2)/5

1. Start with x: x
2. Add 2: x+2
3. Divide by 5: (x+2) / 5

Example 2

The function f(x) = 2(x-3)2-5, x≥3

Note that there is a restriction on x.

1. Start with x: x
2. Subtract 3: x-3
3. Square: (x-3)2
4. Multiply by 2: 2(x-3)2
5. Subtract 5: 2(x-3)2-5

The inverse f -1(x) = 3 + sqrt[(x+5)/2]

1. Start with x: x
2. Add 5: x+5
3. Divide by 2: (x+5)/2
4. Take the square root: ± sqrt[(x+5)/2]
5. Add 3: 3 ± sqrt[(x+5)/2]
6. Wait! That inverse isn't a function because there are two values of y for
every x. That's because of the ± that appeared when we took the square
root of both sides. Now we go back to the original domain of x≥3. That
means that for the inverse, the range is y≥3. Since y must be at least 3,
we need the positive square root and not the negative. Without the
restriction on x in the original function, it wouldn't have had an inverse
function: 3 + sqrt[(x+5)/2]
Example 3

The function f(x) = x2 - 4x + 6, x≤2

Uhhh????

What happens when there is more than one occurrence of the independent
variable in the function? You don't know what you did to x because you did it
to two different x's and you didn't do the same thing to both of them.

Finding Inverses Formally

Now, that last example is not to be said it can't be done, but it involves
completing the square to obtain f(x) = (x-2)2+2, then inversing it so that you
get f -1(x) = 2-sqrt(x-2).

However, there is another way that doesn't rely so much on informality and
will work whether or not you can figure out exactly what you did with exactly
one x.

1. Start with the function

2. Replace f(x) by y if necessary
3. Switch the x's and y's. At this point you are dealing with the inverse
4. Solve for y
5. Replace y with f -1(x) if the inverse is also a function, otherwise leave it
as y

Example 4

The function f(x) = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0

The restriction is important to make it 1-1.

1. Start with the function: f(x) = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0

2. Replace f(x) by y: y = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0
3. Switch the x's and y's: x = y2 / (y2+1), y ≥0
4. Solve for y:
1. Multiply by denominator: x(y2+1) = y2
2. Distribute: xy2 + x = y2
3. Move y's to one side and everything else to other: xy2-y2 = -x
4. Factor: y2(x-1)=-x
5. Divide by coefficient on y2: y2 = -x/(x-1)
6. Simplify right hand side: y2 = x/(1-x)
 7. Take square root: y = ± sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]
8. Since y≥0, we need the positive square root: y = sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]
5. Call this f -1(x): f -1(x) = sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]

On this last function, the implied domain of the inverse is [0,1). That means
that the range of the original function must have been [0,1), also. Check it on
your calculator, and you'll see it is.

Sometimes the instructions say if the function is not one-to-one, then don't find
the inverse function (because there's not one). So, always check before
wasting time trying to find the inverse function. Now, if you're supposed to find
the inverse, regardless of whether it is a function or not, then go ahead.

Good Stuff!

One-to-One Functions are wonderful things.

When solving equations, you can add the same thing to both sides, subtract
the same thing from both sides, multiply both sides by the same non-zero
thing, and divide both sides by the same non-zero thing and still get the same
solution without worrying about having to check your answer.

You can also apply a one-to-one function to both sides of an equation without
worrying about introducing extraneous solutions (solutions that work after
doing something that didn't work before). This is not necessarily true with
functions that aren't one-to-one like the squaring function where you should
always check answers after you square both sides of an equation. For
example, the equation sqrt(x) = -2 has no solution, but if you square both
sides, you get x = 4, but it doesn't check in the original problem. With one-to-
one functions, you won't be introducing any extraneous solutions.

Wow! Talk about powerful. You don't appreciate it now, and the book doesn't
deal with it properly until you get to chapter 4 and deal with logarithmic and
exponential functions, and even then they don't make as big of deal out of it
as it is.

Okay, let's try one now. Take my word for it that exp(x) is a one-to-one
function and is the inverse of ln(x).

ln(x) = 3

Solve for x.
exp[ ln(x) ] = exp [ 3 ]

"Wait a minute, Mr. Jones" is your response. You've never seen such a
beast. That's okay. Take the inverse of the function, and apply it to both
sides.

x = exp ( 3 )

Go back to the definition of an inverse at the top of this document.

When inverses are applied to each other, they inverse each other out,
and you're just left with the argument (input) to the function.

x = e3

On the calculator, the exp(x) function is written e^x, and is found on the
[2nd] [ln] key.

Wow - more cohesiveness. The inverse of a function is found by taking the

[2nd] function. Look at it for other things on the calculator.

The square root is the inverse of the square. If you look at the three
trigonometric keys [sin], [cos], and [tan], their inverses are all found by using
the [2nd] key.

Soapbox mode on.

I'm telling you - it all fits together. For those who remember the line Hannibal
Smith used in the A-Team, "I love it when a plan comes together".

Mathematics is one of the most together subjects there is. Everything

complements everything else. What I'm hoping you get out of this course is
much more than just the mechanics of mathematics, but a comprehension,
understanding, and appreciation of the way the system works. With that solid
foundation, mathematics can be less stressful, and yes, even enjoyable. You
have to stop dealing with concepts as individual things that don't relate to
each other and stand alone. They are all related to each other and
intertwined. You can not separate them and understand.

Soapbox mode off.