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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

−(−17) ± (−17)2 − 4(6)(5)

1. Quadratics x=
​

2(6)
​

So the 2 values of x which satisfy the equation are

1.1. Quadratic Formula
5 1
The quadratic formula helps us find the solutions to a x= and x =
2 3
​ ​

quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Example 2
It helps us find the values of x for which the quadratic
Solve the quadratic equation 6x2 − 17x + 5 = 0 using
equation equals 0, which are also called the zeros of the
factorisation.
quadratic equation for this reason.
Answer
Quadratic formula (Given in MF19)
This can be factorised as
−(b) ± (b)2 − 4(a)(c)
x= (2x − 5)(3x − 1) = 0
​

2a
​

So each of the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + Logically, if we have ab = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0.
c = 0 are 5
2x − 5 = 0 ⟹ x =
2
​

−b + b2 − 4ac
x= 1
​

2a 3x − 1 = 0 ⟹ x =
​

3
​

And

−b − b2 − 4ac
1.2. Completing the square
x=
​

2a
​

Completing the square allows us to write a quadratic, ax2 +

Factorisation bx + c, in the form p(x + q)2 + r. This is useful for a
variety of reasons, which we will see later on.
Factorisation allows us to express a polynomial as the
product of simpler terms. Given ax2 + bx + c, we can complete the square using
For example: the formula:

x2 − 2x − x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2) b 2 b2
a (x + ) + c −
2a 4a
​ ​

Factorisation of a quadratic can be done through two

methods: Comparing coefficients in the expansion of (x + a)2 is
another way to complete the square.
splitting the middle term
Re-writing ax2 + bx + c = 0 as ax2 + dx + ex + Example
c = 0 [Where d × e = a × c and dx + ex = bx] Express 3x2 + 9x + 5 in the form of p(x + q)2 + r, where
Then factoring out the common factors in the p, q and r are constants.
equation Answer
A calculator
First we identify our coefficients, a = 3, b = 9, c = 5. Now
Using the “mode” button and then selecting the type
we can substitute in our values into the formula:
of equation. This will give us the solutions to a
quadratic equation, which can then be used to 9 2 92
factorise it. 3 (x + ) +5−
2(3) 4(3)
​ ​

Example 1 Which simplifies to

Solve the quadratic equation 6x2 − 17x + 5 = 0 using the 2
3 7
quadratic formula. 3 (x + ) −
Answer 2 4
​ ​

Here a = 6, b = −17, c = 5. Using the quadratic formula

You can verify your answer by expanding it and
comparing it with your original quadratic.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The line x = −b2a acts as a line of symmetry for the

1.3. Solving quadratic equations using ​

quadratic. It splits the quadratic curve into 2 equal and

completing the square form mirrored parts.
Completing the square is also called the vertex form due
It is possible to solve quadratic equations by completing the to this.
square. Given a quadratic equationax2 + bx + c = 0, it can
be written as p(x − q)2 + r = 0. Example
Find the coordinates of the vertex of the quadratic 3
By making x the subject of the formula, we get 2
(x + 32 ) − 74 .
​ ​

−r Answer
x=± +q ​ ​

q We observe that it has been written in the completing

Note that if −r < 0, the quadratic has no real solutions. the square, or vertex, form.
q ​

2
3 7
Example 3 (x + ) − = p(x − q)2 + r
2 4
​ ​

By completing the square, find the solutions to the quadratic

equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0. 3
q=−
Answer 2
​

7
First we complete the square r=−
4
​

2
5 1
x2 − 5x + 6 ⟹ (x − ) − 3 7
The coordinates of the vertex are (− , − )
2 4
​ ​

2 4
​ ​

2
5 1
(x − ) − = 0 1.5. Quadratic inequalities
2 4
​ ​

Next, we make x the subject of the formula and solve for An inequality question will ask us to find the values of x for
it which the inequality holds true.
The most efficient way to solve these inequalities is to follow
1 5 these steps.
x=± +
4 2
​ ​ ​

x = 3 or x = 2

1.4. Finding the coordinates of the

vertex
The vertex of a quadratic equation is the highest or lowest
point on the curve. We can find the coordinates of the vertex
after completing the square
Equation Coordinates of vertex
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r)
y = p(x + q)2 − r (−q, −r)

