INTRODUCTION

Incorporation of spiritual and religious aspects into psychology

More than 120 years have elapsed since William James, a key founder of modern psychology,
hosted Swami Vivekananda at his Cambridge home for lunch at 1:00 pm on Sunday, 29 March
1896. The eminent psychologist had been very eager for such a meeting, which evidently proved
quite absorbing. Unfortunately, lost to history is how that lunchtime conversation may have
shaped or catalyzed James’ subsequently published Varieties of Religious Experience, which
cited Vivekananda, and has been characterized by Wulff as “indisputably the one great classic of
the psychology of religion”.

Although modern psychology seemingly lost interest in spirituality and religion with the
ascendance of behaviorism soon after James passed away in 1910, spirituality and religion are
now globally resurgent as subjects of research, theory, and practice. In the twenty-first century,
James’ abiding interest in this field is increasingly shared by his modern colleagues in the West,
in India, and in various other parts of the world.

Indian psychologists, too, have rediscovered an interest in spirituality and religion. The Indian
Psychology Movement was launched when more than 150 Indian psychologists gathered in
Pondicherry to sign the Manifesto of Indian Psychology. Participants in this movement have now
published numerous volumes focused on reclaiming psychological insights and models from
indigenous Indian traditions and philosophies (Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma, 2014) (Rao &
Paranjpe, 2016) (Rao, Paranjpe, & Dalal, 2008). Empirical studies of spirituality and religion in
India are also now increasingly investigating these phenomena in general samples as well as in
Indian samples adhering to specific traditions such as Hinduism or Islam.

In addition to its distinctive goals, other commonly identified dimensions of spirituality include
its practices, beliefs, and experiences. All these dimensions of spirituality receive attention from
our authors, who discuss practices such as meditation, mantram repetition, mindfulness, and non-
attachment, as well as beliefs about happiness and the nature of the human being, experiences in
meditation, and many other facets of spirituality. Several articles mention the four classic Indian
approaches to spiritual practice that emphasize meditation (dhyāna yoga), devotion (bhakti
yoga), action (karma yoga), and knowledge (jñāna yoga). Corresponding to each classic yoga
has been emphasis on different practices, such as selfless action (nikāma karma) in the yoga of
action and discrimination between the changing and the changeless (nitya-anitya viveka) in the
yoga of knowledge. Yet in Indian tradition, these four yogas are not seen as mutually exclusive,
and our articles note ways that these yogas have been integrated and continue to be integrated
together (Oman & Bormann, this issue). In Indian tradition, such integration has been occurring
for at least two millennia, since the recording of the Bhagavad Gītā, itself an exemplar of such
integration.

Spirituality

A personal journey to find meaning in life, often involving a connection to the divine, nature,
or the present moment. Spirituality can be found in many forms, including art, music,
meditation, and nature. It's more flexible and inward-focused than religion, and it's centered on
personal growth and understanding.

Religion
A structured system of beliefs that's often based on a belief in a higher power or gods. Religion
is more external and organized than spirituality, and it's often rooted in the teachings of
historical figures. Religion typically involves rituals, practices, holy books, and places of
worship.

Spirituality can incorporate elements of religion, but in general, spirituality is a broader

concept. Both spirituality and religion can provide meaning and purpose in life, but each person
must decide which path is right for them.

Religion and Spirituality influencing mental health

First, religion provides resources for coping with stress that may increase the frequency of
positive emotions and reduce the likelihood that stress will result in emotional disorders such as
depression, anxiety disorder, suicide, and substance abuse. Religious coping resources include
powerful cognitions (strongly held beliefs) that give meaning to difficult life circumstances and
provide a sense of purpose. Religions provide an optimistic worldview that may involve the
existence of a personal transcendental. These cognitions also give a subjective sense of control
over events (i.e., if God is in control, can influence circumstances, and be influenced by prayer,
then prayer by the individual may positively influence the situation).

Religious beliefs have the potential to influence the cognitive appraisal of negative life events in
a way that makes them less distressing. For people with medical illness, these beliefs are
particularly useful because they are not lost or impaired with physical disability—unlike many
other coping resources that are dependent on health (hobbies, relationships, and jobs/finances).

