COURSE OUTLINE: Corse code EPM 321:

Course tittle: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

Year: 3 Semester: II

Course Purpose

To introduce students to the methods used in educational research, the

writing of research proposals and producing research reports.

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course, the student should be able to:

1. Describe the meaning and purpose of research;

2. Describe the characteristics of research; and

3. Analyze research methods in pure and social sciences.

4. Critically evaluate research in education.

5. Write a research proposal and a research report.

Course Content

1. Meaning and purpose of research;

 Meaning of research

 Purpose of research
  Importance of research

 Sources of knowledge

 Characteristics of research

2. Categories of research

 Classification of research

 basic research

 applied research;

 Differences between basic and applied research

 Other categories of research: Action research, Cross-sectional

research, Longitudinal research, Survey research, Correlational

research, Experimental research, Qualitative and Quantitative

research, Case studies, Historical research, Naturalistic research

and evaluation research

3. Ethics in research;

4. Qualitative and quantitative research;

 Qualitative research

 Quantitative research

5. Research methods in pure and social sciences;

  Research methods in pure science

 Research methods in social science

6. Problem identification and formulation of hypothesis;

 Identification of a research problem

 Formulating research hypothesis

7. Identification of variables,

 Defining variables

 Identifying a variable

8. Validity in research;

 Validating research tools

 Measuring reliability of research tools

9. Literature review;

 Source of literature

 Organizing literature

 Using reviewed literature in research proposal and reports

10. Preparing a research proposal;

 Defining research proposal

 Parts of a research proposal

  Writing and presenting a research proposal

11. Sampling methods and tools for collecting data;

 Target population

 Sampling methods

 Research tools for collecting data

 Statistical tools for data analysis;

 Data organization and preparation;

 Interpretation and hypothesis testing;

12. Writing a research report;

 Defining a research report

 Foot notes,

 Dissemination of research findings;

 A research project

13. References and bibliography;

Learning and Teaching Methods

Online Lectures, Directed reading, Presentations and group work.

Instructional Materials and/or Equipment

Textbooks, chalkboard, handouts, computer-based tools, LCD and

overhead projectors

Course Assessment

Type Weighting

Continuous Assessment Tests 30%

Examination 70%

Total 100%

Core reading materials

Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2011). Research Methods in Education

Oso, W. Y. & Onen, D. (2009). A General Guide to Writing Research

Proposal and Report. A Handbook for Beginning Researchers (3 rd Ed.).

Jomo Kenyatta Foundation

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative and

Mixed Methods Approaches, (3rd edn). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Walliman, N. (2011). Research Methods: The Basics. Rout ledge, New

York USA

Other reading materials

Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting

and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. New Jersey:

Merrill Prentice Hall.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design:

Choosing from among the 5 Approaches, (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks,

London, New Delhi: Sage Publications Inc.

Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods (2nd Ed.). Oxford

University Press.

Wiersma, D. (2000). Research Methods in Education. An Introduction

(7th Ed.). A pearson Education Company

Engule, F. & Gatume, H. (1996). Essentials of Educational Statistics.

East African Educational Publishers.

Kothari, C. R. (2009). Research Methodology. Methods & Techniques

(2nd Ed.). New Age International Publishers Ltd.

Jwan, J. O. & Ongondo, C. O. (2011). Qualitative Research. An

Introduction to Principles and Techniques. Moi University Press.

Nsubuga, E. H. K. (2000). Fundamentals of Educational Research. MK

Publishers (U) Ltd

Alasuutari, P, Bickman, L. & Brannen J. (eds.) (2007). The Sage

Handbook of Social Research Methods. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Badenhorst, C. (2007). Research Writing: Breaking the Barriers.

Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing Quantitative Research in the Social

Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement

and Statistics. London: Sage Publications.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in

Education ( 6th ed). New York: Routledge.

EPM 321 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

CHAPTER ONE

MEANING AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Many writers have described research in various ways, and according to

the type and the area.

We can say that research is the process of arriving at dependable

solutions to problems through a planned and systematic collection,

analysis and interpretation of data. You may have to note that the key

words in this description are planned and systematic. It means that

research is considered as a logical scientific thinking. This implies that a

study or an activity cannot be regarded as research unless it is carried

into the higher levels of vigorous and scientific reasoning.

We can also look at research as a process of seeking answers to

hypothetical questions using scientific methods of inquiry to produce

valid information. It means therefore, that when you use research

methods to solve problems, you are more efficient than either trial-and

error attempts or “short-run” approaches. This is because you will direct

all efforts towards a particular goal based on a sound hypothetical

solution.

Research is an inquiry process that has clearly defined

parameters and as its aim the discovery or creation of knowledge or
theory building, testing, confirmation, revision, refutation of
knowledge and theory; and/ or investigation of a problem for local
decision making.

Educational research is implied when research activities are geared

towards unravelling educational problems or bringing about

improvement in teaching and learning. According to Ary et. al.

(1972:21). Educational research is “the way in which one acquires

dependable and useful information about the educative process”. While

Travers (1964:5), says that educational research is “an activity directed

towards the development of an organised body of scientific knowledge

about the events with which educators are concerned”.

Education is mainly concerned with the processes which deal with

deliberate change in the behaviour of people through the acquisition of

knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests and appreciation. Therefore, the

goal of educational research is to discover general principles on which

interpretations, predictions, explanations and control of behaviour can be

based since educational research is concerned with the study of the

problems of teaching and learning. It means that any research in this area

should contribute to some aspect related directly or indirectly to the

teaching-learning situation. Therefore, the topic selected for

investigation should be truly educational, preferably a problematic topic

whose findings will add to the knowledge-bank of education and to lead

to some solution of a societal problem.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

1. Based on the past experience, solution for the present day problems.

2. Development of science of behavior

3. Knowledge to active goals

4. Knowledge to achieving educational objectives

5. Help the class teacher in order to achieve the result.

6. To establish sound educational theories with the help of philosophical,

historical, economic, psychological and sociological.

7. Systematic solutions for educational problem

8. Review existing knowledge

9. Describe situation or problem

10. To construct some situation.

STEPS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Since the educational research is the application of scientific method to

the study of educational problems. The steps in educational research,

therefore, are more or less identical to those of scientific method.

Following are the steps generally found in educational research.

1. The research problem. Educational research starts with the selection

of a problem.

Following are the fields in which one may look for problems for

research:

a. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies are the

obvious sources.

b. Social developments and technological changes are constantly

bringing forth new

opportunities for research.

c. Records of previous research should also be consulted. This includes

encyclopaedia of educational research, dissertations and similar

publications.

d. Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with the

faculty members and

fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to

be solved.

e. Consultation with an expert, researcher supervisor, researcher guide or

a senior scholar will

also be helpful.

2. Problem definition. The is need to clearly define a problem so as to

give proper determination of the methods to be used in solving it.

3. Formulation of hypothesis. Educational research should make the

use of carefully

formulated hypothesis.

This may be formally stated or implied.

Hypothesis. Hypothesis is the pre-assumptive statement of a proposition

or a reasonable guess

based upon the available evidences, which the researcher seeks to prove

through his study.

4. Methods to be used. The selection of research method to be used is

of utmost importance in

the research process. It refers to the general strategy followed in

collecting and analyzing the

data necessary for solving the problem. The research methods are

generally classified in 3

categories:

(1) Historical,

(2) Descriptive, and

(3) experimental.

The methods used in the study

are decided by the nature of the problem and the type of data required

for answering the questions relating to the problem.

5. Data collection. Whereas the research method describes the overall

approach to the problem,

this step is concerned with the procedures and techniques to be adopted

for data collection. It refers to the nature of the sample to be chosen for

study, and selection and development of data

gathering devices such as tests, questionnaires, rating scales, interviews,

observations,

checklists and the like.

6. Analysis and interpretation of data. Good research is characterized

by the care taken in the analysis and interpretation of data. It includes

the selection of appropriate quantitative and

quantitative techniques to be used for processing the data collected for

the study.

7. Reporting the results. This is the last and important step of the

research process. It is

characterized by carefully formulated inferences, conclusions or

generalizations. The researcher must be able report his procedures,

findings and conclusions with utmost objectivity

to others who may be interested in his study and its results.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

 Educational research is important because of contributing knowledge

development, practical improvement, and policy information.

 Educators can use those research findings to improve their

competences and teaching and learning process

 Academic rewards

 Improving practices

 Facilitate learning process

 Verify previous finding

Academic rewards

 Educational research was important for most of social sciences

degrees program.

 Without conducting a research the students don’t awarded the

degrees.
 The aims of this research is to develop the qualities of researchers in

the students

 This will be the first step for improving there practices regarding

research.

 It is crucial for students to know that their topic of research will also

reflect on their resume.

Improving practices

 Educational research can suggest ways of improving practices that

have been verified with many applications and by many different types

of people.