Another way of finding coordinates of the vertex is through

the general completing the square formula. Given a
quadratic, y = ax2 + bx + c:
2
b2
y = a (x + ) + c −
b
2a 4a
​ ​

x coordinate of vertex x= −b
2a
​

y coordinate of vertex 4ac − b2

y= 4a
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example
Factorise the inequality. Find the values of x which satisfy the inequality x2 + 6x +
This will help us find the intersections of the
8<0
quadratic with the x-axis Answer
Draw a simple sketch of the quadratic and label the x
coordinate of the intersections. First notice that the coefficient of the quadratic is
The quadratic curve will have a “smiley” or an U positive, +x2 , meaning the curve must be sketched in
shape if the coefficient of x2 is positive. This point the shape of a smiley or an u.
is also known as a minimum point, or a minima. Then we can factorise x2 + 6x + 8 to get (x + 4)(x +
2). Upon factoring, it is clear that the roots are x = −2
and x = −4.

We can now sketch the parabola y = (x + 4)(x + 2),

labelling the intersections with the x-axis

The quadratic curve will have a “frown” or a n shape

if the coefficient of x2 is negative.
This point is also known as a maximum point, or a
maxima.

The blue part of the curve represents the region where y <
0 and the red part of the curve represents the region where
y > 0.

As we’re trying to find the values of x for which y < 0,

we look at the blue region. Clearly any value that is
greater than −4 and less than −2 is represented in the
blue region. So the answer is −4 < x < −2.

1.6. Discriminant of a quadratic formula

The discriminant helps us find the number of intersections
Using your sketch, deduce the values of x for which the of a quadratic equation with the x-axis. It can also be used
inequality holds true. to find the number of intersections of a quadratic curve
If a question asks you to find y ≤ 0 or y ≥ 0, then the with a line or another quadratic curve.
points of intersections must be included in the range of Consider b2 − 4ac in quadratic equation
values.
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

2
Given a quadratic, kx2 + 4kx + 3k = 0, find the range of k
If b − 4ac > 0 values for which the equation has two distinct real roots.
2
This results in x = −b ± 2ab −4ac , meaning there are
​

Answer
two distinct real roots that can be found. We need to satisfy the condition b2 − 4ac > 0 to have two
If b2 − 4ac = 0 distinct real roots.
As the square root is equal to 0, we get x = −b2a , ​
The coefficients of the quadratic equation can be labelled
there are two equal and real roots. a = k, b = 4k and c = 3k , leading to
If b2 − 4ac < 0
There is a negative term inside the square root, later (4k)2 − 4(k)(3k) > 0
taught as a complex root, meaning there are no real
solutions. 16k 2 − 12k 2 > 0
For finding the number of intersections with the x-axis, 4k 2 > 0
or finding the number of roots:
Thus we get the range of k as
Discriminant Number of roots Nature of intersection with x-axis
b2 − 4ac > 0 Two real distinct roots Two distinct points of intersection
b2 − 4ac = 0
k>0
Two equal real roots One point of intersection
b2 − 4ac < 0 No real roots No points of intersection
1.7. Simultaneous equations
A simultaneous equation is a set of equations, with
unknown variables, that satisfy a condition.
These can be solved through the use of the methods of
elimination and substitution.

Finding the number of intersection between Elimination

curves
The method of elimination requires you to multiply one, or
The theory of discriminants can be extended to find the both, equation such that one of the unknown variables
number of intersections between a quadratic and shares the same coefficient in both equations.
another quadratic curve or linear line.
To find the number of intersections, we first equate This may require you to multiply the equations with an
both curves or line and then apply the discriminant integer, or an unknown variable in more complicated
formula. problems.
For finding the number of intersections between a
quadratic and another line or curve: Example
Solve the simultaneous equations
Discriminant Number of intersections Nature of intersection with curve
b2 − 4ac > 0 Two real distinct points of intersection Line meets curve at two points
4a + 2b = 8
b2 − 4ac = 0 One real point of intersection Line is tangent to the curve
b2 − 4ac < 0 No real points of intersections Line does not meet the curve
a + 3b = 7
Answer

First we make an unknown variable have the same

coefficient.
We can do this by multiplying the second equation by
4, resulting in 4a + 12b = 28, making the unknown
Example variable a share the same coefficient in both
equations.