Second, most religions have rules and regulations (doctrines) about how to live life and how to
treat others within a social group. When individuals abide by those rules and regulations, this
reduces the likelihood of stressful life events that reduce positive emotions and increased
negative ones. Examples of stressful life events that religion may help people avoid are divorce
or separation, difficulties with children, financial stress resulting from unfair practices in the
marketplace, incarceration for law-breaking (cheating or crime), and venereal diseases from
risky sexual practices. Religions also usually discourage the use of drugs and excessive amounts
of alcohol that increases the risk of engaging in the behaviors above (crime, risky sex) that are
associated with negative mental health consequences.

Third, most religions emphasize love of others, compassion, and altruistic acts as well as
encourage meeting together during religious social events. These pro-social behaviors have many
consequences that buffer stress and lead to human support when support is needed during
difficult times. Because religion encourages the helping of others and emphasizes a focus outside
of the self, engagement in other-helping activities may increase positive emotions and serve to
distract from one's own problems. Religion also promotes human virtues such as honesty,
forgiveness, gratefulness, patience, and dependability, which help to maintain and enhance social
relationships. The practice of these human virtues may also directly increase positive emotions
and neutralize negative ones.

Thus, there are many possible mechanisms by which R/S may enhance mental and social health.
This is not to say that R/S always does so. Religion may also be used to justify hatred,
aggression, prejudice, and the exclusion of others; gain power and control over vulnerable
individuals (as seen in cults); foster rigid thinking and obsessive practices; lead to anxiety, fear,
and excessive guilt over minor infractions (and even self-mutilation in some cases); produce
psychosocial strains due to failure to live up to high religious standards; lead to escape from
dealing with family problems (through excessive involvement in religious or spiritual activities);
and delay diagnosis and effective mental health care (due to antagonistic relationships with
mental health professionals). While R/S is not a panacea, on the balance, it is generally
associated with greater well-being, improved coping with stress, and better mental health. This
relationship with mental health has physical health consequences .

Psychological models and theories of religion

In the Civilization and its discontents (1930) Freud explicitly developed his theory of religion:
"Thus religion would be a universal obsessive neurosis of humankind. Just like the obsessive
neurosis in children, it springs from the Oedipus complex, the relationship with the father.
Should this concept be correct, distancing from religion should be as inevitable as the process of
growing and we are in this junction, in the middle of this development phase" (ibid., p.57).
Diversely, Jung treated the religious beliefs as a derivative of archetypal system. The archetypes
of God, Devil, Salvation and others religious primordial images are the part of human collective
unconscious and could be conceived by means of intuition that is according to Jung a special
psychological function enabling us to understand the symbols of archetypal contents. From the
newest psychoanalytically influenced interpretations of religion, we can mention the relational
models, for example those inspired by object-relation theory. In this respect, the religious
experience is modeled by the early infant-object relations and represents a reflection of child-
mother relationship with its attachment or separation dynamics.

The next wide group of psychological models of religion (religious experience) is connected to
the phenomenological approach shared by humanistic, existential and transpersonal psychology.
All these theoretical backgrounds conceive the religiousness and spirituality as the core
characteristic of the basic human potential. Humanistic psychologists (Maslow, 1954, 1971;
Rogers, 1961) connected this potential to the self-actualization processes, while Frankl (1954)
treated it as the one of the most important components of the so-called noogenic motivation
(sense of meaning as the ultimate human motive). Transpersonal psychologists (Grof, 1993; Tart,
1990, and Wilber, 1995) wiew the religious and spiritual phenomena as dimensions that connect
the individual with transcendental reality.

Devotional Practices / Spiritual practices

A spiritual practice or devotional practices (often including spiritual exercises) is the regular or
full-time performance of actions and activities undertaken for the purpose of inducing spiritual
experiences and cultivating spiritual development. A common metaphor used in the spiritual
traditions of the world's great religions is that of walking a path. [1] Therefore, a spiritual practice
moves a person along a path towards a goal. The goal is variously referred to
as salvation, liberation or union (with God). A person who walks such a path is sometimes
referred to as a wayfarer or a pilgrim. Different religions have different customs , norms and
methods of devotional practices.