 It may give the competences to educators to find new instructional

methods and techniques

 Its identify the barriers and then choose a proper solution for

removing these barriers.

Facilitate learning process

 Educational research can play a vital role in facilitating teaching and

learning process
 It can add to what we know about how people learn and what we can

do help to facilitate the learning process

 It enables individual to easily achieve there learning goals

Verify previous finding

 Educational research can act as a test to verify previous finding.

 It keep moving forward for verification of the existing research

findings and makes these findings modified and make them contextual

for different situations.

 The theoretical framework helps to find out some specific areas from

the generals and break down the theories in many different parts

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Five ways we can know something

1. Personal experience

 Relying on one’s knowledge of prior experiences

 Limitations

 How one is affected by an event depends on who one is

 One frequently needs to know something that cannot by learned

through experience
2. Tradition and customs

 Doing things as they have always been done

Limitations:  Traditions are often based on an idealized past

 Traditions can be distant from current realities and the complexities

associated with them

3. Experts and authorities

 Relying on the expertise or authority of others

Limitations:  Experts can be wrong  Experts can disagree among

themselves, as in a “second opinion”

4. Logic

 Inductive

 Reasoning from the specific to the general

Limitations:  In order to be certain of a conclusion one must

observe all examples

 All examples can be observed only in very limited situations where

there are few members

of the group

 Deductive
  Reasoning from the general to the specific

Limitations:  You must begin with true premises in order to arrive

at true conclusions

 Deductive reasoning only organizes what is already known

5. The scientific method

 The goal of the scientific method is to explain, predict, and/or control

phenomena

 This involves the acquisition of knowledge and the development and

testing of theory

 The use of the scientific method is more efficient and reliable than

any other source of

knowledge

PROBLEMS FACED BY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER

Complexity of subject matter – behaviour which is very complex in

nature.

Difficulties in observation- This is due to subjectivity of observer

Difficulties in replication- not possible to replicate a particular

experiment in same degree. Interaction of observer and subjects -

researcher may influence the behaviour of the subjects

Difficulties in control behaviour – not possible to have rigid control over

the environment

Measurement related problems - tools used are or may not be

completely valid and reliable.

There are several challenges in research which includes:

(i) Complexity of Educational Phenomenon

Educational phenomena, most of the times, are complex and

unpredictable, unlike those of the natural sciences. The natural scientist

deals with physical laws like Charle’s law, Boyle’s law etc. which have

relatively uncomplicated variables. But in education, you deal with

human behaviour and development, both as individuals and as members

of a group. In this case, numerous variables affect such phenomena

independently and in interaction and make them difficult to study with

ease.

(ii) Measurement Problems

In the natural sciences, we use instruments like ruler, tape, thermometer,

barometer, wind-vane, weighing balance, ammeter, galvanometer and so

on which gives perfect and precise measurements. But in education, you

will not get any instrument which can yield as perfect and precise

measurement.

(iii) Difficulties in Observation

Observation is a very important aspect of science, whether social

sciences or natural/ physical sciences. But, it is more difficult and risky

to have perfect observation in education, because it is more subjective

and frequently involves personal interpretations of such things as:

motive, values, attitudes and so on.

(iv) Difficulties of Control

Possibilities for effective control of experimental conditions are much

more limited in education than in the natural sciences. This is because

rigid control of the experimental conditions is possible in the

laboratories in natural sciences. But in education many variables

including extraneous variables which are not known by the researcher,

affect and influence the results.

(v) Difficulties of Replication

When two or more chemicals are put together in a test tube, the result of

the reaction can be observed and reported objectively. This can be

replicated or reproduced to get the same result anywhere in the world.

But it is very difficult to replicate an experiment, for instance, in

teaching methods carried out in Nigeria, in any other part of the world.

In other words, replication is very difficult to arrange in education.

(vi) Experimental Contamination

The presence of the researcher or investigator can change the behavior

or affect the responses of the human subjects in educational research.

This can result in the faking of behaviours which will influence the

result. This can be referred to as Hawthorne effect. It does not happen in

the natural sciences. If an acid is mixed with an alkali, they will form a

salt, whether the experimenter is there or not does not affect the result.

(vii) Problem of Randomisation

It is easier to randomise non-human subjects in the laboratory than the

human subjects. Randomisation may not be perfect in education due to

administrative constraints and faking.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

(i) Research is Systematic: This means that the steps followed have to

be sequential and logical. The procedures used can be repeated by

another research to verify the findings.

(ii) Research is Objective: This means that the findings are reported as

they are. The biases, prejudices, beliefs or interests of the researcher

and/or the society are not allowed to interfere with the research

procedure and/or results.

(iii) Research Report is Precise: This is pertinent as the use of

vocabulary which is capable of multiple interpretation is not encouraged.

(iv) Research is Testable/Measurable: Research is not speculative, but

quantifiable. It becomes imperative that data collected for research must

be measurable and tested against a specified hypothesis.

(v) Research is Replicable/Verifiable: Results or findings of a research

can be verified by the researcher or any other person interested in the

findings. This can be done by going through the data used in the study or

the processes involved. The research

can be replicated by re-administering the same instrument or similar

instrument of data collection to the same subjects or similar group of

subjects. This replication can help one to justify the authenticity or

otherwise of an earlier conclusion.

In summary research has the following characteristics:

1. Develops new knowledge or data from primary source.

2. Develops general principles of a theory or law.

3. Systematic, expert and accurate investigation about the problem

4. Eliminate feeling, emotion, prejudice, favor and preference

5. Generalize even unpopular findings.

6. Requires inter disciplinary approach.

7. It is not a purely mechanical approach.

8. It suffers from inadequate of control.

9. It is not a field of specialist only action research may be done by a

class teacher or educational administered.

10. Its methods are inadequate for the solution of many problems we

face

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

  It discovers facts and relationship in order to make educational
process more effective
 It is highly purposeful.
 It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers
as well.
 It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of
investigation.
 It discovers new facts in new perspective.
 It is based on some philosophic theory.
 It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational
problem.

CHAPTER TWO

CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH/CLASSIFICATION OF

RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH

It is basic approach which is for the sake of knowledge.

Fundamental research is usually carried on in a laboratory or other

sterile environment, sometimes with animals.

This type of research, which has no immediate or planned application,

may later result in further research of an applied nature.

Basic researches involve the development of theory. It is not concerned

with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory

conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research.

It is concerned with establishing general principles of learning. For

example, much basic research has been conducted with animals to

determine principles of reinforcement and their effect on learning.

Like the experiment of skinner on cats gave the principle of conditioning

and reinforcement. According to Travers, basic research is designed to

add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not

necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.

Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation of the theory

or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to

obtain and use the empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate

theory.

This type of research draws its pattern and spirit from the physical

sciences. It represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis. It

employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings

beyond the group or situations and thus develops theories by discovering

proved generalizations or principles.

The main aim of basic research is the discovery of knowledge solely for

the sake of knowledge. Another system for classification is sometimes

used for the research dealing with these who types of questions.

This classification is based on goal or objective of the research. The first

type of research, which has its aim obtaining the empirical data that can

be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory is called basic research.

This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose towards the

solution of practical problem. Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers

of knowledge without regard to practical application.

Of course, the findings may eventually apply to practical problems that

have social value. For example, advances in the practice of medicine are

dependent upon basic research in biochemistry and microbiology.

Likewise, progress in educational practices has been related to progress

in the discovery of general laws through psychological, educational,

sociological research.
APPLIED RESEARCH

The second type of research which aims to solve an immediate practical

problem, is referred to as applied research. According to Travers,

―applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical

problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.

It is research performed in relation to actual problems and under the

conditions in which they are found in practice. Through applied

research, educators are often able to solve their problems at the

appropriate level of complexity, that is, in the classroom teaching

learning situations. We may depend upon basic research for the

discovery of more general laws of learning, but applied research much is

conducted in order to determine how these laws operate in the

classroom. This approach is essential if scientific changes in teaching

practice are to be effected. Unless educators undertake to solve their

own practical problems of this type no one else will. It should be pointed

out that applied research also uses the scientific method of enquiry. We

find that there is not always a sharp line of demarcation between basic

and applied research. Certainly applications are made from theory to

help in the solution of practical problems. We attempt to apply the

theories of learning in the classroom. On the other hand, basic research

may depend upon the findings of the applied research to complete its

theoretical formulations. A classroom learning experiment can throw

some light on the learning theory. Furthermore, observations in the

practical situations serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation

of new theories. Most educational research studies are classified at the

applied end of the continuum; they are more concerned with ―what‖

works best than with ―why‖. For example, applied research tests the

principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving

learning (e.g. programmed instruction) and behaviour (e.g. behaviour

modification). Applied research has most of the characteristics of

fundamental research, including the use of sampling techniques and the

subsequent inferences about the target population. Its purpose, however,

is improving a product or a process – testing theoretical concepts in

actual problem situations. Most educational research is applied research,

for it attempts to develop generalizations about teaching – learning

processes and instructional materials.