4a + 2b = 8

4a + 12b = 28

Now we can subtract both equations to get rid of one

unknown variable, resulting in 2b − 12b = 8 − 28. This
will help us isolate one variable and find its value.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
One way of solving simultaneous equations is by equating
−10b = −20 both curves, or curve and line. This will result in a quadratic
equation which can be solved to find the points of
b=2 intersection.
Substitute the value of b into any of the two equations.
Example
This is done to find the value of the other unknown
Find the coordinates of the intersections of the curve y 2 =
variable.
4x2 − 7 and line x + y = 5 by equating both equations.
4a + 2(2) = 8 Answer

a=1 Make y the subject of the formula in the line equation,

and square both sides to get an equation in terms of y 2 .
Substitution
y = 5 − x ⟹ y 2 = (5 − x)2
The second method, substitution, makes one unknown
Now we can equate both equations, as their points of
variable the subject of the equation. This is then substituted
into the second equation to find its value. intersections must have the same y coordinate.

Upon finding the value of one unknown variable, we can (5 − x)2 = 4x2 − 7
easily find the value of the other by substituting its value
x2 − 10x + 25 = 4x2 − 7
into any of the two equations.
0 = 3x2 + 10x − 32
Example
Solve the simultaneous equation We can solve this quadratic equation in terms of x, to get
the x coordinates of intersection.
4a + 2b = 8
3x2 + 10x − 32 ⟹ (3x + 16)(x − 2)
a + 3b = 7
16
Answer x=− or x = 2
3
​

Using the second equation, we make a the subject of the Substitute this value of x into the linear equation to find
formula. the y coordinates of intersection.
a + 3b = 7 ⟹ a = 7 − 3b 16 31
− +y =5 ⟹ y =
3 3
​ ​

Substitute this expression into the first equation, 4a +

2b = 8. 2+y =5 ⟹ y =3

4(7 − 3b) + 2b = 8 The solutions to this simultaneous equation, or points of

intersection of both equations, is:
2b − 12b = 8 − 28 16 31
(− , ) and (2, 3)
3 3
​ ​

b=2

Substitute this value of b into any of the two equations. Substitution

This is done to find the value of the other unknown
variable. Another way of solving simultaneous equations is through
the use of a substitution. This allows us to write an equation
a = 7 − 3(2) of one curve in terms of x or y . The new expression can
then be substituted into the second equation to get the
a=1 points of intersection.

1.8. Simultaneous equations with Example

Find the coordinates of the intersections of the curve y 2 =
quadratics 4x2 − 7 and line x + y = 5 using a substitution.
Answer
A simultaneous equation can include a quadratic curve
and a linear line.
Solving these can be thought of as finding the points
of intersection of both equations.

Equating

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Make x the subject of the formula in the line equation to u = 1 ⟹ x2 = 1 ⟹ x = ±1

get x = 5 − y . Now we can substitute this expression as
x in the quadratic equation. Example 2
Solve the equation 6x + x−1=0
y 2 = 4(5 − y)2 − 7 Answer
Let u = x, such that u2 = x and x = u2
​

y 2 = 100 − 40y + 4y 2 − 7 Using this substitution, we get 6u2 + u − 1 = 0. This

quadratic can be factorised easily.
3y 2 − 40y + 93 = 0
(3u − 1)(2u + 1) = 0
We can solve this quadratic equation in terms of y , to get the
y coordinates of intersection. 1 1 1
u= ⟹ x= ⟹ x=
3 3 9
​ ​ ​ ​

2
3y − 40y + 93 ⟹ (3y − 31)(y − 3)
−1 −1 1
u= ⟹ x= ⟹ x=
31 2 2 4
​ ​ ​ ​

y= or y = 3
3
​

Substitute this value of y into the linear equation to find 2. Functions

the x coordinates of intersection.
A function assigns a collection of x values to only one y
31 16 value.
x+ =5 ⟹ x=−
3 3
​ ​