Meditation is a devotional practice. Though I did not begin with this understanding articulated in
such a manner, it becomes more and more clear to me as time passes that writing poetry can also
be a devotional practice. The word devotional, as I am using it here need not suggest one
particular religious orientation, but rather, as Nick Dorsky so aptly writes in his book Devotional
Cinema, “It is the opening or the interruption that allows us to experience what is hidden, and to
accept with our hearts our given situation. When film does this, when it subverts our absorption
in the temporal and reveals the depths of our own reality, it opens us to a fuller sense of
ourselves and our world. It is alive as a devotional form.

History of “Bhakti” (Devotion) in Hinduism

Bhakti (Sanskrit: भक्ति; Pali: bhatti) is a term common in Indian religions which means
attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love. In Indian
religions, it may refer to loving devotion for a personal God (like Krishna or Devi), a
formless ultimate reality (like Nirguna Brahman or the Sikh God) or for an enlightened
being (like a Buddha, a bodhisattva, or a guru). Bhakti is often a deeply emotional devotion
based on a relationship between a devotee and the object of devotion.

The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism[1] that sought
to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve
salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE, it gained prominence through the
poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards.
[1]
It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between
the 15th and 17th century CE.

The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, and some sub-
sects were Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses),
and Smartism. The Bhakti movement preached using the local languages so that the message
reached the masses. The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide
range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to
absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.

Various Devotional practices performed in Hinduism

Deities

Within Hinduism many personal gods (Ishvaras) are worshipped as murtis. These beings are
either aspects of the supreme Brahman, Avatars of the supreme being, or significantly powerful
entities known as devas.

Murthi

Devotional (bhakti) practices centered on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with God
often include veneration of murtis. Acts of devotion can include awakening the murti in the
morning and making sure that it "is scrubbed, clothed, and garlanded." [3] Furthermore, the
building of a temple for the murti is considered the highest act of devotion.[3]

Puja rituals range from simple offerings of water, flowers, and incense in domestic shrines to the
elaborate 16 upacharas in temples. Physical expressions of humility, like the namaste gesture,
bending, or full prostration, accompany puja. Many Hindus equate it with prayer in English,
but puja is distinct, involving tangible offerings to deity images. The puja concludes with aarti.
The offerings given during puja, like food and flowers, are returned to worshippers as prasada,
believed to carry the deity's blessings. This prasada is often shared with others, extending the
puja's benefits.[6]
Darśana

Darśana or Darshan is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (seeing or beholding;), vision, apparition,
or glimpse. It is most commonly used for theophany - "manifestation / visions of the divine" in
Hindu worship, e.g. of a deity (especially in image form), or a very holy person or artifact. One
could also "receive" darshana or a glimpse of the deity in the temple, or from a great saintly
person, such as a great guru.[7]

Homa (also known as homam or havan) is a Sanskrit word which refers to any ritual in which
making offerings into a consecrated fire is the primary action. [8] At present, the
words homa/homam and havan are interchangeable with the word Yagna.[9]

Yajnas a ritual of sacrifice derived from the practice of Vedic times. It is performed to please
the gods or to attain certain wishes. An essential element is the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni -
into which oblations are poured, as everything that is offered into the fire is believed to reach the
gods. A Vedic (Śrauta) yajna is typically performed by an adhvaryu priest reciting Vedic verses.

Prasād is a mental condition of generosity, as well as a material substance that is first offered to
a deity and then consumed.[10] Literally, a gracious gift. The prasad has the deity's blessing
residing within it. It is believed to have been first tasted by the deity during the ritual offering,
symbolizing divine acceptance and blessing. In Bhagavad Gita verse 9.26, Krishna explains that
even a small offering with pure heart is accepted by God:[11]

If one offers Me with love and devotion a leaf, a flower, fruit or water, I will accept it.