The applied research may also be employed a university or research

institute or may be found in private industry or working for a

government agency. In the field of education such a person might be

employed by a curriculum publishing company, a state department of

education, or a college of education at a university. Applied researches

are also found in the settings in which the application or practitioner‘s

role is primary. This is where the teachers, clinical psychologists, school

psychologists, social workers physicians, civil engineers, managers,

advertising specialists and so on are found. Many of these people receive

training in doing research, and they use this knowledge for two purpose.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH

• Basic research provides the theory that produces the concepts for

applied research for

solving specific problems.

• Applied research provides the data to support, help, guide, and revise

the development theory resulted from basic research.

• Doing basic research ensures that applied researchers don’t need to

reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new project as it lays a

readymade groundwork.

Educational research can be classified into different types. These

classifications may depend on the goals, methods of investigation, kind

of evidence and analysis used. These classifications are:

On the Basis of Goal

If we classify educational researches based on the goals of the particular

investigation and the use to be made of it, then we will have basic

research and applied research.

(a) Basic Research

This is a type of research, otherwise called pure research which is

concerned with obtaining empirical data that can be used to formulate,

expand or evaluate theory. Its main aim is to extend the frontiers of

knowledge with no regards to the practical application. It investigates

relationships between methods, personal characteristics, environmental

variables and learning efficiency in order to develop, illustrate, test and

expand theories of learning. It is not oriented in design or purpose

towards the solution of practical problems. But the findings of such

studies may be applied to practical problems that have social values.

(b) Applied Research

This is the application of theories and principles from basic research to

solve educational problems. It is a research performed in relation to

actual problems which occur in the field and under the conditions in

which they are found in practice. It is aimed at solving immediate

practical problems. The findings help educators to make rational

practical decisions about specific problems. Applied research can be

divided into three sub-categories:

(i) Action Research

This is undertaken by educational practitioners in order to solve their

practical local problems. It is aimed at developing new skills, finding

new answers or approaches to solve problems of current concern. It is

practical and directly relevant to an actual life situation. It is empirical

and relies on actual observation and realistic information, or data rather

than subjective opinions or past experiences.

(ii) Evaluation Research

This is used to assess educational programmes in order to improve their

efficiency by making necessary revisions or modifications. For instance,

a systemic evaluation of the practice of some programmes in the school

system may necessitate modifications in the requirements and policies of

the education ministry. Again, the change over from one system of

education to another may have been based on systemic evaluation.

Example, the change from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 and from 8-4-4 to 2-6-3-3 3

system may have been based on the evaluation research by practitioners.

(iii) Research and Development

According to Nkpa (1997), this is concerned with developing and testing

curricula, methods and materials to ensure maximum efficiency of

educational products and practices. The trial testing in schools of the

New curriculum materials by KICD and Adaptation of the new system

of education in Kenya is an example.

On the Basis of Method of Investigation

Classifying educational research based on the methods of investigation

used, the following types of educational research may be distinguished:-

(a) Experimental Research

In this type of research, independent variables are manipulated to

observe the effects on the dependent variables. It serves to determine

possible outcomes given certain conditions. There are two groups –

experimental or treatment group and the control group. The

experimental group receives the treatment while the control group may

not receive any treatment. The difference is noted and used.

(b) Ex Post Facto Research

Have you noticed a research study in which the researcher attempts to

conduct experimental study in which he is not able to directly

manipulate the independent variables? In fact, randomisation is not

possible. The subjects may be grouped on the basis of some naturally

occurring characteristics. Such variables like sex, race, intelligence,

aptitude, creativity, personality, socio-economic status, etc. cannot be

directly manipulated. Sometimes, this type of research is referred to as

causal comparative studies.

(c) Descriptive Research

This is concerned with either description or interpretation of existing

relationships, attitudes, practices, processes, trends, etc. or the

comparison of variables. It does not make attempts to manipulate

variables. It may be divided into many categories. Prominent among

them are:

(i) Surveys

In this type of research, a number of data-gathering psychometric tools

and procedures are used. These include questionnaires, tests, checklists,

rating scales, score cards, inventories, interviews, etc. The study can be

used to ascertain the nature of a phenomenon from a relatively large

number of cases. When you study the entire target population, the survey

is called census. Most of the times, the entire population is too large to

be handled. In this case, you have to use appropriate sampling technique

to obtain a truly representative sample. You will learn about the

sampling techniques later in this course. You have to note that

representativeness of sample is critical to survey research, in order to

make reliable inferences about the target population.

(ii) Documentary Analysis

In this type, documents and records are examined for relevant

information. Official gazettes, minutes of meetings, reports of panels

and blueprints can be examined. Content analysis of curriculum

materials and classroom lessons can be included as documentary

analysis.

(iii) Case Studies

You may decide to investigate a detailed account of individuals or

aggregations of individual cases may be treated as units under this type

of study. In other words, you may decide to study a phenomenon in one

school, association, organisation, agency, one student, teacher,

administrator, etc. in order to solve specific problems through in-depth

study.

(d) Historical Research

This is a past oriented research; which involves the location,

documentation, evaluation and interpretation of available evidence in

order to understand past events. Understanding past events may lead you

to greater understanding of present and future events. It may also

prevent future pitfalls, or even suggest hypotheses which should be used

for the solution of existing problems. Its focus may be on social

concerns, educational practices, educational institutions or the educators

themselves. In historical research, evidence from relics, artefacts,

documents, records, oral accounts etc. are usually relied on. If you are

undertaking a historical research in education, then your evidence may

be sought from attendance registers, certificates, report cards,

inventories, manuscripts, equipment, records of news talk, etc.

There are two main sources of research information in a historical study.

These are primary source and secondary source. When evidence comes

from direct source such as original documents, photographs, eye-witness

accounts, it is called primary source. But when a non-observer mediates

between the original evidence and the investigator as in books, research

reviews, newspapers or stories by non-participants, it is called secondary

source. As a researcher, you should always determine the authenticity of

the evidence you use.

On the Basis of the Kind of Evidence and Analysis used

Using this typology, research can be classified as quantitative,

qualitative or multiple perspective.

(a) Quantitative Research

This type uses information or data expressed in numerical values. Most

experimental studies fall under this type or category. Data collection

methods include tests of various types, experiments,

questionnaire, rating scales etc. Quantitative data are analysed using

either descriptive or inferential statistics.

(b) Qualitative Research

This type uses information which is verbal or non-numerical. It makes

use of qualitative data yielded through interviews, observations,

artifacts, and documentary sources, audio and visual materials among

others. Information could be analysed using transcription, coding,

historical and

philosophical analysis. This can introduce elements of subjectivity in

explaining, describing, collecting and even analyzing information.

(c) Multiple Perspective Research

This type uses both quantitative and qualitative approach otherwise

known as eclectic, is usually more comprehensive, yielding more

generalizable and holistic findings which are more rigorous than any one

approach.

CHAPTER THREE

ETHICS IN RESEARCH/ ETHICAL CONSIDERATINS

Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design,

constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect

the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your

study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews,

mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.

Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical

issues in relation to the participants and the researcher:

- Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by

a researcher become participants of the study.

- Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to

the accepted code of conduct, is a researcher.

a) Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many

ethical issues in relation to participants of a research activity.

i) Collecting information:

Your request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on a

respondent.

Research is required to improve conditions. Provided any piece of

research is likely

to help society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions, if

you first
obtain the respondents’ informed consent. If you cannot justify the

relevance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting your

respondents’ time, which is unethical.

ii) Seeking consent:

In every discipline it is considered unethical to collect information

without the knowledge of the participant, and their expressed

willingness and informed consent. Informed consent implies that

subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information you want

from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be

put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will

directly or indirectly affect them. It is important that the consent should

be voluntary and without pressure of any kind.

iii) Providing incentives:

Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but

because they realize the importance of the study. Is it ethical to provide

incentives to respondents to share information with you because they are

giving their time? Giving a present before data collection is unethical.

iv) Seeking sensitive information:

Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential

by some people and thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such

information may upset or embarrass a respondent.

For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital

status etc are intrusive. In collecting data you need to be careful about

the sensitivities of your respondents. It is not unethical to ask such

questions provided that you tell your respondents the type of information

you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and give them sufficient time to

decide if they want to participate, without any major inducement.

v) The possibility of causing harm to participant:

When you collect data from respondents or involve subjects in an

experiment, you need to examine carefully whether their involvement is

likely to harm them in any way. Harm includes l research that might

include hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment,

invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is

likely to, you must make sure that the risk is minimal i.e. the extent of

harm or discomfort is not greater that ordinarily encountered in daily

life. If the way information is sought creates anxiety or harassment, you

need to take steps to prevent this.

vi) Maintaining confidentiality:

Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other

than research is unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study

population to put your findings into context. In such a situation you need

to make sure that at least the information provided by respondents is

kept anonymous. It is unethical to identify an individual’s responses.