A function can be denoted by f (x), g(x), h(x) etc.

x+3=5 ⟹ x=2 Inputting a x value into the function f outputs a y value
[also written as f (x)]
The solutions to this simultaneous equation, or points of
intersection of both equations, is:
16 31
(− , ) and (2, 3)
3 3
​ ​

1.9. Substitutions
Many questions may ask you to solve unique equations, For example
which may not resemble a quadratic at first glance. These
can be solved by making a clever substitution, by the use of f (x) = x2 + 4x + 4
a variable, and then factorising it to solve for the values of x
When x = 2
.
The table below shows an example of possible substitutions f (2) = (2)2 + 4(2) + 4 = 16
that one can use
Equation Substitution
ax4 + bx2 + c u = x2 and u2 = x4
Types of functions and relations
ax6 + bx3 + c u = x3 and u2 = x6
ax + b x + c ​ u= x and u2 = x
​
There are many types of relations a function can have:
2 1 1 2
a x + bx + c
3 ​

3 ​

u = x and
3 ​

u2 =x 3 ​

ax−2 + bx−1 + c u = x−1 and u2 = x−2

Example 1
Solve the equation − 5x2 + 4 = 0 x4
Answer
Let u = x2 , such that u2 = x4 and x = ± u ​

Using this substitution, we get u2 − 5u + 4 = 0. This

quadratic equation can be factorised easily.

(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0

u = 4 ⟹ x2 = 4 ⟹ x = ±2

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Function Definition Graphical representation

One x-value input gives one y -value

One to One output. As an example, all linear
functions of the type f (x) = mx + c
are One to One.

Graph of y = x, also written as f (x) =

x.

As the curve y = x2 passes the vertical line test, it is a

function.
Two x-value inputs give the same y -
Many to
One value output.
Curve fails the vertical line test

Graph of y = x2 , also written as

f (x) = x2 .

Another type of relation, that is not a function is:

Relation Definition Graphical representation

One x-value input gives two y -

value outputs. This is not a
One to many [Not a function as it gives us more than
function] one y -value output with one x-
value input, contradicting the
definition of a function.
As the curve y 2 = x fails the vertical line test, it is not a
function.
Graph of y 2 = x.
Horizontal Line Test to check for One to One
Vertical Line Test to check for Existence of a Relation
Function
To check if a function has a One to One relation, we make
To check for the existence of a function, we make use of the use of the horizontal line test.
vertical line test. If a horizontal line, y = a, cuts the function at one point
If a vertical line, x = a, cuts the the function at one only then the function has a One to One relation. Else it
point only then the function exists will have a Many to One relation.
Note that a is a constant which is included within the Note that a is a constant which is included within the
interval of x-values the function is defined for. interval of y -values the function is defined for.

Curve passes the vertical line test Curve passes the horizontal line test

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The range of a function is the set of corresponding y -

values, or outputs, that the function f is defined for.
It consists of the lowest and the highest y -value the
function outputs for a given domain.
Example: y ∈ R implies the function is defined for all
real values of y .
−2 ≤ y ≤ 5 implies the function is defined between
y = −2 and y = 5, where both values are inclusive.

Example

As the curve y = x passes the horizontal line test, the

function has a One to One relation.

Curve fails the horizontal line test

For this curve, y = f (x):

The range is y1 ≤ f (x) ≤ y2

​ ​

Also written as y1 ≤ y ≤ y2 ​ ​

The domain is x1 ≤ x ≤ x3 ​ ​

As the curve y = x2 fails the horizontal line test, the

function does not have a One to One relation. It instead 2.2. Domain and Range of a Quadratic
has a Many to One relation in this case.
Domain of a Quadratic
2.1. Domain and Range The domain of a quadratic is x ∈ R, unless it is
restricted.
Domain The line x = − 2a b
, or x = q (where q is the x coordinate
​