— Bhagavad Gita, Verse 9.26

The tilaka, tilak or tika is a mark worn on the forehead and in some cases to the upper part of the
head. Tilaka may be worn on a daily basis or for special religious occasions only, depending on
different customs. The tilaka symbolizes the third eye, or mind's eye, associated with many
Hindu gods, and the idea of meditation and spiritual enlightenment.

A Bhajan is any type of Indian devotional song. It has no fixed form: it may be as simple as a
mantra or kirtan or as sophisticated as the dhrupad or kriti with music based
on classical ragas and talas. It is normally lyrical, expressing love for the Divine. The name, a
cognate of bhakti, meaning religious devotion, suggests its importance to the bhakti
movement that spread from the south of India throughout the entire subcontinent in
the Moghul era.

Kirtan (Sanskrit: "to repeat"[14]) is call-and-response chanting or "responsory" performed

in India's devotional traditions.[15] A person performing kirtan is known as a kirtankar. Kirtan
practice involves chanting hymns or mantras to the accompaniment of instruments such as
the harmonium, tablas, the two-headed mrdanga or pakhawaj drum, and karatal hand cymbals.

A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating
transformation" (cf. spiritual transformation).[16] Its use and type varies according to the school
and philosophy associated with the mantra.[17] Mantras originated in the Vedic tradition of India.
The most basic mantra is Aum, which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source
of all mantras.

Mantra japa was a concept of the Vedic sages that incorporates mantras as one of the main forms
of puja, or worship, with the ultimate goal being moksha (liberation). Essentially, mantra japa
means repetition of mantra,[18] and it has become an established practice of all Hindu traditions. It
involves repetition of a mantra over and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in
multiples of three), the most popular being 108.

Vrata, in the context of Hinduism, the term vrata (pronunciation: vrat, vratham or brat) denotes a
religious practice to carry out certain obligations with a view to achieve divine blessing for
fulfillment of one or several desires. Etymologically, vrata, a Sanskrit word (and also used in
several Indo-European languages), means to vow or to promise.[19] A vrata may consist of one or
more of several actions. Such actions may include complete or partial fasting on certain specific
days; a Yatra (pilgrimage) to a particular place or places; a visit, darśana and puja at a particular
temple or temples; recitation of mantras and prayers; performing yajnas.

Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Jewish spiritual practices may include prayer (including the Shema and Amidah),
reciting blessings, Jewish meditation, Torah study, following dietary laws of kashrut,
observing Shabbat, fasting, practices of teshuvah, giving tzedakah, and performing deeds
of loving-kindness.[2]

Christianity
Many devout Christians have a home altar at which they (and their family members) pray and
read Christian devotional literature, sometimes while kneeling at prie-dieu.

In Christianity, spiritual disciplines may include: prayer, fasting, reading through the Christian
Bible along with a daily devotional, frequent church attendance, constant partaking of
the sacraments, such as the Eucharist, careful observance of the Lord's Day (cf. Sunday
Sabbatarianism), making a Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land, visiting and praying at
a church, offering daily prayer at one's home altar while kneeling at a prie-dieu, making
a spiritual communion, Christian monasticism, Bible study, chanting, the use of prayer
beads, mortification of the flesh, Christian meditation or contemplative prayer, almsgiving,
blessing oneself at their home stoup daily, observing modest fashion, reconciliation, and Lectio
Divina.

Islam

Spiritual practice in Islam is practiced within salat (ritual prayer) during which Muslims subdue
all thoughts and concentrate solely on Allah, also through other forms of worship activities
like fasting, and Hajj. Among many Muslim groups, immersion in spiritual practices is thought
of as more noticeable and deep as practiced by Sufis including Dhikr, Muraqaba, and Sama (Sufi
whirling).

Indian religions
Buddhism

In Theravada Buddhism, the generic term for spiritual cultivation is bhavana. The Pali word
"yoga", central to many early Buddhist texts, has been often translated as "Spiritual Practice".
[9]
In Burmese Buddhist tradition, Awgatha is a formulaic prayer that is recited to initiate acts
of Buddhist devotion, including obeisance to the Buddha and Buddhist monks.
[10]
In Zen Buddhism, meditation (called zazen), the writing of poetry
(especially haiku), painting, calligraphy, flower arranging, the Japanese tea ceremony and the
maintenance of Zen gardens are considered to be spiritual practices. The Korean tea ceremony is
also considered spiritual.