Therefore you need to ensure that

after the information has been collected, the source cannot be known.

b) Ethical issues relating to the researcher:

i) Avoiding bias:

Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate

attempt to either to hide what you have found in your study, or highlight

something disproportionately to its true existence.

ii) Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

Both the provision and deprivation of a treatment/ intervention may pose

an ethical dilemma for you as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a

study population with an intervention/ treatment that has not yet been

conclusively proven effective or beneficial? But if you do not test, how

can you prove or disprove its effectiveness or benefits?

There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed

consent, ‘minimum risk’ and frank discussion as to the implications of

participation in the study will help to resolve ethical issues.

iii) Using inappropriate research methodology:

It is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to be

inappropriate e.g. selecting a highly biased sample, using an invalid

instrument or drawing wrong conclusions.

iv) Incorrect reporting:

To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your

own or someone else’s interest, is unethical.

v) Inappropriate use of the information:

The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly adversely

affects the respondents is unethical. If so, the study population needs to

be protected. Sometimes it is possible to harm individuals in the process

of achieving benefits for the organizations. An example would be a

study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an organization.

Restructuring may be beneficial to the organization as a whole bur may

be harmful to some individuals. Should you ask respondents for

information that is likely to be used against them? It is ethical to ask

questions provided you tell respondents of the potential use of the

information, including the possibility of it being used against

some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.

CHAPTER FOUR

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

MEANING OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Research is an umbrella covering several forms of inquiry

that help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena

with as little disruption to the natural setting as possible. Qualitative

research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and

analysis of social phenomena. It draws on an inductive process in

which themes and categories emerge through analysis of data

collected by such techniques as interviews, observations, videotapes,

and case studies. Samples are usually small and are often purposively

selected. Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the

perspective of the research participants themselves as a means of

examining specific issues and problems under study. Qualitative

research differs from quantitative research in that the latter is

characterized by the use of large samples, standardized measures, a

deductive approach, and highly structured interview instruments to

collect data for hypothesis testing (Marlow, 1993). In contrast to

qualitative research, in quantitative research easily quantifiable

categories are typically generated before the study and statistical

techniques are used to analyze the data collected. Both qualitative and

quantitative research is designed to build knowledge; they can be

used as complementary strategies. Qualitative research differs from

the traditional logical – positivistic, quantitative research in a variety

of ways. In qualitative research the focus is on in-depth interviews,

observations and document analysis. A holistic perspective permits a

broader view of the complex issues facing educational researchers. In

addition, while some qualitative research include limited

quantification (e.g. counting the number of occurrences. of an event).

In general qualitative research interprets data without numerical

analysis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their

uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there
(Patton, 1985).A second characteristic of all forms of qualitative
research is that the researcher is the primary instrument for data
collection and analysis. A third characteristic of qualitative research is
that it usually involves fieldwork. The researcher must go to the
people, setting, site, institution, in order to observe behavior in its
natural setting. A fourth characteristic of qualitative research is that is
uses an inductive research strategy. This type of research builds
abstractions, concepts, hypothesis, or theories rather than tests
existing theory.

 The approach is inductive.

 Its focus is on specific situations, institutions, communities, groups
of people etc.

 Its emphasis is on causes, interpretations and implications rather

than quantitative scores, measurement and statistical analysis.

 Its emphasis is on personalized experiences rather than structures

tools.

 It is based on smaller number of cases.

PURPOSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Identifying an anticipated phenomenon

 Developing causal explanations

 Understanding the meaning of broad terms like attitude, prejudice,

organizational climate etc.

 Understanding the context in which some behavior finds

expression or some phenomenon takes place.

 In depth study to find out the constellation of factors that

determine a particular type of behavior or lead to a particular
phenomenon

 Studying inter- relationships between various factors responsible

for a phenomenon or a behavior. Freud developed his theory of
psychoanalysis through qualitative research; Piaget developed his
 theory of cognitive development by initially starting the study of
language development in his own children.

PRACTICAL USES

 Generating theories that are understandable

 Engaging in collaborative research with practitioners

 Conducting formative evaluation; intended to improve the existing

practices rather than to simply assess the value of programme or
product being evaluated.

 Understanding the process

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Under qualitative research, the main types are:-

Phenomenological

Ethnographical

Case studies

Historical studies

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Quantitative is based on quantity while qualitative is based on the

quality of a phenomena.

 These are the two main extremes of the continuum of data analysis.

 Quantitative deals with the quantities, the counts and statistical

analysis are used while qualitative deals with the emerging themes

fro the work and other cues that are gathered from the respondents.

 Techniques used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews,

word association test, sentence completion test and other projective

tests.

 Current debates revolve around this mode of research.

 Qualitative research includes: ethnographies, phenomenology, case

studies,

 Quantitative research relies on the verifiability. This means

confirmation, proof, corroboration and substantiation. Knowledge

emerges from what can be proven by direct observation.

 The researchers values, interpretations and feelings are not

considered. Objectivity is reinforced.

 The researcher is detached from the subject of study or the

respondent.

 When the research incorporates the statistical element (how

many?)

 When frequencies are sought to explain meaning

 When control of approach is needed to allow for in-depth

investigation of particular phenomenon. Rigid methods are applied

and all procedures are specified.

 It is a deductive process.

 When the scenario is artificial e.g. In the laboratory.

 When the research incorporates the statistical element (how

many?)

 When frequencies are sought to explain meaning

 When control of approach is needed to allow for in-depth

investigation of particular phenomenon. Rigid methods are applied

and all procedures are specified.

 It is a deductive process.

 When the scenario is artificial e.g. In the laboratory.

CHAPTER FIVE

MEASUREMENT SCALES IN EDUCATION RESEARCH

Types of measurement scales:

Measurement is central to any enquiry.

The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a variable, the

greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the

findings. S.S.Stevens has classified the different types of into four

categories:

• Nominal or classificatory scale

• Ordinal or ranking scale

• Interval scale

• Ratio scale

The nominal or classificatory scale:

A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or

responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or

characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one,

two or more subcategories depending upon the extent of variation. For

example, ’water’ or ‘tree’ have only one subgroup, whereas the variable

“gender” can be classified into two sub-categories: male and female.

‘Hotels’ can be classified into sub-categories. The sequence in which

subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship

among subgroups.

The ordinal or ranking scale:

Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into

subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups

in a certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending

order according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of

variation in the variable. For example, ‘income’ can be measured either

quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or qualitatively using subcategories

‘above average’, ‘average’ and ‘below average’. The ‘distance’ between

these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of

measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and ‘attitude’ are other variables

that can be measured on

ordinal scale.

The interval scale:

An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In

addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and

terminating points.

For example,

Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C

Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F

Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30, 31-40 etc

The ratio scale:

A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales

plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which

means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference between

intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can be used for

mathematical operations. The measurement of variables like income,

age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40

year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year old.

CHAPTER SIX

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND FORMULATION OF

HYPOTHESIS

Formulating the research problem:

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process

- Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.

- The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that

follows.

Sources of research problems

Research in social sciences revolves around four areas:

• People- a group of individuals

• Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating

to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue

• Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention

• Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity.

In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination

of two

areas. Every research study has two aspects:

1. Study population-

• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities ( they provide

you with the information or you collect information about them)

2. Subject area-

• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

• Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions,

consumers, Service providers, etc.

• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a

phenomenon itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers

to your research questions) You can examine the professional field of

your choice in the context of the four area in order to identify anything

that looks interesting.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that

you will remain

motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and

involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select

topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.

2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can

manage within the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic

down to something manageable, specific and clear.

3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the

indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.

4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of

expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the work

yourself.

5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of

knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation.

This will help you to sustain interest in the study.

6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data

are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and

how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined

at the problem formulating stage.

STEPS IN FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of

knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be

undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and

adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.

Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.

Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.

Step 4 Raise research questions.

Step 5 Formulate objectives.

Step 6 Assess your objectives.

Step 7 Double check.

So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem.

But every study in social sciences has a second element, the study

population from whom the required information to find answers to your

research questions is obtained. As you narrow the research problem,

similarly you need to decide very specifically who constitutes your study

population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.

FORMULATING RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Nature and definition of hypotheses:

The word hypothesis (plural is hypotheses) is derived from the Greek

word – ‘hypotithenai’ meaning ‘to put under’ or ‘to suppose’

A hypothesis is therefore a shrewd and intelligent guess, a supposition,

inference, hunch, provisional statement or tentative generalization as to

the existence of some fact, condition or relationship relative to some

phenomenon which serves to explain already known facts in a given area

of research and to guide the search for new truth on the basis of

empirical evidence.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship

is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.