The domain of a function is the set of x-values, or of the vertex), is the line of symmetry
We can find a restricted domain such that the
inputs, that the function f is defined for.
function has a One to One relation.
It consists of the smallest and biggest x-value the
function accepts as an input, or is defined for. Range of a Quadratic
Example: x ∈ R implies the function the function is
defined for all real values of x. The range of a quadratic depends on its minimum or
4 < x < 10 implies the function is defined between maximum y value.
x = 4 and x = 10.
Consider a quadratic equation written in the form
Range ax2 + bx + c = 0

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
We can complete the square for this equation to get the y - 2
1 33
coordinate of the vertex, or the minimum or maximum y f (x) = −2 (x − ) +
4 8
​ ​

value.
Equation Coordinates of vertex Nature of vertex Range
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r) Maximum point (a < 0 or p < 0) r ≥ y or r > y As a < 0 and p < 0, the vertex is a maximum point. We can
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r) Minimum point (a > 0 or p > 0) r ≤ y or r < y now find the range as

Note that the type of inequality sign you use (> or ≤) 33

≥y
8
​

depends on if the domain includes the x coordinate of

the vertex, q , using ≤ and ≥. The graph is shown below

Example 1
Given a quadratic, f (x) = 2x2 − 2x + 3 with a domain of
a ≤ x, find the smallest value of a for which the function
has a One to One relation.
Answer
First we complete the square for f (x)
2
1 5
2 (x − ) +
2 2
​ ​

As a > 0 and p > 0, the vertex is a minimum point with

coordinates ( 12 , 52 ).
​ ​

So the smallest value of a, for which the function has a One

2.3. Different types of Functions
to One relation, is 12 and the domain is
​

1 Square root function

≤x
2
​

Consider a function f (x) = ax + b ​

The graph is shown below The domain must be chosen such that ax + b > 0
always. In this case the domain is x > −ba . ​

The range of such a function is always y > 0

For a more general way of solving, consider a function
f (x) = g(x) [where g(x) is any function such as a
​

linear function, quadratic, or even a higher degree

polynomial]
The domain must be chosen such that g(x) ≥ 0
always
The range of function is always a positive, non-zero,
interval.

Rational function

Example 2
Find the range of f (x) = −2x2 + x + 4, where x ∈ R.
Answer
First we complete the square for f (x)

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

f (x) An inverse function reverses another function.

A rational function is a function written in the form g(x) , ​

where g(x) = 0. Commonly denoted by f −1 (x).

It is also important to note that f −1 (x) does not
​

To find the domain

1
Find the values of x for which g(x) = 0. These values imply f (x) . ​

of x cannot be inputted into the function and must Inputting x into the function f outputs f (x) while
be excluded in the domain. inputting f (x) into f −1 outputs x [also written as
To find the range f −1 (x)]
Input a large x value, such as 999 and −999. This will
help you find the y value which the rational function Consider a function f and its inverse function f −1 . These
is approaching, but never reaches. This limits the two functions can be represented as
range of the rational function.

If the function is written in the form

g(x)
f (x) = a + for x ∈ R
​

h(x)
Where a is a non-zero constant, and g(x) and h(x) are
functions. And

Then the range is f (x) < a or f (x) > a depending on

if the function is approaching the value a from above or
below the line y = a. This can be checked by inputting a
large x value and seeing if the output is greater than or
less than a.
Note that the inequality can change if the domain
changes. This gives us an important result:

Example f −1 ( f (x) ) = f ( f −1 (x) ) = x

Find the range of
An inverse function, f −1 , can only exist if the function f
2 2 1 has a One to One relation.
f (x) = + for x >
3 3(3x − 1) 3 To check if an inverse function exists, we can use the
​ ​ ​

horizontal line test.

Answer
Inputting in a large x value, such as 999, gives us Domain and Range of an Inverse Function
2 2
f (999) = + Using the previous result, f −1 ( f (x) ) = f ( f −1 (x) ) = x,
3 3(3(999) − 1)
​ ​

we can find the domain and range of an inverse function:

Which is greater than 23 , so the function is approaching this
​
Function
f (x)
Domain
a<x<b
Range
c<y<d
value from above. This gives us the range of the function as f −1 (x) c<x<d a<y<b

2
y> We observe:
3
​

The domain of f (x) is the range of f −1 (x), and vice

2.4. Inverse Function versa
The range of f (x) is the domain of f −1 (x), and vice
versa.

Relationship between a Function and its Inverse

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Using the domain and range of a function and its inverse, we
can graph both functions To correctly pick between + and - for the square root, we
look at the domain of f . As the domain of f is x > 4, the
range of f −1 must be y > 4. Due to this, we need to pick
the positive value of the square root, as it is the only way
we will get a y value output greater than 4.