Factors Influencing Devotional Practices in Contemporary Generations

Modern technology breakthroughs and globalization have had a tremendous impact on younger
generations' religious activities. The increased availability of digital platforms enables people to
access spiritual teachings, devotional music, and online congregations, which frequently replace
traditional in-person activities. Spiritual influencers frequently garner enormous followings on
social media, promoting simpler or updated versions of devotion, which serves both as an
inspiration and a distraction. However, modern society's hectic schedules and concentration on
job and personal accomplishments frequently diminish the time available for religious traditions.
Furthermore, globalization exposes people to a wider range of cultures and belief systems,
resulting in a more eclectic approach to spirituality in which conventional rituals are sometimes
replaced with individualized practices that incorporate components from several faiths.

Moreover, shifts in societal values and family structures influence devotional engagement. As
individualism grows, particularly in urban areas, devotion becomes more personal and less
communal, with fewer young people attending traditional congregational services. Conversely,
families that emphasize cultural heritage often instill religious practices in their children,
fostering continuity. The education system also plays a role, as increased focus on science and
rationality can either challenge traditional beliefs or encourage exploration of spirituality through
a philosophical lens. Finally, global crises such as climate change and mental health challenges
often drive individuals to seek solace in devotion, using it as a tool for emotional resilience.
These factors together create a dynamic interplay, shaping the devotional practices of current
generations in diverse and evolving ways.
Spiritual – Wellbeing

Well-being is a complex combination of a person's mental, physical, emotional, and social health
factors. It's how a person feels about themselves and their life, and is strongly linked to
happiness and life satisfaction.

Spiritual well-being is defined as an expanding sense of purpose and meaning in life, including
one’s own morals and ethics. It may include religious practices and engagement in a community
based on this, but can also include personal practices that are not defined by a religion or
religious group. Spiritual well-being has two components: Religious well-being, which refers to
the connection with God or a higher being including devotional practices. Existential well-being,
which pertains to the meaning and purpose in life. Existential well-being refers to a person’s
present state of subjective well-being across existential domains, such as meaning, purpose, and
satisfaction in life, and feelings of comfort regarding death and suffering.

Spiritual wellness is a complex and frequently misunderstood notion. It extends beyond specific
religious or spiritual practices to cover the universal human desire for meaning, purpose, and
connection to something larger than oneself. Rather than being limited to a single philosophy,
spiritual well-being appears in a variety of ways. For some, it is fostered by religious beliefs,
while for others, it stems from a deep connection to nature or a strong enthusiasm for their
career. This component of wellbeing is extremely customized, with major differences between
cultures and personal experiences. However, many feel that spiritual well-being is fundamental,
offering perspective and purpose to other aspects of life while impacting our interactions,
decisions, and overall sense of fulfillment.

Theories of Spiritual- Wellbeing

The phrase soul appears to be crucial to efforts to elicit spirituality. Indeed, the soul is sometimes
defined as the spiritual aspect of being human, and spirituality is frequently defined in terms of
the soul, as opposed to the material and physical aspects of being human. I published an article
titled "Well-Being with Soul: Science in Pursuit of Human Potential" (Ryff 2018a), and I'd want
to remark on the meaning of the word soul in the title. First and foremost, my intention was to
bring attention to Aristotle's remark in the Nichomachian Ethics (Aristotle 1925, 349 B.C.), that
the best of all human values was "activity of the soul in accord with virtue" (p. 11).

Rogers' (1961) concept of the fully functioning individual arose from his experience with clients
in therapy. He, like Maslow, felt that if psychological shields and external constraints were
removed, people would naturally evolve. His traits of the fully functioning human did not place a
focus on the spiritual dimension, yet openness to experience (i.e., living completely in each
moment and not seeing in predetermined categories) appears to be similar to Maslow's emphasis
on freshness of appreciation.