Directional hypothesis: The hypotheses which stipulate the direction of

the expected differences or relationships are terms as directional

hypotheses.

Non-directional hypothesis: A research hypothesis which does not

specify the direction of expected differences or relationships is a non-

directional research hypothesis.

Statistical hypothesis: When it is time to test whether the data support

or refute the research hypothesis, it needs to be translated into a

statistical hypothesis.

Declarative hypothesis: When the researcher makes a positive

statement about the outcome of the study, the hypothesis takes the

declarative form.

Null hypothesis: In the null form, the researcher makes a statement that

no relationship exists.
Question form hypothesis: In the question form hypothesis, a question

is asked as to what the outcome will be instead of stating what outcome

is expected.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

They may be derived directly from the statement of the problem; they

may be based on the research literature, or in some cases, such as in

ethnographic research, they may (at least in part) be generated from data

collection and analysis. The various sources of hypotheses may be:

 Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on

similar problems;

 Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the

problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;

 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem,

its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis should be clear and precise.

 Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.

  Hypothesis should state relationship between variables

 Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.

 Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms

 Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts

 The hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a

reasonable time.

CHAPTER SEVEN

IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES IN EDUCATION

RESEARCH

DEFINING VARIABLES

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. So what does

that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For

instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different

values for different people or for the same person at different times.

Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's

country can be assigned a value. A variable is a concept or abstract idea

that can be described in measurable terms. In research, this term

refers to the measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes

of a particular individual, object, or situation being studied. Variables

are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can

take on different values or amounts. Variables are things that we

measure, control, or manipulate in research. They differ in many

respects, most notably in the role they are given in our research and in

the type of measures that can be applied to them. By itself, the

statement of the problem usually provides only general direction for the

research study; it does not include all the specific information. There is

some basic terminology that is extremely important in how we

communicate specific information about research problems and about

research in general. Let us analyse an example; if a researcher is

interested in the effects of two different teaching methods on the science

achievement of fifth-grade students, the grade level is constant, because

all individuals involved are fifth-graders. This characteristic is the same

for everyone; it is a ‘constant’ condition of the study. After the different

teaching methods have been implemented, the fifth-graders involved

would be measured with a science achievement test. It is very unlikely

that all of the fifth-graders would receive the same score on this test,
hence the score on the science achievement test becomes a variable,

because different individuals will have different scores; at least, not all

individuals will have the same scores. We would say that science

achievement is a variable, but we would mean, specifically, that the

score on the science achievement test is a variable. There is another

variable in the preceding example – the teaching method. In contrast to

the science achievement test score, which undoubtedly would be

measured on a scale with many possible values, teaching method is a

categorical variable consisting of only two categories, the two methods.

Thus, we have different kinds of variables and different names or

classifications for them.

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a

variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all

examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also

quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning

attributes(s). Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number

of male and female respondents is an example of discrete variable.

Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be

operationalised in measurable terms so that the extent of variations in

respondents’ understanding is reduced if not eliminated.

Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about

variables, play an important role in reducing this variability.

Their knowledge, therefore is important in ‘fine tuning’ your research

problem.

For example:

-‘Jet Airways’ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.

- Food in this restaurant is excellent.

- The middle class in India is getting more prosperous.

When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the

basis of certain criteria in their minds. Their judgement is based upon

indicators that lead them to conclude and express that opinion.

These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim.

This warrants the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process

of measurement that knowledge about variables plays an important role.

The definition of a variable:

An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence capable

of taking on different values- is called a variable.

The difference between a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning

varies markedly from individual to individual.

A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to

measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of

measurement. It is therefore important for the concept to be converted

into variables.

Concept Variable

-Subjective impression - Measurable though the

-No uniformity as to its degree of precision varies

Understanding among from scale to scale and

Different people variable to variable.

As such cannot be measured.

e.g. e.g.

• Excellent - gender (male/female)

• High achiever -age (x years y months)

• Rich -weight ( --kg)

• Satisfaction - height ( -- cms)

• Domestic violence - religion (Catholic, Hindu)

-Income ( per year)

Concepts, indicators and variables:

If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its

operationalisation- that is, how it will be measured. For this, you need to

identify indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can

then be converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept

might vary with researchers, but those selected must have a logical link

with the concept.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

There are many classification systems given in the literature the names

we use are descriptive; they describe the roles that variables play in a

research study. The variables described below by no means exhaust the

different systems and names that exist, but they are the most useful for

communicating about educational research.

Independent variables:

Independent variables are variables which are manipulated or controlled

or changed. In the example “a study of the effect of teacher praise on the

reading achievement of second-graders”, the effect of praise, the

researcher is trying to determine whether there is a cause-and-effect

relationship, so the kind of praise is varied to see whether it produces

different scores on the reading achievement test. We call this a

manipulated independent variable (treatment variable). The amount

and kind of praise is manipulated by the researcher. The researcher

could analyze the scores for boys and girls separately to see whether the

results are the same for both genders. In this case gender is a classifying

or attributes independent variable. The researcher cannot manipulate

gender, but can classify the children according to gender.

Dependent variables:

Dependent variables are the outcome variables and are the variables for

which we calculate statistics. The variable which changes on account of

independent variable is known as dependent variable.

Let us take the example, a study of the effect of teacher praise on the

reading achievement of second-graders; the dependent variable is

reading achievement. We might compare the average reading

achievement scores of second-graders in different praise conditions such

as no praise, oral praise, written praise, and combined oral and written

praise. The following example further illustrates the use of variables and

constants. In a study conducted to determine the effect of three different

teaching methods on achievement in elementary algebra, each of three

ninth-grade algebra sections in the same school, taught by the same

teacher, is taught using one of the methods. Both boys and girls are

included in the study. The constants in the study are grade level, school,

and teacher. (This assumes that, except for method, the teacher can hold

teaching effectiveness constant.) The independent variables in the study

are teaching method and gender of the student. Teaching method has

three levels that arbitrarily can be designated methods A, B, and C;

gender of the student, of course, has two levels. Achievement in algebra,

as measured at the end of the instructional period, is the dependent

variable. The terms dependent and independent variable apply mostly to

experimental research where some variables are manipulated, and in this

sense they are "independent" from the initial reaction patterns, features,

intentions, etc. of the subjects. Some other variables are expected to be

"dependent" on the manipulation or experimental conditions. That is to

say, they depend on "what the subject will do" in response. Somewhat

contrary to the nature of this distinction, these terms are also used in

studies where we do not literally manipulate independent variables, but

only assign subjects to "experimental groups" based on some pre-

existing properties of the subjects. . Independent variables are those that

are manipulated whereas dependent variables are only measured or

registered. Consider other examples of independent and dependent

variables:
Example 1: A study of teacher-student classroom interaction at

different levels of schooling. Independent variable: Level of schooling,

four categories – primary, upper primary, secondary and junior

college. Dependent variable: Score on a classroom observation

inventory, which measures teacher – student interaction Example 2: A

comparative study of the professional attitudes of secondary school

teachers by gender. Independent variable: Gender of the teacher –

male, female. Dependent variable: Score on a professional attitude

inventory.

Extraneous variable:

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but

may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a

relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and

their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable

and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may

as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to

the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed

as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent

variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as

an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the

effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the

independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or

variables.
E.g. Effectiveness of different methods of teaching Social Science. Here

variables such as teacher’s competence, Teacher’s enthusiasm, age,

socio economic status also contribute substantially to the teaching

learning process. It cannot be controlled by the researcher. The

conclusions lack incredibility because of extraneous variables.

Intervening variables:

They intervene between cause and effect. It is difficult to observe, as

they are related with individuals feelings such as boredom, fatigue

excitement At times some of these variables cannot be controlled or

measured but have an important effect upon the result of the study as it

intervenes between cause and effect. Though difficult, it has to be

controlled through appropriate design. Eg. “Effect of immediate

reinforcement on learning the parts of speech”. Factors other than

reinforcement such as anxiety, fatigue, and motivation may be

intervening variables. They are difficult to define in operational,

observable terms however they cannot be ignored and must be

controlled using appropriate research design.

Moderator:
A third variable that when introduced into an analysis alters or has a

contingent effect on the relationship between an independent and a

dependent variable. A moderator variable is an independent variable that

is not of primary interest that has levels, which when combined with the

levels of the independent variable of interest produces different effects.

For example, suppose that the researcher designs a study to determine

the impact of the lengths of reading passages on the comprehension of

the reading passage. The design has three levels of passage length: 100

words, 200 words, and 300 words. The participants in the study are

fourth-fifth- and sixth-graders. Suppose that the three grade levels all did

very well on the 100-word passage, but only the sixth-graders did very

well on the 300-word passage. This would mean that successfully

comprehending reading passages of different lengths was moderated by

grade level

CHAPTER EIGHT

VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

The validity of a test may be defined as “the accuracy with which a test

measures what it attempts to measure.