So we get the inverse function as

f −1 (x) = + x + 2 + 3 ​

We can find the domain using the fact that the range of f is
the domain of f −1 .
At x = 4

f (4) = (4 − 3)2 − 2 = −1
Observations:
At x = 5
Both functions are symmetric to the line f (x) = x
Both functions only intersect at f (x) = x f (5) = (5 − 3)2 − 2 = 2

Finding an Inverse Function The y value ouput of the quadratic increases as the x value
input increases as well. So the range of f is
We can find the equation for an inverse function by
“swapping” all the x variables to y , and y variables to x, f (x) > −1
and then making y the subject of the formula again.
This gives us the domain of f −1 as
Example
x > −1
Given f (x) = 2x + 3, find the inverse of this function.
Answer Example 2
We start by swapping the x and y values Given

y = 2x + 3 ⟹ x = 2y + 3 f (x) = −(x − 3)2 + 4 for x ≥ m

Now we can make y the subject of the formula Find the smallest value of m such that the inverse function
x−3 f −1 exists.
y= Answer
2
​

So we get the inverse function as An inverse function, f −1 , can only exist if the function f
has a One to One relation.
x−3
f −1 (x) =
2 So we need to find the value of m such that f (x) is an One
​

to One function.
Example 1 We can deduce that the coordinates of the vertex are (3, 4)
Given from the given equation. Using this, we get the smallest
value of m as 3.
f (x) = (x − 3)2 − 2 for x > 4 So the domain for which the inverse function exists is
Find an expression for f −1 (x) and find the domain of f −1 . x≥3
Answer
We start by swapping the x and y values.
2.5. Composite Function
y = (x − 3)2 − 2 ⟹ x = (y − 3)2 − 2
A composite function is a combination of two functions
Now we can make y the subject of the formula Commonly denoted by g( f (x) ) or gf (x).
Inputting a x value into the function f outputs f (x). The
y =± x+2+3 ​

same value, f (x), is then inputted into another function

g which outputs g(x).
A summary of the process has been described in the image

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Answer
We can find the function g( f (x) ) by inputting f (x) into
g(x)

g( f (x) ) = 2(−2x2 + 12x − 3) + 5 ⟹ −4x2 + 24x −

It is also important to note that g( f (x) ) does not
Now we can input this value into the equation we need to
always equal f ( g(x) )
solve, f ( g(x) ) + 1 = 0
f 2 (x) implies f ( f (x) ), unless stated otherwise.
−4x2 + 24x − 1 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 4x(−x + 6) = 0
Domain and Range of a Composite Function
So the values of x which satisfy the equation are
As f (x), or the y -value output of the function f , is
inputted into the function g as a x-value input x = 0 or x = 6
The domain and range of g depends on the range of
f. 2.6. Translations
If the interval of range values for f (x) is not included in
the interval of domain values for g(x), the composite A translation moves all the points on a curve in the x or
function cannot exist. y direction, depending on the translation.
If the range of f (x) is included in the domain of g(x) New
Function Transformation Result Geometric interpretation
, but is a smaller interval, then the domain of the points
f (x − Translation of a units in the rightward, or
composite function becomes a smaller interval too. f (x)
a
(0) ​

a) positive, x direction.
(x + a, y)

f (x + Translation of a units in the leftward, or

f (x) (−a ) (x − a, y)
0 negative, x direction.
Example 1 a)
Translation of b units in the upwards, or
Given f (x) (0b) ​ f (x) + b
positive, y direction.
(x, y + b)

Translation of b units in the downwards, or

f (x) = 2(x + 3)2 − 7 for x ≤ −4
0
f (x) (−b ) f (x) − b (x, y − b)
negative, y direction.
​

g(x) = 2x − 3 for x ≤ k x direction translation

Find the largest value of k for which the composite function
f ( g(x) ) is defined.
Answer

For a composite function f ( g(x) ) to exist, the range of

g(x) must be included in the domain of f (x).

