Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

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Computer Networks
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comnet

Survey paper

Enhancing IoT security: A comprehensive exploration of privacy, security

measures, and advanced routing solutions
Azmera Chandu Naik a,b ,∗, Lalit Kumar Awasthi a,c , Priyanka R. a , T.P. Sharma a ,
Aryan Verma d
a
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, 177005, H.P, India
b Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Telangana, 501510, India
c Sardar Patel University Mandi, Hamirpur, 175001, H.P, India
d School of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh, EH8 9YL, Scotland, United Kingdom

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Internet of Things (IoT) is an advanced concept in computer networking that enables smooth in-
IoT security terconnection and communication across different types of devices around us. The vast applications of
Secure routing the adaptable connections of IoT devices are evident in numerous sectors, including smart surveillance,
Privacy and trust management
environmental monitoring, infrastructure management, and our home. Although IoT has numerous advantages,
Metaheuristic algorithms
its fundamental openness and dependence on wireless networks make it vulnerable to several security risks
that can cause monetary and privacy losses. This paper offers an extensive examination of privacy concerns,
weaknesses in the security of IoT networks, attacks at several layers of the IoT architecture, and steps taken to
mitigate these difficulties with computational methods. Our debate begins with an analysis of the significant
privacy and security issues faced by users of IoT devices, highlighting the need for strict security regulations.
Next, we examine a classification of attacks for each layer of the IoT in order to clarify the specific security
requirements. In this study, we present a comprehensive review of the literature, organizing current security
approaches into four major categories: authentication, encryption, trust management, and secure routing.
The review’s focus is primarily on recent advancements in safe routing. Furthermore, our analysis of secure
routing is centered around clustering techniques and routing protocols that are aware of quality of service
(QoS). We conduct a comparative examination of several techniques for each category, examining their
contributions and methods, and then identifying any potential weaknesses. Further, through this review, we
offer a comprehensive technical analysis of the difficulties and solutions related to IoT security, with the goal
of promoting progress in safeguarding IoT ecosystems.

1. Introduction as smartphones and personal computers, underscores the colossal po-

tential for data generation within the IoT ecosystem [8]. Nevertheless,
The emergence of the IoT signifies a paradigm shift in networked the sheer volume of data engenders formidable challenges in main-
communications, fundamentally altering both personal and profes- taining user privacy and data security [9,10]. Consequently, there is
sional environments [1,2]. This groundbreaking technology seamlessly a pressing need for robust security measures to thwart unauthorized
integrates diverse systems, fostering dynamic IoT platforms that syn- access, address device-level vulnerabilities, and mitigate the escalating
ergize various technologies with context-aware internet services [3,4]. threats to security [11,12].
The hallmark of IoT is its capacity to autonomously link and coordinate In the realm of IoT research, scholars have meticulously dissected
devices, thereby minimizing the necessity for human intervention [5]. the multifaceted dimensions of security, concentrating on critical as-
Projections forecast a rapid and sustained expansion in IoT device pects such as ensuring data integrity, implementing robust identity
deployments, with estimates suggesting the number will exceed 56 verification methods, establishing stringent access control protocols,
billion units worldwide by 2024 [6,7]. This exponential growth in and safeguarding privacy [13]. Some studies have focused on the foun-
dational principles of trust, privacy, and confidentiality, while others
connected devices, vastly surpassing traditional computing nodes such

∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, 177005, H.P, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.C. Naik), [email protected] (L.K. Awasthi), [email protected] (Priyanka R.), [email protected]
(T.P. Sharma), [email protected] (A. Verma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2025.111045
Received 23 July 2024; Received in revised form 28 November 2024; Accepted 9 January 2025
Available online 20 January 2025
1389-1286/© 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
A.C. Naik et al. Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

intrusion detection, routing methods, and network traffic analysis, are

also employed [16]. Industry reports and white papers from promi-
nent cybersecurity firms provide valuable insights into present trends,
potential threats, and optimal strategies.

1.2. Experimental procedures

The review employs a methodical methodology to collect, analyze,

and integrate pertinent literature and data. The procedure commences
by doing thorough database searches utilizing terms such as ‘‘IoT
security’’, ‘‘metaheuristic algorithms’’, ‘‘secure routing’’, ‘‘trust man-
agement’’, and ‘‘cyber threats’’. Boolean operators and filters are then
employed to enhance the precision of the search results. The inclusion
criteria prioritize the recentness, relevance, citation impact, and contri-
bution to the understanding of IoT security and metaheuristic routing.
On the other hand, the exclusion criteria eliminate sources that are not
peer-reviewed and research that are not relevant.
Data extraction entails the identification of crucial concepts and
discoveries pertaining to security issues, authentication and encryption
Fig. 1. Plot showing overall count of interconnected IoT devices in millions. approaches, trust protocols, secure routing algorithms, and metaheuris-
tic procedures. The documented measures include computing complex-
ity, energy efficiency, scalability, resilience, and adaptability, which
are compared to each other. Comparative analysis, on the other hand,
assesses various security models and techniques. Trend analysis is a
method used to identify new and developing directions based on recent
publications and industry reports.
The results are presented using comparative tables and charts,
which help to provide a clear and succinct depiction. The accuracy and
robustness of the conclusions are validated through expert evaluations
and cross-referencing with existing literature and standards. This sys-
tematic approach guarantees a comprehensive and technically precise
investigation of security concerns in IoT and metaheuristic routing
solutions, offering useful direction for future research and development.

1.3. Contribution

The main contributions of the article are stated as.