”It is also defined as “The efficiency with which a test measures what it

attempts to measure”.

Content Validity

“Content validity involves essentially the systematic examination of the

text content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of

the bahaviour domain to be measured”.

Criterion-related Validity : This is also known as empirical validity.

two forms

Predictive Validity : It refers to how well the scores obtained on

the tool predict future criterion behavior.

Concurrent Validity : It refers to how well the scores obtained on

the tool are correlated with present criterion behaviour.

Construct Validity

It is the extent to which the tool measures a theoretical construct or trait

or psychological variable.

FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY

 Unclear Direction
  Vocabulary

 Difficult Sentence Construction

 Poorly Constructed Test Items

 Use of Inappropriate Items

 Difficulty Level of Items

 Influence of Extraneous Factors

 Inappropriate Time Limit

 Inappropriate Coverage

 Inadequate Weightage

 Halo Effect

RELIABILITY is “The degree of consistency with which the test

measures what it does measure”.

“Reliability means consistency of scores obtained by same individual

when re-examined with the test on different sets of equivalent items or

under other variable examining conditions”.

The methods of estimating reliability:

a) Test-Retest (Repetition) Method (Co-efficient of Stability)

b) Alternate or Parallel forms Method (Co-efficient of Equivalence

Reliability)

c) The Spilt Half Method (The Co-efficient of Stability and

Equivalence) :

d) The method of ‘Rational Equivalence (Co-efficient of Internal

Consistency)

FACTORS AFFECTING RELIABILTY

 Interval :

 Test Length :

 Inappropriate Time Limit :

 Group Homogeneity :

 Difficulty of the Items :

 Objectivity of Scoring :

 Ambiguous Wording of Items :

 Inconsistency in Test Administration

 Optional Questions :

Item analysis
Item analysis begins after the test is over. The responses of the

examinees are to be analysed to check the effectiveness of the test items.

The teacher must come to some judgments regarding the difficulty level,

discriminating power and content validity of items. Only those items

which are effective are to be retained, while those which are not should

either be discarded or improved. This is known as the process of item-

analysis.

CHAPTER NINE

LITERATURE REVIEW

-Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the

available body of knowledge in your area of interest.

-Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes

valuable contribution to every operational step.

-Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating,

but is also rewarding. Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

b. Improve your methodology;

c. Broaden your knowledge;

d. Contextualise your findings.

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the

subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your research

problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the

relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge

in the area.

b. Improve your methodology:

A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods

similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and

methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced

with them. Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology

that is capable of providing valid answer to your research questions.

c. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area:

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you

intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an

expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps
you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing

body of knowledge.

d. Contextualise your findings:

How do answers to your research questions compare with what others

have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the

existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different from those

of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go

back to your literature review. It is important to place your findings in

the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry. Procedure

for reviewing the literature:

i) search for existing literature in your area of study;

ii) review the literature selected;

iii) develop a theoretical framework;

iv) develop a conceptual framework.

Search for existing literature:

-To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is

imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area

and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for

your search.

SOURCE OF LITERATURE

-Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:

1. books

2.journals

BOOKS: comprise a central part of any bibliography.

Advantage-material published generally is of good quality and the

findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent body of

knowledge.

Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few

years between the

completion of a work and publication in the form of a book.

Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these

books in the libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their

content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it

from your reading list.

JOURNALS

Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though

there is a gap of two to three years between the completion of a research

project and the publication in a journal.

As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying

literature relevant to your study. This can be done as follows:

-locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;

- use the internet

- look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify

and read the articles.

Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to

look at in more detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue,

examine its content page to see if there is an article of relevance to your

research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read

its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a

summary and record it for reference for later use.

Review the literature selected:

After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start

reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are

associated. If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind

to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book. Once

you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so

far reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for

each theme of that framework.

As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically

belongs under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more

themes as you go. Read critically with particular reference to the

following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is

confirmed beyond doubt.

• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis,

the methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them.

• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other

situations.

Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that

exist in the body of

knowledge.

Develop a theoretical framework:

As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing

the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research

topic.

As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a

number of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your

research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing your

theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you cannot

develop a theoretical framework and until you have developed a

theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.

Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of

information:

- universal;
- more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)

In writing about such information you should start with the general

information, gradually narrowing down to the specific.

Writing up the literature reviewed:

In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to

provide theoretical background to your study:

-List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.

-Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise,

descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.

-Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to

the theme in question, highlighting the reasons for and against an

argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues.

In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e.

contextualising the findings of your study- requires you to very

systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote

from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add

to them. It places your findings in the context of what others have found
out. This function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e.

after analysis of your data.

CHAPTER TEN

PREPARING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL;

Writing a research and project proposal.

A proposal is a document which details an intended activity. It

demonstrates the researchers ability to think clearly about the intended

research or proposal.

 In a research proposal a researcher proposes to undertake a

piece of research on a pertinent issue. A research proposal

may be academic research leading to MBA .Other research

proposal may not be academic-oriented but are still aimed at

undertaking research to solve a problem,i.e action oriented

research .

Components of a research proposal.

An overview.

The Mandatory main sections of a proposal are,

1.An introduction section which includes the background to the

problem ,the statement of the problem, the purpose ,objectives and

justification of the study.

2.A literature review section where the researcher reviews literature

related to the topic under investigation.

3.A methodology section which includes the description of the research

design ,population ,sample and sampling techniques ,data collection

procedures and method of analysis.

4.A time schedule in which the researcher explains the time period

needed to carry out the research.

5.A budget.

Non Mandatory section in the introduction include–

limitations ,assumptions, hypothesis and theoretical or conceptual

frameworks.

Abstract.

• A proposal abstract is a one paragraph summary of what the

researcher intends to do.

 • It should be brief ,precise and to the point.

• An abstract gives the reader an overview of what the problem

is and how the researcher intends to solve the problem through

the proposed research.

Introduction.

 The introduction tells us a lot about what is to follow in the

rest of the proposal.

 It includes the background of the problem, the statement of the

problem, the purpose of study, the objectives or research

questions ,hypotheses, the rationale or justification of the

study, the limitations and underlying assumptions ,the

theoretical framework or conceptual model and the theoretical

definitions of terms.

The background to the problem

The researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation.

This is where the global,regional,and national overview of the research

topic is briefly discussed. For example if the topic is female

 education in Kenya the research should give an overview of the

status of female education globally ,regionally –Africa and

nationally –the Kenyan experience.

This enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening regarding

the area under investigation.

The problem statement.

In this section the researcher should narrow down the focus and

state the problem under investigation

 The researcher states the problem under investigation e.g.

High drop out rates among female pupils in primary schools.

 In addition the researcher describes factors that make the

stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study-the

researcher makes a case for the research.

 In the above example the researcher could elaborate on the

consequences of girls dropping out of school, for example

marginalization in the formal sector, a high fertility rate, child

labor ,poor family nutritional status and a high child mortality

  The problem statement should be brief and precise and range

from half paragraph to two pages.

The purpose of the study.

 A purpose is a broad statement indicating what the researcher

intends to do about the problem.

 Two formats;

1, One is to state the purpose of the study at the end of the problem

statement section. In this case the researcher writes:……..based on

the problem stated, the purpose of this study to…..in this format ,the

researcher states the problem ,and narrows down to the purpose

statement towards the end of the section.

The purpose statement is declarative and uses verbs to describe the

intended task.

2,The second format ,the researcher could decide to have a separate sub

section on purpose statement. The purpose is stated in a declaratory

terms not exceeding a paragraph. It is in order to follow the purpose

statement with a brief rationale of the stated purpose.

The objectives of the study.

 The objectives should be stated clearly and should be testable.

 The difference between the purpose statement and the

objectives is that the purpose statement is broad, while the

objectives are derived from the purpose and are more specific.

 Objectives are very crucial because ,

1,Objectives determine the kind of questions to be asked .The questions

should address the objectives stated.

2,Objectives determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be

used.

Research questions.

 Refers to questions which a researcher would like answered by

undertaking the study.

 The difference between research questions and objectives is

that a research Question is stated in a quiz form while an

objective is a statement.
  If the research quiz's and objectives are referring to the same

phenomenon ,then one set becomes redundant-0nly one set is

included in the set.

Hypothesis.

 A Hypothesis may be directional (if positive or negative

relationship is suggested) or non-directional (if no direction is

suggested).

 A researcher is only able to state a directional hypothesis

when some information on the phenomenon under study is

available. Such information is derived from past

experience ,literature review or existing theories.

Theoretical background or framework.