The domain of f (x) is x ≤ −4, so we must find a value of k

for which the range of g(x) is y ≤ −4
Letting g(x) = −4, we get
1
2x − 3 = −4 ⟹ x = −
2
​

y direction translation
So the largest value of k is
1
k=−
2
​

Example 2
Given

f (x) = −2x2 + 12x − 3 for x ∈ R

g(x) = 2x + 5 for x ∈ R

Find the values of x for which g( f (x) ) + 1 = 0.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Stretch parallel to y-axis

Example
x2
The graph of f (x) = + 3x + 2 has been translated by
the vector (−1
3 ). Find the equation of the resulting graph.
​

Answer
Applying the translation to the function f (x), we get:

y = f (x + 1) + 3

y = (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) + 2 + 3

y = x2 + 5x + 9

2.7. Stretches
A stretch multiples all the x or y points on a curve by the Example 1
stretch factor a. The graph of f (x) = 5x2 + 2 is stretched by a factor of 2
along the y-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.
Stretch factor and New
Function direction Result Geometric interpretation points Answer
f (x)
Stretch in the x-axis by
f (ax)
Stretch parallel to the x-axis by a
( xa , y ) for this stretch factor
factor of a1 scale factor of a1
​

​ ​

Stretch in the x-axis by Stretch parallel to the x-axis by a

f (x)
factor of a
f ( xa ) ​

scale factor of a
(ax, y) y = 2f (x)
Stretch in the y -axis by a Stretch parallel to the y -axis by a
y = 2(5x2 + 2)
f (x)
f (x) (x, ay )
factor of a1 scale factor of a1
​

​
a ​

Stretch in the y -axis by a Stretch parallel to the y -axis by a

f (x) af (x) (x, ay)
factor of a scale factor of a y = 10x2 + 4
Stretch parallel to x-axis

Example 2
The graph of y = x2 + 3x + 2 is stretched by a factor of 1
3 ​

along the x-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.

Answer
For this stretch factor

y = f (3x)

y = (3x)2 + 3(3x) + 2

y = 9x2 + 9x + 2

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

To find out the transformations applied to a quadratic

2.8. Reflections Complete the square and then compare it with f (x)
A reflection transformation reflects the graph to the x or
y axis. Example
Functions f and g are both defined for x ∈ R and are given
Function Reflection Result Geometric interpretation
New
points
by
Reflection in the x-axis. Graph is mirrored
f (x) Reflection in the x- −f (x) in the x-axis, which also acts as a line of (−x, y) f (x) = (x − 2)2 + 5
axis
symmetry to f (x) and −f (x).

Reflection in the y - f (−x)

Reflection in the y -axis. Graph is mirrored g(x) = 2[(x + 1)2 + 5]
f (x) in the y -axis, which also acts as a line of (x, −y)
axis
symmetry to f (x) and f (−x)
Describe fully the two transformations that have been
combined to transform f (x) to g(x) and in the order they
occur in.
Answer
The first transformation is the translation in the x-axis by 3
in the rightward direction. This can also be written as the
vector (−30 ).
​

f (x + 3) = ((x + 3) − 2)2 + 5 ⟹ f (x + 3) = (x + 1)

The second transformation is a stretch parallel to the y -axis

by a stretch factor of 2.

2f (x + 3) = 2[(x − 2)2 + 5]

Example
Given the equation f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 2, find the resulting 3. Coordinate Geometry
equations after a x and y axis reflection.
Answer 3.1. Distance formula
y
The distance formula helps us find the distance, or
y = f (−x)
length, between two points.
y = 2(−x)2 + 3(−x) + 2
Let us consider two points, on the same linear line,
2
y = 2x − 3x + 2 A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). The lines x = x2 and y = y1 can
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

be drawn, resulting in a right angled triangle with the line

For a reflection in the x-axis AB as the hypotenuse.
y = −f (x)

y = −(2x2 + 3x + 2)

y = −2x2 − 3x − 2

2.9. Order of Transformations

Order
Translation parallel to x-axis
Stretch parallel to x-axis
Reflection in the y -axis
Stretch parallel in y -axis
Reflection in the x-axis
The length of the base is obtained from x2 − x1 and the ​ ​