• We determine significant research gaps in the existing literature

and conduct a thorough review of papers.
• We conduct an analysis of various approaches using established
Fig. 2. Plot showing estimated IoT market value in billions of US dollars.
performance assessment protocols.
• We identify potential research gaps that offer insights for re-
searchers seeking the study of advanced methodologies in this
have explored broader security domains encompassing identification domain.
processes, data integrity assurance, access management, and systemic
This paper endeavors to delve into the intricate domain of IoT secu-
resilience against an array of threats [14,15].
rity, providing a comprehensive analysis of security models, potential
threats, and strategies for prevention and mitigation in Section 3.
1.1. Components By deconstructing IoT architectures into various layers, we aim to
elucidate the specific security challenges inherent in each layer through
This review employs a wide range of academic and industrial ma- Section 5. The evaluation encompasses the efficacy of authentica-
terials to offer a thorough overview of IoT security and metaheuristic tion technologies, encryption standards, trust establishment protocols,
secure routing. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 represents overall count of intercon- and secure routing algorithms in bolstering IoT ecosystems against
nected IoT Devices and Estimation of Global IoT Market respectively. malicious intrusions. Additionally, this paper scrutinizes cutting-edge
The primary sources of information consist of peer-reviewed publica- techniques for attack detection, IoT-specific routing protocols, and rel-
tions obtained from prestigious journals and prominent conferences. evant research datasets. A thorough examination of the unique security
These sources are accessed through databases such as Institute of Elec- requisites of IoT environments is conducted in Section 4, pinpoint-
trical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Xplore, Association for Comput- ing potential attack vectors across various architectural layers. The
ing Machinery (ACM) Digital Library, SpringerLink, and ScienceDirect. paper delineates recommendations for countermeasures, culminating
In addition, the analysis includes an examination of technical standards in an exhaustive discussion on fortifying IoT infrastructures to with-
and protocols established by organizations such as the Internet Engi- stand evolving cyber threats. This discourse is pivotal in ensuring
neering Task Force (IETF), IEEE, and International Organization for the resilience and security of interconnected IoT ecosystems, thereby
Standardization (ISO). Authoritative textbooks on IoT architectures, se- guaranteeing their continued functionality in an increasingly hostile
curity principles, cryptography methodologies, and metaheuristic opti- threat landscape. Moreover, in Section 6, the paper explores the role
mization algorithms offer fundamental expertise in these areas. Publicly of metaheuristic algorithms in secure routing within IoT networks.
accessible research datasets pertaining to IoT security, encompassing These algorithms, which draw inspiration from natural processes and

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A.C. Naik et al. Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

Table 1
Comparative analysis of existing surveys with proposed study.
Aspect Our article Rahdari et al. [18] Sun et al. [19] Lee et al. [17]
Consideration of metaheuristic algorithms ✓ × × ×
PRISMA included ✓ × × ✓
Challenges addressed ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Future scope included ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

1. Data Privacy and Confidentiality: IoT devices frequently gather

and send confidential data, encompassing personal, medical, and
financial information. Unauthorized entry into this data can re-
sult in privacy violations [21]. It is imperative to implement data
encryption protocols throughout the transmission and storage of
data in order to safeguard against unauthorized interception and
theft of information. It is crucial to have strong authentication
and authorization procedures in order to limit access to sensitive
data [22].
2. Device Authentication and Authorization: A significant number
of IoT devices have default or vulnerable passwords, rendering
Fig. 3. Security challenges in IoT environments. them vulnerable to illegal intrusion. Implementing firmware
update authentication on devices avoids the installation of fraud-
ulent software [23]. Enabling reciprocal authentication between
phenomena, offer promising solutions to the complex optimization devices and the network is crucial in order to thwart illegal
problems encountered in secure routing. By leveraging metaheuristic device access [24].
techniques, the paper aims to propose novel routing strategies that en- 3. Data Integrity: Adversaries have the ability to modify the data
hance the security and efficiency of data transmission in IoT networks. that is being sent between IoT devices, which might result in
The integration of these advanced algorithms into IoT routing protocols inaccurate measurements or unauthorized instructions. Employ-
ing robust communication protocols, such as Transport Layer
is anticipated to significantly bolster the robustness and adaptability of
security (TLS) / Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS),
IoT systems in the face of sophisticated cyber threats.
guarantees the integrity and authenticity of data [25]. Utilizing
digital signatures aids in verifying the source and integrity of
2. Existing surveys
data [26].
4. Scalability and Resource Limitations: Implementing adequate
An in-depth analysis of the literature of research on the many
security methods can be problematic for many IoT devices due
approaches used to improve IoT security is given in this section of
to their limited computing power, memory, and battery life. It is
the article. Recent studies have focused on developing efficient and essential to develop and implement encryption algorithms that
automated methods to help detect and address vulnerabilities in IoT are lightweight and suited for devices with limited resources in
systems in order to facilitate safe and smooth functioning. order to tackle these problems [27].
Lee et al. [17] analyzed international standards addressing interop- 5. Physical Security: IoT devices that are installed in public or unse-
erability and security in IoT environments, focusing on standards de- cured areas are vulnerable to being tampered with or stolen [28].
veloped by international organizations. It conducted a systematic litera- Incorporating tamper-resistant measures into device design is
ture review, discussed challenges, and highlighted the need for compat- crucial for safeguarding against physical attacks and maintaining
ibility and generality to achieve IoT goals. Rahdari et al. [18] study re- the security of the hardware [29].
viewed security and privacy challenges in integrating Software-Defined 6. Network Security: IoT networks might experience service dis-
Networking (SDN) with IoT systems. It examined root causes, existing ruptions due to Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) assaults
defense techniques, and future strategies, emphasizing blockchain, ma- that overload them. Segmenting IoT devices into safe network
chine learning, and encryption methods to enhance security across ap- segments restricts the propagation of threats [30]. Implement-
plication, control, and data planes. Sun et al. [19] summarized network ing Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) to oversee and identify
security risks in IoT, analyzing their causes, impacts, and mitigation atypical network behaviors improves network security.
methods. It discussed access control models, advancements in security 7. Vulnerabilities in Firmware and Software: Obsolete firmware
protocols, and legal developments in privacy protection, proposing a and software may include well-known weaknesses that malicious
new AIoT architecture for intelligent information processing. actors can exploit. It is crucial to ensure that firmware and
Table 1 provides a comparative analysis, highlighting the distinc- software updates are done promptly in order to fix vulnera-
tions between other state-of-the-art review articles and our proposed bilities [31]. Implementing secure coding methods and doing
work. comprehensive security testing during the development process
aids in reducing these risks [32].
3. Security challenges in IoT environments 8. Compatibility and Standards: The wide range of IoT devices and
protocols might result in challenges related to interoperability
The IoT links a vast number of objects, spanning from domestic and vulnerabilities in terms of security. By promoting and fol-
appliances to industrial equipment, facilitating intelligent surroundings lowing industry standards and best practices for IoT security,
and sophisticated data analysis [20]. Nevertheless, the extensive imple- we can effectively tackle these difficulties and ensure the secure
mentation of IoT has brought up notable security obstacles that must be interoperability of devices and systems [33].
resolved in order to guarantee the secure and dependable functioning 9. Cloud Security: IoT devices frequently depend on cloud services
of IoT systems. The Fig. 3 represents the holistic view of the security for the storage and processing of data, which brings about sup-
challenges. Below we present an elaborate analysis of the main security plementary security vulnerabilities. It is essential to guarantee
issues in the IoT. the security of API connections between IoT devices and cloud