In many fields, theories and propositions about concepts and

relationships have formulated. The researcher may be interested in

ascertaining or testing a particular theory or framework. Such a

theoretical framework should be Cleary explained in the proposal.

 The researcher must then show how the study in question is related

to the theoretical background.

Conceptual Framework.

 Refers to when a researcher conceptualizes the relationship

between variables in the study and shows the relationship

graphically or diagrammatically. It is a hypothesized model

identifying the concepts under study and their relationship.

The purpose of a conceptual model is to help the reader to quickly see

the proposed relationships.

Rationale or Justification and significance of the study.

• This section highlights the reasons for conducting the study as

well as the importance of carrying it out. This section will

often address questions like;

 What gaps in knowledge will the study address ?

 Why is the study important ?

The section on significance address questions like;

How will the results be used ?

Who will benefit from the results ?

What is the expected end product ?

Is the study worth it?

The rationale or justification and significance must be strong enough to

warrant the use of time ,energy and money in carrying out the research.

Limitations and Assumptions.

 A Limitation .

Is some aspect of the study that the researcher knows may negatively

affect the results or generalizability of the study but over which

he/she probably has no control. In other words most common

limitations have to do with the sample sample size, length of the

study, or data collection procedures .

Assumptions of the study.

 An assumptions is any important fact presumed to be true

but not actually verified .

Data collection procedures.

 This section describes data collection procedures. The data

collection instrument is indentified,defined and its relevance

discussed. Information about the organization of the

instrument can also be discussed.

Data collection procedures.

 This section describes data collection procedures. The data

collection instrument is indentified,defined and its relevance

discussed. Information about the organization of the

instrument can also be discussed.

Literature review .

 It enables the researcher to know what has been happening

in that particular field of study.

Makes one aware of what achievements have been made and what

challenges remain.
  Gives good suggestions on the variables and procedures that

could be used.

 The literature review should lead logically to objectives and

hypothesis of the study.

 An analysis of the literature review must be done to reveal

the gaps that need the attention and also to show how the

existing literature ties in with objectives of the proposed study,

Methodology.

 The methodology component of a proposal mainly includes

the proposed research design ,population and sample, data

collection procedures, data analysis procedures and sometimes

measurements of variables.

Research design.

 A good proposal should discuss the type of research design to

be used. For example ,through

survey,experimental,correlational study etc.

Population and sample.

  Describes the population from which the sample will be

drawn. The sample size and sample selection methods are also

discussed in this section.

Data analysis.

 The techniques intended for use in analyzing data must be

described.

 The method of analysis chosen depends on the type of research, the

objectives and hypotheses to be tested.

 Most studies utilize selected descriptive and inferential statistics.

 Descriptive statistics summarize data and describe the sample and

inferential statistics enable the researcher to infer the sample

results for population. The researcher should state what he or she

hopes to achieve by using the data analysis technique used.

Operational definitions of variables.

 The dependent and the independent variables should be

defined operationally. This means that the researcher should

state how the variables will be measured in a particular study.

Time schedule.

 This is how long the researcher will take to finish the

research. A time schedule includes listing of major activities

left of the page) and the corresponding anticipated time period

it will take to accomplish that activity. top of the page). Time

schedules in months.

 Importance of a time schedule.

It enables the researcher to access the feasibility of conducting a study

within the existing time limits.It helps the researcher to stay on

schedule as schedule as the research progress.

Budget.

 List of items that will be required to carry out the research and

approximate cost. Should be well thought to avoid asking for

too much or too little. The budget should be detailed enough to

and precise on items needed ,prices per unit and the total cost.

References.
  A list of cited references or bibliography. This list will show

the sources of the literature reviewed. An up to date

bibliography shows the researcher or donor that one is aware

of new information in that particular discipline

Appendix.

 A short curriculum vitae or any other document ie budget

notes giving more details on budget lines which may add

weight to the proposal

 The qualities of a good research proposal.

 1.Clearly written. A vague one will discourage funders or may not

be accepted by the advisors.

 2.Precise.A proposal is a research plan and the researcher should

stick to it during the entire study.

 3.Reasonable length. As long as the key components are included

and adequately explained the no of pages do not matter. should not

be too wordy.
  4,Worth the time and money being proposed. The rationale and the

significance of the study should be carefully thought out.

A project proposal.

 Proposal aimed at undertaking a certain project to solve an

existing problem in a community. Project proposals are action

–oriented.

Preliminary activities before writing a project proposal.

 Identifying source of research problems,

 Sources include: Past experience,indentified needs, follow up

projects National policies and strategic plans, sudden

occurencies,change in behaviour,review of literature and

Networking.

Writing a project proposal.

Basic characteristics.

 Fundable proposals-finding out whether ones ideas fits in the

organizational general operating framework and objectives.

  Collaborative proposals- Bringing together experts from

various disciplines thus making the proposals richer and the

project more viable.

 Gender sensitive proposals,-aims at addressing gender

concerns in education and other social activities.

Components of a project proposal.

A cover sheet.

 Gives crucial and important information at a glance. A

prospective funder would like to see key issues which may

determine funding clearly written,

A project title.

A proposed grant period.

The amount of funds requested.

The implementing agency.

The funding agency.

A credibility file.
  This is a brief description of the implementing agency where

the past accomplishments ,available resources, records of

collaborative work ,institutional support, work experience are

clearly explained.

An abstract.

 should give a brief outline of what the proposal is all about.

An abstract should state the

problem,objectives,implementation strategies and expected

outcome very briefly. This is the selling point of the proposal

and salient issues in the proposals should be clearly written.

The introduction/background.

 Gives a background of the proposed project and starts building

a case for the problem statement.

The problem statement.

 Articulates the problem being resolved and provides evidence

of the existence of the problem-specifies the problem. A

problem statement should give the overall goal of the project

 and demonstrate how the proposed project will help in

resolving the stated problem

The rationale /justification of the project.

 Need and the usefulness or benefits of the proposed project.

Objectives.

 The acronym SMART is a quick way of remembering the

qualities of a good objective.

Strategies and activities.

 A Strategy refers to the approach or mechanism of

implementing the proposed project, while activities are the

specific tasks to be carried out. Strategies and activities

emanate from objectives and the proposal should clearly show

the relationship btn objectives, strategies and activities. An

example of such relationship is shown below.

References.

 Its important to always acknowledge authors that are refereed

to in the project proposal.

Logical framework.

 This shows the relationship between various components of a

proposal referred to as logframe.

A logframe is a table showing either all or some of the following

components: objectives,strategies,activities,expected outcomes,

indicators of outcomes, budget and critical assumptions. The

following is an example of a logframe layout.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

SAMPLING METHODS AND TOOLS FOR COLLECTING

DATA

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a

sample

A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the

population as a whole.
Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to

make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger

population.

Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)

• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and

who is most

likely to have it.

How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)

• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However

it is not

necessary to sample the entire target population.

How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)

• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population

( probability sample)

• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain

information from

( nonprobability sample)
The needs of the research project will determine which method is most

effective

Types of Samples

Probability samples

Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known

and equal

chance of being selected.

Stratified random sample :Population is divided into mutually exclusive

groups such

as age groups and randomsamples are drawn from each group.

Cluster(area)sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive

groups such

as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.

Nonprobability samples

Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population

members from

which to obtain information.

Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her judgement to select

population

members who are good prospects for accurate information.

Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number

of

people in each of several categories.

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is

the most important aspect of a research project because anything you say

by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the type of information

you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the

questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about

computers- “garbage in

garbage out”- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool

provides the input into a

study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings),

are solely dependent o

it.
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to

ensure the validity of yo

instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of

your study.

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or

research

Questions for your study.

Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated

questions

That you want to answer through your study.

Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the

information

Required to answer it.

Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

The Questionnaire:

Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire.

A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent

for answers.

The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then

write down

the answers themselves.

It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions

(and if

necessary, explain them) and record the respondent’s reply on the

interview schedule.

Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very

flexible.

Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being

used on a large

scale.

There are three basic types of questionnaire:

• Closed –ended

• Open-ended

• Combination of both
1.Closed –ended Questionnaire:

-Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten

response categories,

and respondents are asked to choose among them.

-e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions

- Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.

- As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily

into a

computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

2. Open-ended Questionnaire:

-Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.

-Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank

section for the respon

to write in an answer.

-Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how

many people use a serv

open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think

about a service.
-As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is

more complex.

- As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer

questionnaires need to be

distributed.

3. Combination of both:

-This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and

what they think of the

service in the same form.

-Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or

scales to rank, and then

finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.

How to construct questionnaires:

• Deciding which questionnaire to use- - closed or open ended,

- self or interviewer administered

• Wording and structure of questions

- Questions should be kept short and simple--avoid double barreled i.e.

two
questions in one –ask two Qs rather than one.