Allport's (1961) definition of maturity encompassed several traits of a mature individual,

including emotional security, warm relationships with others, and accurate perception. This trait
entailed a clear understanding of one's life's purpose, as well as a sense of direction and aim.
Notably, Allport discovered that this unified philosophy of life for some was related to religious
sentiment.

Erikson’s his final stage of ego integrity encompassed multiple things: emotional integration,
acceptance of one’s past life, feeling a comradeship with distant times, and having a love of
humankind more than of the self. He also conveyed that integrity involved achieving a spiritual
sense, which eliminated the fear of death.

The major contribution from existential psychology was Frankl’s emphasis on purpose in life
(Frankl 1959; Frankl and Lasch [1959] 1992). The critical task is to find meaning in one’s life,
including in contexts of suffering, or in the face of a world that seems meaningless. Importantly,
Frankl’s formulated logotherapy and religion as separate realms, though he acknowledged that
spiritual beliefs may make it easier for some to find meaning (Okan and Ekşi 2017). He
acknowledged diverse religious orientations, but also believed one could find meaning without
faith. Frankl himself was religious, as was his wife, a Catholic. They respected the practices of
their respective faiths.

Jung wrote extensively about religious and spiritual matters (Tacey 2013), observing that secular
society had degraded the pneuma—what the Stoic philosophers saw as the vital spirit, soul, and
creative force of the person. He lamented the rise of religious fundamentalism, a topic to which I
will return to in the empirical section. Drawing on German Romanticism, which included much
beautiful poetry about nature, he also saw the connection between the ecology of the soul and the
natural world (Tacey 2013). These ideas are elaborated in the future directions section.

This idea, developed by psychologist Kenneth Pargament, focuses on religion and spirituality as
coping mechanisms throughout stressful life situations. Pargament defines "religious coping
methods," which include seeking heavenly support, finding meaning in suffering, and
participating in religious rituals, as ways to improve spiritual wellbeing. According to the
hypothesis, connecting with a higher power or spiritual belief system provides people with
resilience and a feeling of purpose.

Maslow's theory of self-actualization ranks spiritual well-being at the top of his hierarchy,
linking it to personal progress, fulfillment, and transcendence. Maslow later included "self-
transcendence" as the highest level, emphasizing spiritual experiences, altruism, and a
connection to something larger than oneself as essential to overall well-being.

The Twelve Principles of Spiritual Wellbeing (Ellison)

David Ellison suggested a model of spiritual welfare based on twelve elements, including
purpose, tranquility, self-awareness, and connectedness. These principles emphasize the
multidimensionality of spiritual health, which includes personal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
aspects.

A final theoretical observation pertains to issues of fragmentation versus wholeness in

conceptions of psychological well-being and spirituality. On the one hand, eudaimonia
(theoretically and empirically) is notable for blending experiences of thinking, feeling, and
striving, thus transcending divisions in psychology that partition the person into separate realms
of cognition, emotion, and motivation. At the same time, the differentiation of distinct
dimensions of well-being creates another kind of fragmentation, given that most scientific work
examines these characteristics one at a time rather than considering whole profiles of wellness
(Pancheva et al. 2020).

Significance of discovering and maintaining purpose and meaning in life

The discovery and maintenance of purpose and meaning in life are fundamental to human
existence, serving as guiding principles for individual decisions, behaviors, and emotional well-
being. Purpose gives people a feeling of direction, anchoring them in the midst of life's
uncertainties and cultivating resilience during difficult times. A distinct sense of meaning is
associated with increased life satisfaction, better mental health, and lower levels of stress and
anxiety. In a broader societal context, purposeful living frequently leads to increased social
engagement, as people who feel linked to a meaningful cause or goal are more inclined to make
positive contributions to their community.