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services [34]. Deploying robust encryption and stringent access 4. Confidentiality: Privacy guarantees the safeguarding of personal
control protocols for data stored and processed in the cloud and sensitive information in accordance with legal and regula-
serves as a safeguard against unauthorized access and potential tory obligations [44]. IoT devices must comply with data reduc-
data breaches [35]. tion standards by only gathering the essential data required for
10. Enhancing the Security of the Supply Chain: Utilizing counterfeit their operations. Anonymization and pseudonymization methods
or hacked components in IoT devices can potentially present are employed to safeguard personal data, and adherence to
security risks. It is crucial to maintain the security of IoT systems privacy standards such as General Data Protection Regulation
by conducting vendor assessments and using secure sourcing (GDPR) and Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) is
processes to guarantee the integrity and security of the supply vital at every stage of the IoT system’s lifespan [21].
chain [36]. 5. Trust Management: Trust management encompasses the pro-
To effectively deal with security issues in IoT, a comprehensive cess of creating and sustaining trust connections across devices,
strategy is needed that includes strong encryption, authentication, and users, and services within the IoT ecosystem. Trust models can
authorization methods, along with secure development techniques and be established using reputation, behavior, or credential-based
frequent upgrades. By implementing thorough security procedures, systems [45]. It is essential to guarantee that devices and ser-
individuals involved can reduce threats and guarantee the secure and vices originate from reliable sources and function as anticipated.
dependable functioning of IoT devices. This requires ongoing assessment and updating of trust met-
rics, which are determined by device interactions and perfor-
4. Key security prerequisites for IoT systems mance [46].
6. Identity Management Identity management guarantees that en-
The IoT ecosystem encompasses a multitude of devices and systems tities inside the IoT ecosystem has distinct and verifiable iden-
that communicate with one another, frequently in real-time, to carry tities. Efficient identity management frameworks are necessary
out diverse functions. Due to the crucial nature of these contacts, it is to manage the extensive quantity and diversity of IoT devices.
of utmost importance to prioritize security [20]. The following are the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), federated identity management,
primary security prerequisites in the IoT, condensed into six essential and blockchain-based identification systems have the capability
elements: to effectively and securely handle the administration of iden-
tities [47]. Identity provisioning, de-provisioning, and lifecycle
1. Authentication and Authorization: Authentication is the process management are essential aspects of this requirement [48].
of confirming the identities of devices, users, and applications
before they share information. This is achieved through several Securing IoT systems necessitates a thorough strategy that encompasses
methods, including multi-factor authentication, digital certifi- multiple security needs, such as authentication, authorization, data
cates, and biometric verification, which help prevent illegal integrity, confidentiality, non-repudiation, availability, privacy, trust
access. Authorization is the process of determining the actions management, and identity management. By implementing strong se-
that an authenticated entity is allowed to execute [37]. This curity measures and consistently monitoring and upgrading security
is done by implementing access control policies, such as role- procedures, stakeholders may guarantee the secure and dependable
based access control (RBAC) and attribute-based access control functioning of IoT ecosystems [49].
(ABAC), which ensure that devices and users can only access
resources for which they have been explicitly granted permis- 5. Layers and attacks in IoT
sion [38]. It is crucial to incorporate policy enforcement and
decision points into IoT infrastructures in order to successfully Layer wise attacks in IoT target vulnerabilities that are specific to
manage permissions [39]. each tier of the IoT architecture, requiring customized and sophisti-
2. Data integrity: It guarantees the preservation of the original and cated tactics to mitigate them. A summary of these attacks and their
reliable state of information that is transferred and stored by mitigation can be seen in Table 2. At the perception layer, the integrity
IoT devices. Methods such as hashing, digital signatures, and of devices and the secrecy of data can be significantly compromised by
message authentication codes (MACs) are used to confirm the physical attacks such as device tampering, node capture, side-channel
integrity of data [40]. Secure communication protocols such as exploitation (using power consumption or electromagnetic emissions),
TLS and DTLS are employed to safeguard data while it is be- and replay attacks [28]. Efficient strategies to combat this issue in-
ing transmitted. Confidentiality safeguards sensitive information volve the utilization of hardware that is resistant to tampering, the
from illegal access and disclosure [41]. Data at rest and in transit establishment of secure boot mechanisms and firmware verification, the
should be protected using robust encryption algorithms such as adoption of cryptographic protocols to ensure data integrity, and the
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and Rivest, Shamir, Adle- enforcement of strict physical security measures such as surveillance
man (RSA). Additionally, secure key management techniques and access control [29].
should be implemented to guarantee the confidentiality of en- In the network layer, various threats such as DDoS assaults, routing
cryption keys. manipulation (e.g., blackhole and wormhole attacks), Sybil attacks
3. Non-Repudiation and Availability: Non-repudiation guarantees (creating numerous fake identities), and sinkhole attacks disrupt com-
that an individual or organization cannot refuse or dispute the munication and compromise the integrity of data [50]. Mitigation
genuineness of their actions or communications. In IoT systems, techniques encompass the utilization of sophisticated DDoS protec-
the use of digital signatures and audit logs is crucial for en- tion mechanisms such as rate limiting, traffic filtering, and anomaly
suring non-repudiation. These tools enable the monitoring and detection. Additionally, secure routing protocols like RPL and IPv6
authentication of all activities carried out by both devices and over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN) are
people. Availability guarantees the functionality and accessibil- employed, along with the implementation of strong node authentica-
ity of IoT systems and services at all times [42]. It is essential tion and integrity checks [51]. Furthermore, continuous monitoring is
to have protection against Denial of Service (DoS) and DDoS conducted to detect any abnormal network behaviors [30].
assaults. This can be achieved by the use of redundancy, load The transport layer is susceptible to flooding attacks, which attempt
balancing, failover mechanisms, and network security measures to deplete resources, session hijacking, which involves interrupting
such as firewalls and IDS. These methods help to improve the active communication sessions, and MitM attacks, which involve in-
availability of the network [43]. tercepting and modifying communication. To tackle these threats, it