- Avoid negative questionswhich

have not in them as it is confusing for respondent to agree or disagree.

- Question should not contain Prestige Bias – causing embarrassment or

forcing the

respondent to give false answer in order to look good. Questions about

educational

qualification or income might elicit this type of response

- Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions

respondents can

relate their answer to other people .

- Using closed- ended questions- try to make sure that all possible

answers are

covered so that respondents are not constrained in their answer. “Don’t

Know”

category also needs to be added.

-Avoiding Leading Question: Don’t lead the respondent to answer in a

certain way.
e.g. “How often do you wash your car?” assumes that respondent has a

car and he

washes his car. Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and

then, ‘If

you wash your car, how many times a year?’

• Length and ordering of the Questions:

- Keep the questionnaire as short as possible

-Ask easy Qs. Which respondents will enjoy answering

- If combined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for the end.

-Make Qs as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type

and length of question

- Group the qs. Into specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand

and follow.

- Layout and spacing is important as cluttered Questionnaire is less

likely

to be answered.

Piloting the Questionnaire

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it.
This means that you must test it out to see if it is obtaining the result you

require.

This is done by asking people to read it through and see if there are any

ambiguities

which you have not noticed.

They should also be asked to comment about the length, structure and

wording of the

questionnaire

Alter the questions accordingly

CHATER TWELVE

PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA

Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related

operations which

are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and

organizing

these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives).

The Data Processing operations are:

1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors

and

omissions and to correct these when possible.

2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the

basis of

common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon

involved

a) Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the

basis

of common characteristics which can either be

: descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or

: numerical such as weight, height, income etc.

Such classification can be either:

Simple classification: where we consider only one attribute, and divide

the universe

into two classes—one class consisting of items possessing the given

attribute and the

other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute.
Table 1. Hotel Employees with MBA Degree

Yes No Total

MBA Degree 21 9 30

Manifold classification: Here we consider two or more attributes

simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of classes.

Table 2. Educational Qualification of Hotel Employees

Yes No Total

MFMFMF

MBA Degree 12 9 3 6 15 15

B.Sc. H&HA 15 15 0 0 15 15

b) Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating

to

income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such quantitative

data are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the

basis of class –intervals.

e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one

group or class, those with income within Rs 4001 t0 Rs 6000 can form

another group
or class and so on.

The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the

frequency of the

given class.

Table 3. Pocket Money Received by IHM Students

Income Range Frequency %

Rs.1001-2000 10 50

Rs.2001-3000 8 40

Rs.3001-4000 2 10

Total 20 100

3. Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and

displaying

the same in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly

arrangement of

data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because:

a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement

to a

minimum.
b) It facilitates the process of comparison.

c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and

omissions.

d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation.

Simple

tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to

questions about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation

usually

results on two-way tables (which give information about two inter-

related

characteristics of data), three –way tables or still higher order tables, also

known as manifold tables.

Data Analysis Methods

Qualitative Data Analysis:

Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules

and
procedures. For this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a

process called

Content Analysis.

Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order

to identify

the main themes that emerge from the responses given by the

respondents .This

process involves a number of steps:

Step 1. Identify the main themes. The researcher needs to carefully go

through the

descriptive responses given by respondents to each question in order to

understand the

meaning they communicate. From these responses the researcher

develop broad

themes that reflect these meanings People use different words and

language to express

themselves. It is important that researcher select wording of the theme in

a way that
accurately represents the meaning of the responses categorized under a

theme. These

themes become the basis for analyzing the text of unstructured

interviews.

Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count

the number

of times a theme has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a

few responses

to an open- ended question and identify the main themes. He/she

continues to identify

these themes from the same question till a saturation point is reached.

Write these

themes and assign a code to each of them, using numbers or keywords.

Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the

themes Next

step is to go through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the

responses

under the different themes.

Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report:

Having identified

responses that fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate

into the text of

your report. While discussing the main themes that emerged from their

study, some

researchers use verbatim responses to keep the feel of the response.

There are others

who count how frequently a theme has occurred, and then provide a

sample of the

responses. It entirely depends upon the way the researcher wants to

communicate the

findings to the readers.

Quantitative Data Analysis:

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well

administered surveys

using properly constructed and worded questionnaire.

Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a computer .

Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is

reasonably small, and there are not many variables to analyse.

However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies and for simple

crosstabulations.

Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to

do this is to

code it directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings

can be used

or question numbers can be written on each column to code information

about the

question.

To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes

in a

column and then decode them.

In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be

calculated

manually. However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and

the
desire/need to communicate the findings in a certain way.

Data Analysis Using a Computer:

If you want to analyse data using computer, you should be familiar with

the

appropriate program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics

plays an

important role.

The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input

can be long

and laborious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence

the final

results.

CHAPTER THIRDTEEN

WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the

research
process. The report informs the world what you have done, what you

have discovered

and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report

should be

written in an academic style. Language should be formal and not

journalistic.

Written Research Project Report Format

Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the following format.

Title Page

-Title of the Research Project,

-Name of the researcher,

-Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project submitted in

partial

fulfillment of the requirements of National Council for Hotel

Management and

Catering Technology, New Delhi for the degree of B.Sc Hospitality and

Hotel

Administration”
-Date of Publication

Table of Contents

In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in

subheadings

e.g.

Contents Page No

Introduction 1

Chapter I Theoretical Framework and

Review of Related Literature 3

Chapter II Research Design 30

Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation 35

Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion 70

Suggestions for Further Research 75

References/ Bibliography

Appendices

Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees

Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers

List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g.

Table No. Title Page No.

1 Income levels of Respondents 31

2 Age distribution of Respondents 35

List Of Figures

This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc.

e.g.

Figure No. Title Page No

1. Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents 33

2. Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items 37

Acknowledgements

Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-

both

research guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Introduction

This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives.

It includes a rationale for the research.

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

In this section is included all your background research which may be

obtained from the

literature review. You must indicate from where all the information

Has come, so remember to keep a complete record of everything you

read. If you do not do

this, you could be accused of plagiarism which is a form of intellectual

theft. When

you are referring to a particular book or journal article, use the Harvard

system.

Research design:

This section includes all practical details followed for research . After

reading this, any

interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The

methods used for

data collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what

tool was

used for data collection, how the data was analysed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may

contain tables, graphs,

pie charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative

piece of

research this section may be descriptive prose.

Summary and Conclusion:

In this section you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from

them, perhaps in

relation to other research or literature.

Recommendations

If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client

organization, this

section could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear

recommendations

which have been developed from the research is included- sometimes

this section is

included at the beginning of the report.

Suggestion for Further Research

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include

a section which

shows how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are

inconclusive, or

perhaps the research has thrown up many more research questions which

need to be

addressed. It is useful to include this section because it shows that you

are aware of

the wider picture and that you are not trying to cover up something

which you feel

may be lacking in your own work.

List of References /Bibliography

- List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.

- A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are

relevant to the

subject.(larger dissertations or thesis)

- Small research projects will need only a reference section. This

includes all the

literature to which you have referred in your report. The popular

referencing

system Harvard System lists books and periodicals in the following

manner:

For Books

1.Authors surname ( alphabetically), followed by their initials,

2.Date of publication

3.Title of book in italics

4.Place of publication, Publisher. e.g.

Philip, T.E.; 1986, Modern Cookery for Teaching and Trade, Mumbai,

Orient Longman.

For Journal Article:

The title of the article appears in inverted commas and name of the

journal comes in italics,

followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g.

Philip, T.E.; “Influence of British Raj on Indian Cuisine”; Journal of

Hospitality Education;

5:5-11
Appendices:

If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview schedule for your

research, it may be

useful to include them in your report as an appendix.

Appendices do not count towards your total number of pages/words. It is

a useful way of

including relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper

understanding of

your work by reading it.

Certification Page:

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this research project

titled---------------------------------------------------------------

-------------- is the bonafide record of work carried out

by------------------------- for

final year B.Sc.Hospitality and Hotel Administration.

------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------

Technical Guide Research Coordinator Principal

Place---------------- Date--------------

Typing and Binding of Research Project Report:

Paper: Bond Paper ( need not be executive bond)

Size: 8.5inches X 11 inches

Margin: Left- 1.5 inch

Top- 1 inch

Bottom 1 inch

Right 1 inch

Font: Times New Roman

Font Size: 12

Spacing: Double

Binding: Black Rexin

Gold Embossing on Cover:

Research Title

Student Name

Name of Institute

Year of Submission
CHAPTER FOURTEEN

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the

sources that were used while preparing the report. It is an alphabetical

list as per the author’s surname.

For a Book: Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from

title page-underlined or in

italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if more than one, place of

publication, publishers, date on title page or copyright date. e.g. Kothari,

C.R., Research Methods-Methods and Techniques,1989,New

Delhi :Wiley Eastern Limited,4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New

Delhi 110 006.