Furthermore, the maintenance of purpose necessitates continuous self-reflection and adaptation

as life circumstances and priorities change over time. This dynamic process not only promotes
personal development but also increases the sense of fulfillment that comes from one's
accomplishments and relationships. In the sphere of spirituality, purpose frequently intersects
with existential problems, providing individuals with a meaningful connection to something
larger than themselves—whether it's a higher power, the natural world, or a sincerely held
personal value. Thus, the search and preservation of purpose and meaning are fundamental
foundations of holistic well-being, emphasizing their importance in scholarly discussions about
spiritual and mental health.

Role of spiritual practices and Community mental health in promoting Spiritual-Wellbeing

Spiritual practices are essential for promoting spiritual well-being because they provide
individuals with a framework for exploring meaning, purpose, and inner serenity. Meditation,
prayer, mindfulness, and ritual observances are all useful techniques for self-reflection and
emotional regulation, which can assist to reduce stress and promote mental health. These rituals
frequently foster a sense of transcendence, linking people to something larger than themselves,
which can be comforting during times of personal or collective tragedy. Furthermore,
membership in spiritual or religious communities greatly enhances these advantages. These
communities provide a supportive network in which people can share their experiences, receive
emotional reinforcement, and develop a sense of belonging.

The collective aspect of these events frequently generates interpersonal relationships that
counteract feelings of isolation, which are a major contributor to mental health issues in modern
culture. Furthermore, the social nature of spiritual practices supports shared ideals and collective
resilience, allowing people to face crises with a greater sense of purpose and unity. As a result,
the integration of spiritual practices and community engagement emerges as a significant driver
of both individual mental health and the broader concept of spiritual wellness, emphasizing its
importance in achieving holistic health.

Spiritual wellbeing is critical in the development of holistic health, acting as a foundation that
unifies and improves the physical, mental, and emotional elements of human well-being. It is
basically concerned with a person's feeling of meaning, purpose, and connection—both to
themselves and to the larger world. This fundamental component of health promotes resilience,
allowing individuals to navigate life's obstacles with better clarity and balance. Unlike other
dimensions of well-being, spiritual health provides a unified framework for individuals to
contextualize their experiences, making it essential for a truly holistic approach to health. It
promotes a stronger sense of belonging and fulfillment, which is frequently accomplished
through practices like mindfulness, meditation, group prayer, or meaningful interaction with
nature.
Pro-social behavior
Pro-social conduct encompasses a variety of beneficial activities, including cordial encounters,
charity, and actions that decrease stereotypes. It is thought that the media can impact pro-social
conduct by presenting positive activities, which are more likely to be imitated and received
positively than negative acts. Research has demonstrated that exposure to pro-social media
content, particularly in early infancy, can lead to higher pro-social behavior. However, further
research is needed to better understand the elements that determine the success of pro-social
media content and to discover best practices for developing it.
Some study indicates that there are distinct varieties of prosocial conduct, despite the fact that it
is frequently depicted as a single, consistent dimension. These kinds are separated according to
the purpose of production and comprise:
Proactive: These are acts that benefit oneself and are prosocial.
Reactive: These are behaviors carried out in reaction to personal demands.

Altruistic behavior includes deeds intended to benefit others without regard for one's own
benefit.
Additionally, researchers contend that these various prosocial actions are frequently driven by
disparate factors. For instance, it was discovered that popularity within a group and status-linked
objectives frequently served as the driving forces behind proactive prosocial behavior.
Conversely, altruistic prosocial actions were more strongly associated with peer approval and
reaching shared goals .

Altruism is often seen as a form of prosocial behavior, but some experts suggest that they
represent different concepts. While prosocial behavior is seen as a type of helping behavior that
ultimately confers some benefits to the self, altruism is viewed as a form of helping motivated
purely out of concern for the individual in need. Others argue, however, that reciprocity actually
does underlie many examples of altruism or that people engage in such seemingly selfless
behaviors for selfish reasons. For example, a person might engage in altruism to gain the acclaim
of others or to feel good about themselves.