Translation parallel to y -axis

height is obtained from y2 − y1 . ​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Using Pythagoras theorem, we can derive the distance The gradient, also called the slope, describes the
formula for two points, A and B , as: inclination of a line. It gives a numerical value to the
angle a line makes with the positive x-axis.
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

It is popularly denoted by m in the equation y =

mx + c.
Mid-point formula
Consider two points, A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). A right
​ ​ ​ ​

The mid-point formula helps us find a point, usually angled triangle can be drawn, with a similar explanation to
denoted by M , which is equidistant from two other the one in the distance formula, with the hypotenuse line
points.The mid-point of two points can be found using: AB .
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
M( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Example 1
The distance between points A(0, 4) and B(a, 1) is 5 units.
Find the value of the positive integer a.
Answer
Using the distance formula:

AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

We can substitute our values in

52 = (a − 0)2 + (1 − 4)2 ​ We can apply the trigonometric ratio

a2 = 16 ⟹ a = 4 length of opposite side

tan(θ) =
length of adjacent side
​

In the context of the diagram above

Example 2 y2 − y1
A line segment, joining points A(2, −3) and B(4, a) has a tan(θ) =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

midpoint M (b, −2). Find the values of a and b.

​ ​

Answer We will also denote m as

Using the mid-point formula
y2 − y1
m=
​ ​

x + x2 y 1 + y 2 x2 − x1
M =( 1 )
​

,
​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Such that we are able to find the angle of inclination, θ, by:

The y value of the mid-point can be represent as
tan(θ) = m
y1 + y2
yM = θ = tan−1 (m)
​ ​

2
​ ​

−3 + a Magnitude of the Gradient

−2 =
2
​

a = −1 The function is going to have an increasing y value, as

the x value increases, if the gradient has a positive
The x value of the mid-point can be represented as value. This means the curve is moving upwards.
The function is going to have a decreasing y value, as
x1 + x2
xM = the x value increases, if the gradient has a negative
​ ​

2
​ ​

value. This means the curve is moving downwards.

2+4
b=
2
​

b=3

3.2. The Gradient

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

3.3. Equations of lines

Equation of line parallel to y -axis
The equation of a line parallel to the y -axis can be
written in the form x = a.
All points on this line have the coordinate P (a, y).

Angle between two lines

The angle, θ, between two lines having gradients m1 and m2 ​ ​

is given by
m2 − m1 m2 − m1
tan(θ) = ± ⟹ θ = tan−1 (± )
​ ​ ​ ​

1 + m1 m2 1 + m1 m2
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​

Note that you must take the positive value of the ratio if
you are trying to find the acute angle between two lines. Equation of line parallel to x-axis
Another way to look at this formula is by considering the
formula to find θ using the gradient m The equation of a line parallel to the x-axis can be
written in the form y = b.
All points on this line have the coordinate P (x, b).

Let the line AB have a gradient of m1 and the line DC have ​

a gradient of m2 such that

​

Intercepts
tan(θ1 ) = m1 ⟹ θ1 = tan−1 (m1 )
​ ​ ​ ​

An intercept is the point at which a line cuts the

tan(θ2 ) = m2 ⟹ θ2 = tan−1 (m2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

coordinate axes.
From the diagram above

θ2 − θ1 = θ ​ ​

This gives us

tan−1 (m2 ) − tan−1 (m1 ) = θ ​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

For this graph:

The y -intercept is (0, B)

The x-intercept is (A, 0)

Equation of a straight line

The equation of a straight line is given by

y = mx + c

m represents the gradient.

c represents the y -intercept (0, c). It can also be looked
at in terms of a vertical translation.

Point-slope formula
The point-slope formula is another way to find the equation
of a straight line.

Consider a general point P (x, y), which can be any

point on the line, and a known point Q(x1 , y1 ) which
​ ​

the line passes through.

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CAIE AS Level
Mathematics

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