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Table 2
Summary of layer-wise attacks in IoT and their mitigation strategies.
Layers Attacks Mitigation strategies
Perception Tampering with devices – Node capture to extract sensitive data – Use tamper-resistant hardware- Implement secure boot and firmware
Side channel exploits (power consumption, electromagnetic verification – Use cryptographic protocols for data integrity- Employ
emissions) – Replay attacks physical security measures (surveillance, access control)
Network DDoS attacks to overwhelm network resources- Routing Deploy DDoS protection mechanisms (rate limiting, traffic filtering)
manipulation for data interception- Sybil attacks to create fake – Use secure routing protocols (e.g., Routing Protocol for Low-Power
nodes – Sinkhole attacks and Lossy Networks (RPL), IPv6 over Low-power Wireless Personal
Area Networks(6LoWPAN)) – Implement node authentication and
integrity checks – Monitor for anomalous network behavior
Transport Flooding to disrupt communication-Session hijacking for Implement message authentication (HMAC)- Use secure transport
unauthorized access – Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks protocols (TLS, DTLS) – Apply session keys with forward
secrecy-Detect and prevent MitM attacks (certificate pinning, secure
handshake protocols)
Application Injection of malicious data – Malware/Ransomware targeting Validate input data (input sanitization, parameterized queries) –
devices – Phishing attacks – Unauthorized access to applications Employ application firewalls and intrusion detection systems –
Regularly update software and firmware – Use secure authentication
mechanisms (OAuth, JSON Web Token (JWT))
Security Cryptographic algorithm weaknesses – Key management Use strong cryptographic algorithms (AES, RSA) – Implement secure
vulnerabilities – Firmware manipulation key management (key rotation, secure storage) – Verify firmware
integrity (digital signatures) – Conduct regular security audits and
penetration testing

security audits and penetration testing are crucial for identifying and
addressing vulnerabilities. By specifically targeting these various risks
with customized technical solutions, the security and robustness of IoT
systems can be greatly improved.

6. MetaHeuristic secure routing for IoT networks

Metaheuristic secure routing for IoT security integrates sophisti-

cated optimization methods with secure communication protocols to
tackle the distinctive difficulties of IoT networks [55]. These strategies
are crucial for delivering efficient, dependable, and secure data transfer
in contexts that have limited resources, scaling problems, and various
ways in which they can be attacked [56]. In this article, we will explore
the technical elements and offer a distinct viewpoint on the application
of metaheuristic algorithms to improve the security of IoT systems.
Fig. 4. Layers in IoT and respective vulnerable attacks.
6.1. Overview of metaheuristic algorithms