Theoretical framework of Pro-Social Behavior

Empathy- Altruism Hypothesis

Prosocial conduct can be explained by empathy, which is the ability to feel other people's
emotions, sympathize with them, and see things from their point of view. (Hodges, Kiel, Kramer,
Veach, & Villaneuva, 2010; Eisenberg, 2000, for example). Stated differently, we assist others
because we feel their negative emotions through a vicariously experienced experience. And we
wish to assist them in ending their unpleasant emotions. This makes us offer assistance without
any external motivation, which is selfless. The empathy-altruism hypothesis, put out by Batson,
Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, and Birch (1981), reflects these fundamental findings and
postulates that at least some prosocial actions are driven only by the desire to assist a person in
need.

According to social exchange theory, an altruistic action is one that helps the altruist more than it
costs them. Such conduct is therefore self-serving. C. Daniel Batson, on the other hand, believes
that individuals assist those in need because they genuinely care about their welfare.[1] Empathic
concern is the essential component of such assistance. Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis
states that people will assist others out of empathy for others, regardless of the benefits to
themselves.[2] Another theory is empathy-joy, which holds that people assist because they like
witnessing another person's relief.[3] The social exchange theory's criteria are applicable when
someone lacks empathy.

Need to belong theory: The notion that people have an innate need to fit in and be accepted into
social organizations and relationships is known as the "need to belong." Humans must create and
preserve a minimal number of long-lasting relationships because belongingness is a requirement.
In addition to being meaningful and important to the parties, these connections ought to be more
positive than negative.

Norm of reciprocity

According to the reciprocity principle, people must give back in kind what others do for them.[1]
It can be interpreted as the belief that individuals will react to one another by giving back
benefits in exchange for benefits and by showing either indifference or animosity toward hurts.
Depending on the social context or culture, the reciprocity social norm may take on many
shapes. This is not the same as related concepts like mutual friendliness, the Golden Rule, or
thankfulness. For a study of the ideas at play, see reciprocity (social and political philosophy).

The idea of reciprocal altruism in evolutionary biology is reflected in the reciprocity norm.
However, orthodox psychologists did not like evolutionary theory and, consequently,
sociobiology.

Hypothesis of Neagative state relief

The antithesis of the empathy-altruism hypothesis is the negative-state relief hypothesis. It

suggests that our desire to lessen unpleasant emotions drives our pro-social actions.To put it
another way, we act morally to avoid feeling guilty. It might be upsetting to know that someone
else is in pain, or more generally, to see someone else in anguish. We assist others in order to
lessen our own distress. According to research, it makes little difference if the bystander's
unfavorable feelings were triggered by the incident itself or by something unrelated to it. In other
words, you can be angry over getting a poor grade or about seeing an injury to a stranger.

Theory of Kin Selection

This hypothesis uses an evolutionary framework to explain pro-social behavior. Scientists that
investigate the genetic and evolutionary underpinnings of social structures in both humans and
animals are known as socio-biologists. Even at the expense of one's own life, they view altruistic
action as a means of protecting one's genetic makeup. This is why some spider species' males,
for instance, appear to voluntarily become the female mates' "dinner," guaranteeing to
continuation of their genes in the progeny she will bear (Koh, 1996). It also clarifies why a
parent would put their life in danger to save a child.

Factors effecting Pro-Social behavior

Ignorance of Pluralism
When there are several witnesses present, one might decide not to assist. Not just because of the
division of responsibilities, but also because misinterpreting a situation and acting badly is
unpleasant. Making such a grave error in front of multiple people could make them believe you
areoverreactingfoolishly.
Additionally, people prefer to hold back and take no action when they are unsure of what is
happening. Pluralistic ignorance is the basis for this propensity for a person to hesitate and take
no action when surrounded by a group of strangers. Each spectator relies on the others to give
them cues because none of them is certain of what is going on. If the others don't answer, then
none of them will.

Being like the victim has an impact on pro-social behavior.

Individuals who are close to them, including friends and relatives, are more likely to offer
assistance. relative to strangers. Research indicates that a victim who shares characteristics with
the bystander, such as age, country, race, etc., has a higher chance of receiving assistance.

Assisting people who are not accountable for their issues

Every element we've covered, from the presence of other onlookers to interpersonal attraction,
would have an impact on helpfulness. However, there is another factor to take into account.