is necessary to utilize message authentication codes (HMAC), employ Metaheuristics are advanced optimization algorithms specifically
secure transport protocols (TLS, DTLS) that offer end-to-end encryption, developed to explore extensive and intricate search spaces with the
utilize session keys with forward secrecy to safeguard past session objective of identifying optimal or nearly optimal solutions [57]. They
keys from being compromised, and employ techniques like certificate are especially efficient in situations where conventional deterministic
pinning and secure handshake protocols to detect and prevent MitM approaches are unsuccessful because to the magnitude, intricacy, or
attacks [52]. dynamic characteristics of the problem [58]. The main metaheuristic
At the application layer, several types of attacks, including data algorithms employed in secure routing for IoT are:
injection (such as SQL injection and command injection), distribution
of malware or ransomware, phishing assaults, and unauthorized access, 1. Genetic Algorithms (GA)
can cause major disruptions to services and jeopardize the security GA are derived from the ideas of natural selection and genetics.
of data [53]. In order to reduce these risks, it is essential to verify The process involves manipulating a group of potential answers,
and cleanse input data (by utilizing parameterized queries and input known as chromosomes, which undergo changes and improve-
validation libraries), implement application-layer firewalls and intru- ments across multiple generations [59]. The methodology for
sion detection systems, consistently update software and firmware to this approach can be seen in algorithm 1. In the initialization
address vulnerabilities, and employ secure authentication mechanisms phase, a population of chromosomes, which represents poten-
(such as OAuth and JWT) [54]. tial routing paths, is produced randomly. Every chromosome is
The security layer includes security protocols and techniques that composed of genes that serve as nodes in the network [60].
span across multiple layers. Significant dangers are posed by crypto- The fitness of each chromosome is assessed using a composite
graphic attacks that exploit algorithm deficiencies, vulnerabilities in measure that takes into account energy consumption, delay,
key management, and manipulation of firmware. Effective mitigation and security level (e.g., ability to withstand known attacks).
strategies involve the utilization of robust cryptographic algorithms In the selection phase, Chromosomes with greater fitness val-
such as AES and RSA, the adoption of secure key management practices ues have a better probability of being chosen for reproduction.
including key rotation and the use of secure storage solutions like Various techniques, such as roulette wheel selection, tourna-
Hardware Security Modules. A holistic view of the attacks and their ment selection, or rank-based selection, can be employed. Now,
presence in each layer can be seen in Fig. 4. Additionally, verifying comes the crossover, which is the process of combining pairs of
firmware integrity through digital signatures and conducting routine chromosomes by crossover operations, such as single-point or

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multi-point, to generate offspring that inherit traits from both convergence criterion, which could be a specified maximum
parents. Now, in the mutation, Random modifications are made number of iterations or a predetermined acceptable level of
in certain genes of the offspring to uphold genetic variety and fitness. PSO-based secure routing protocols provide a harmo-
avoid early convergence [61]. Finally, the termination where nious combination of exploration and exploitation, facilitating
the algorithm continues to run through numerous generations the identification of superior solutions in intricate IoT networks.
until it satisfies a convergence criterion, which could be either Due to their rapid convergence, they are well-suited for real-time
reaching a maximum number of generations or achieving a applications [67].
desired fitness level.
GA based secure routing protocols possess the ability to dy- Algorithm 1 Genetic Algorithm (GA)
namically adjust to fluctuating network conditions and threats Initialize population 𝑃 (𝑡) with 𝑁 individuals randomly.
through the continual evolution of routing paths. This results in Evaluate fitness of each individual in 𝑃 (𝑡).
the provision of resilient and adaptable security measures [62]. while stopping condition not met do
2. Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Select parents from 𝑃 (𝑡) based on their fitness.
The ACO algorithm simulates the behavior of ants searching Perform crossover on selected parents to generate offspring.
for the shortest path by using pheromone trails to guide the Apply mutation to offspring with probability 𝑝𝑚 .
search process [63]. Ants probabilistically choose paths based on Evaluate fitness of offspring.
pheromone levels and heuristic information, iteratively building Select individuals for the next generation 𝑃 (𝑡+ 1) from the current
solutions and updating pheromone trails to reflect the quality population and offspring.
of the solutions found. The process continues until a stopping 𝑡←𝑡+1
condition, such as a maximum number of iterations, is met. The end while
complete steps of this method can be seen in algorithm 2. return the best individual found
This algorithm starts with pheromone initialization where each
conceivable path in the network is assigned an initial level of
pheromone 𝜏𝑖𝑗 (0) on all paths (𝑖, 𝑗) with parameters: number of Algorithm 2 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)
ants 𝑚, pheromone evaporation rate 𝜌, pheromone influence 𝛼, Initialize pheromone trails 𝜏𝑖𝑗 for all edges (𝑖, 𝑗).
and heuristic influence 𝛽. The ants use a probabilistic method to Initialize parameters 𝛼 (influence of pheromone), 𝛽 (influence of
choose their next path, taking into account the concentration of heuristic), 𝜌 (pheromone evaporation rate).
pheromones and other factors such as the energy level of nodes while stopping condition not met do
and security metrics. We define heuristic information 𝜂𝑖𝑗 for each for each ant 𝑘 do
path (𝑖, 𝑗), typically 𝜂𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑1 , where 𝑑𝑖𝑗 is the distance between Place ant 𝑘 on a randomly chosen starting node.
𝑖𝑗
nodes 𝑖 and 𝑗. There is a probability 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑘 (𝑡) that ant 𝑘 moves from Build a solution by moving from node to node:
node 𝑖 to node 𝑗 at time 𝑡. while solution not complete do
Now, in the stage of pheromone update, after ants finish their Select the next node 𝑗 to move to using probability:
journeys, the levels of pheromones are updated. After all ants 𝜏𝑖𝑗𝛼 𝜂𝑖𝑗𝛽
have constructed their solutions, update the pheromone levels 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑘 = ∑
𝛼 𝛽
𝑙∈allowed 𝜏𝑖𝑙 𝜂𝑖𝑙
on all paths, where pheromone evaporation can be defined as
𝜏𝑖𝑗 (𝑡+1), pheromone deposition by ants can be defined as 𝜏𝑖𝑗 (𝑡+1). Move to node 𝑗 and update the current solution.
Now, Pheromone deposited by ant 𝑘 on path (𝑖, 𝑗) is 𝛥𝜏𝑖𝑗𝑘 (𝑡). end while
In order to prevent the algorithm from settling on a less ideal end for
option, the levels of pheromones decrease gradually over time, Update pheromone trails:
allowing the system to search for new paths. The process is ∑
𝑚

repeated, with pheromone trails directing the ants towards paths 𝜏𝑖𝑗 ← (1 − 𝜌)𝜏𝑖𝑗 + 𝛥𝜏𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝑘=1
that are progressively more secure and efficient [64].
ACO-based protocols exhibit exceptional efficacy in dynamic IoT where
{
contexts, where the capacity to consistently adjust and improve 𝑄
if ant 𝑘 used edge (𝑖, 𝑗) in its tour
routes in reaction to evolving network conditions is vital for 𝛥𝜏𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝐿𝑘
0 otherwise
upholding security and efficiency [65].
3. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) end while
PSO is a computational technique that is based on the collective return best solution found
behavior of birds flocking or fish schooling. Every individual
particle within the swarm symbolizes a potential route for rout- 6.2. Utilization in IoT security
ing purposes [66]. These particles modify their positions by
taking into account their own past experiences as well as the Illustration: Ensuring Secure Routing in Smart Grids
experiences of nearby particles. A complete overview of this Smart grids, a crucial implementation of the IoT, necessitate the
method can be seen in algorithm 3. secure and effective transmission of data among sensors, actuators, and
A group of particles is initialized with randomly assigned coor- control systems. Metaheuristic algorithms can improve the security of
dinates (routing pathways) and velocities. The fitness of each smart grid communication by optimizing routing paths to eliminate
particle is assessed based on parameters such as energy con- weaknesses and guarantee the integrity and confidentiality of data.
sumption, delay, and security level. Now, the velocity of each GAs have the ability to develop routing patterns that achieve a
particle is modified according to its individual best position and balance between load distribution, energy consumption, and security
the best position discovered by the entire group of particles. The metrics [68]. This ensures that data is transmitted through the most
update rule integrates cognitive and social elements to achieve secure and efficient paths [69].
a balance between exploration and exploitation. Finally, Parti- ACO is capable of adapting routing pathways in real-time to accom-
cles are relocated to new positions according to their revised modate network changes, such as node failures or emerging security
velocities. The algorithm continues to run until it reaches a risks, by utilizing pheromone-based adaptive processes [70].

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A.C. Naik et al. Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

Fig. 5. Prisma flowchart for selection of articles.

Algorithm 3 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

Initialize the swarm {𝐱𝑖 }𝑁 𝑖=1
with 𝑁 particles, randomly.
Initialize the velocity {𝐯𝑖 }𝑁 𝑖=1
of each particle randomly.
Initialize the best known position of each particle {𝐩𝑖 }𝑁 𝑖=1
to its initial
position.
Initialize the global best position 𝐠 to the best particle’s position.
while stopping condition not met do
for each particle 𝑖 do
Evaluate the fitness 𝑓 (𝐱𝑖 ).
if 𝑓 (𝐱𝑖 ) < 𝑓 (𝐩𝑖 ) then
Update the particle’s best known position 𝐩𝑖 ← 𝐱𝑖 .
end if
if 𝑓 (𝐱𝑖 ) < 𝑓 (𝐠) then Fig. 6. Number of publication from 2020 to 2024.
Update the global best position 𝐠 ← 𝐱𝑖 .
end if
end for
7. Research strategy
for each particle 𝑖 do
Update velocity:
This systematic review, employing the Preferred Reporting Items
𝐯𝑖 ← 𝜔𝐯𝑖 + 𝑐1 𝑟1 (𝐩𝑖 − 𝐱𝑖 ) + 𝑐2 𝑟2 (𝐠 − 𝐱𝑖 ) for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) technique, covers
the period from 2020 to 2024. The review involves a comprehensive
Update position:
search conducted on well-known academic databases such as Web of
𝐱𝑖 ← 𝐱𝑖 + 𝐯𝑖 Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and IEEE Xplore. The search
criteria were carefully formulated to specifically target research publi-
end for
cations that are relevant to IoT security, privacy, and advanced routing
end while
solutions.
return 𝐠
The paper outlines a comprehensive search technique, as seen in
Fig. 5. The flowchart provides a comprehensive and unbiased repre-
sentation of the methodical steps taken to achieve a thorough search
PSO rapidly achieves optimal routing solutions, guaranteeing se- process. During the identification step, scholarly publications from
cure and efficient smart grid communications, even in dynamic con- reputable publishers such as Elsevier, Springer Nature, Wiley, and IEEE
texts [71]. were obtained using the specified search technique. After applying
strict criteria to include and exclude papers, a secondary screening
Metaheuristic secure routing in IoT security provides a flexible and
process was conducted based on the titles and abstracts. This pivotal
robust method for tackling the distinct difficulties of IoT networks [72].
stage narrowed down the original corpus to papers that directly corre-
By utilizing the adaptive and optimization abilities of algorithms such sponded with the research objectives. In the end, a total of 51 papers
as GAs, ACOs, and PSO, these protocols can offer strong, efficient, were chosen for thorough examination.
and secure routing solutions specifically designed for the dynamic The study includes a chart as seen in Fig. 6 that visually displays
and resource-limited characteristics of IoT environments [73]. The the number of publications per year from 2020 to 2024. This image
incorporation of metaheuristics into IoT security protocols enables the provides an accurate representation of the chronological distribution of
development of robust and flexible IoT systems that can effectively research results. The methodical search technique ensured a thorough
counter growing security threats and operational issues [74]. collection of relevant research papers, while the careful screening

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A.C. Naik et al. Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

mechanisms and rely on knowledge-based solutions, which are unsuit-

able for security. mWIoTAuth, an implicit IoT end-user authentication
method, uses data from different market wearables to improve security.
Specifically, they use Wellue heart rate and oxygen saturation data
and Fitbit heart rate, calorie burn, and step count data. The premise is
that combining heart rate and oxygen saturation and calorie burn data
from numerous wearables will improve user identification accuracy.
Two cohorts of 40 participants were analyzed in their 2-phase study.
The participants wore Wellue and Fitbit devices for 8 h a day. Models
combining data from both wearables had 5%–14% higher accuracy
and F1 scores than those using only one wearable. These findings
show that multi-wearable implicit authentication can secure wearable
IoT devices. The study found that, by considering positional variation
on distinct body parts, several wearables can uniquely and accurately
identify persons, making the IoT ecosystem’s authentication process
Fig. 7. Number of publications referred in this survey.
more secure.
Xiao et al. [76] fix consumer IoT token-based authentication issues.
Stolen access tokens allow attackers to impersonate devices and commit
crimes in these systems. The authors suggest reliable hardware finger-
process assured the inclusion of studies of high quality. Studies included
print authentication reduces these difficulties. They admit MitM attacks
in this survey are shown in Fig. 7 summarized across fields. This
can offer attackers hardware fingerprints to train machine learning al-
comprehensive methodology enables a comprehensive examination of
gorithms to repeat or generate requests. MCU-Token, a secure hardware
privacy, security measures, and innovative routing solutions in the IoT
fingerprinting method for MCU-based IoT devices, can prevent these
area. attacks. It employs compromised private key cryptography. The pay-
load’s short hardware fingerprint-based token makes MCU-Token easy
8. Literature review to utilize in IoT devices. To reduce reuse, message mapping links tokens
to requests using request payload hardware fingerprints. This binding
Networks are distinguished by their diverse nature, extensive size, eliminates replay attacks by making tokens request-specific. To prevent
and limitations in resources. These characteristics present substan- machine learning attackers from training models with stolen tokens,
tial security obstacles, highlighting the necessity to develop resilient MCU-Token poisons fingerprint data. Attackers cannot replay, create,
and effective routing protocols. The primary goals of IoT security are or offload requests with MitM and hardware and software fingerprint
safeguarding data privacy, maintaining confidentiality, and shielding imitating. Over 97% accuracy and low overhead are achieved in MCU-
information, hardware, and infrastructure against diverse cyber attacks. Token system evaluation in IoT devices and applications. MCU-Token’s
The dynamic and resource-limited nature of IoT systems sometimes accuracy and efficiency make it a dependable IoT device authentication
renders traditional security methods ineffective. Metaheuristic routing and access control solution.
algorithms, renowned for their adaptability and optimization prowess, Aldosary et al. [77] examined IoT integration into valuable infras-
provide a practical solution to these issues. tructure like smart healthcare systems. The study illustrates IoT devices’
The scope of our survey encompasses a wide array of previous low processing capability in diverse applications. These gadgets publish
techniques used for authentication, encryption, trust management, and critical patient data, making it susceptible to hackers. To solve this,
safe routing in IoT networks. The review encompasses the following: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) developed com-
putationally efficient authenticated encryption algorithms. The paper
• Authentication Techniques: A comprehensive examination of dif- states that symmetric and asymmetric encryption authentication meth-
ferent authentication procedures, including an assessment of their ods are computationally intensive and sensitive to privileged insider
advantages and disadvantages. attacks and medical server key compromises. Aldosary et al. presents
• Encryption Methods: This article provides an overview of encryp- the Population attributable fraction (PAAF-SHS) framework, which
tion techniques specifically designed for IoT contexts, with a focus uses GIFT-COFB (COmbined FeedBack) authenticated encryption and a
on solutions that are lightweight and energy-efficient. Physically Unclonable Functions (PUF). This architecture encrypts user-
• Trust Management Approaches: An analysis of various trust eval- medical server communication even if the key is compromised. Server
uation methods and their efficacy in enhancing the security of IoT key and insider attack resistance improves with PUF. BAN logic verifies
networks. the framework’s logical validity, while informal security analysis and
• Secure Routing Protocol: Comprehensive analysis of current se- Scyther validation verify impersonation, replay, and DDoS resistance.
cure routing protocols, with a focus on those that utilize meta- Testing shows that PAAF-SHS lowers processing and communication
heuristic algorithms to improve security and QoS. costs and increases security.
Puthiyidam et al. [78] examine IoT client authentication progress
and the limitations of RSA and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algo-
8.1. Authentication rithm (ECDSA). These methods are resource-intensive and attackable.
T-ECDSA, an improved algorithm, uses elliptic curve encryption and
Authentication is a crucial security feature, but its implementation non-interactive zero-knowledge proving. Encoding and decoding digital
in IoT needs ongoing enhancement to tackle emerging threats and signatures with a timestamp-based key scheme is novel. This prevents
guarantee strong protection for devices and users. A summary of nine signature reuse and improves security by limiting signature valid-
papers that outline or suggest various authentication strategies are ity. T-ECDSA was designed to work with Message Queuing Telemetry
given in the Table 3 starting with Vhaduri et al. [75]. Transport (MQTT), a popular IoT standard for efficient communication.
Wearables and the IoT offer security risks, according to Vhaduri T-ECDSA integrated directly into the MQTT broker eliminates the need
et al. Smartwatches, fitness bands, and smart glasses are used for bank- for an authentication server, simplifying authentication. T-ECDSA out-
ing and smart device control. Some wearables capture considerable performs ECDSA in security, speed, and execution efficiency, according
physiological and behavioral data, but they lack strong authentication to the study. T-ECDSA may address the security needs of IoT devices

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Table 3
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art authentication Strategies.
Author Objective Domain Experimental findings Advantage Disadvantage
Vhaduri et al. [75] Enhance IoT security using Wearable tech and Model accuracy and F1 Improved security with Integration complexities
multi-wearable IoT score multi-wearable data and real-time challenges
authentication.
Xiao et al. [76] Enhance IoT device IoT device High accuracy (over 97%) Security even if Implementation
security with secure authentication and with low overhead cryptographic mechanisms complexity, ongoing threat
hardware fingerprinting access control are compromised, resistant monitoring needed
to machine learning
attacks
Aldosary et al. [77] Secure IoT-enabled Smart IoT-enabled Smart Improved security against Enhanced encryption and Implementation
Healthcare Systems (SHS) Healthcare Systems insider and key authentication, resilience complexity, key
with limited resources (SHS) compromise attacks, against common attacks management challenges
reduced costs
Puthiyidam et al. [78] Enhance IoT client IoT client Improved security, reduced Enhanced authentication Integration complexity, key
authentication with authentication and time and complexity security, improved MQTT management
T-ECDSA MQTT client authentication
communication
Hwaitat et al. [79] Enhance IoT security with Blockchain-based Improved scalability, Decentralized Implementation
a blockchain-based IoT security and optimized storage, authentication, lightweight complexity, ongoing
authentication framework privacy enhanced security mechanism, homomorphic security monitoring
encryption
Nguyen et al. [80] Enhance 5G-IoT security 5G-IoT security and High detection accuracy Effective in 5G-IoT Implementation
with RF fingerprinting and authentication (99.35%), low training ecosystems, standalone or complexity, ongoing model
Deep learning time part of multifactor updates
authentication
Li et al. [81] Develop a secure Blockchain-based Improved security and Enhanced security with Potential complexity in
cross-domain IoT authentication availability in cross-domain blockchain technology, implementation, requires
authentication scheme for and data exchange authentication efficient authentication blockchain expertise
IoT using blockchain process
cross-chain technology
Goswami et al. [82] Develop an efficient 5G network Enhanced security and Lightweight elliptic curve Potential complexity in
scheme for group authentication for efficiency compared to cryptography, works as an integration, requires
authentication of IoT IoT devices similar proposals extension to 5G-AKA careful implementation for
devices in 5G networks protocol scalability
Pahlevi et al. [83] Develop secure IoT IoT device Optimal FAR and FRR, Two-factor authentication, Implementation
authentication with authentication resistance to attacks MQTT support complexity, sensor
two-factor RFID and reliability
fingerprint

with minimal computational capability. revolutionary impact and widespread adoption in certificate main-
Hwaitat et al. [79] found that decentralized IoT applications neglect tenance and network access verification. Secure data exchange and
privacy and trust. IoT network quality has improved using blockchain- cross-domain key sharing in IoT are solved by the study. It uses a
based solutions. Their blockchain-based authentication architecture ad- blockchain cross-chain framework with an upgraded Practical Byzan-
dresses decentralized identity verification in IoT devices. It secures net- tine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) algorithm for cross-domain authentication.
work and external communication. Current blockchain-based IoT sys- The proposed architecture uses blockchain technology for cross-domain
tems struggle with complexity and storage overhead, while a blockchain authentication and a custom block data format to improve access
with permissions improves data storage and authentication. Their authentication. Smart contracts perform authentication. To secure data,
research uses homomorphic encryption to protect IoT data at the user’s authentication information is encrypted and shared through key shar-
end before uploading it to the cloud, boosting data privacy. This ing techniques. The scheme’s security and availability benefits can
method improves storage, scalability, security, and privacy to match improve IoT authentication in multidomain situations, as shown by
the trust-aware security paradigm in IoT environments. Benchmark simulation results.
frameworks and comprehensive simulations show that the proposed Goswami et al. [82] examine the challenges of registering and
strategy improves IoT security, privacy, and connection. authenticating IoT devices in 5G networks. They note that IoT devices
Nguyen et al. [80] offer a new 5G-IoT node authentication method make using Universal Subscriber Identity Modules (USIMs) for device
for next-generation networks. They note that resource-constrained IoT authentication cumbersome and impracticable. The research proposes
devices and inadequate cryptography-based IDS in 5G-IoT ecosys- a 5G-based remote registration and group authentication method for
tems increase threat surfaces. Their technique trains a Deep Learning IoT devices to solve this challenge. This method adds group-based
model for node authentication utilizing Mahalanobis Distance and Chi- authentication to 5G-AKA. Elliptic curve encryption, known for its
square distribution theories employing unique radio frequency (RF) efficiency and compliance with resource-constrained IoT situations, is
fingerprinting data. Improved detection accuracy (99.35%) and shorter emphasized. Compared to other recent approaches in the literature,
training time make this approach helpful for next generation net- the authors’ security analysis and performance evaluations demonstrate
work(NGNs). European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)- their plan’s efficacy and efficiency. This research contributes to tackling
open source Network functions virtualization (NFV) management and 5G authentication issues created by the rapid growth of IoT devices.
orchestration (OSM-MANO) platform experiments on AWS cloud prove It offers a practical and secure device authentication solution for this
its real-world applicability. The proposed security mechanism can be situation.
used alone or with multifactor authentication. Pahlevi et al. [83] forecast 75 billion IoT devices by 2025, raising se-
Li et al. [81] studied blockchain-based IoT cross-domain authenti- curity problems. However, IoT devices are vulnerable to brute force and
cation in a large multidomain context. They emphasize blockchain’s sniffer attacks because their security features have not kept pace with

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versatile and effective solution for protecting IoT data during storage
and transmission.
Li et al. [86] proposed AI-based improved encryption to secure
multi-type data storage and transmission in autonomous IoT systems.
This approach protects endpoints and intermediate nodes. Using a
three-dimensional Arnold transformation matrix to encrypt data unit
values at IoT endpoints complicates the encryption process. Quantum
logic intelligent mapping distributes encrypted data units, reducing lin-
ear correlation of picture data and securing edge data. AI is also given a
technique to jumble sequence nodes, creating a random-access channel
for sequence components. This saves computing costs and boosts system
efficiency. The application implements the (k, n) threshold technique
Fig. 8. Working of RFID technology for authentication.
for secure data sharing using a shared data matrix. Experimental results
show high sensitivity to both the plaintext and encryption keys, which
strengthens the algorithm’s resilience to brute force, statistical analysis,
their growth. The document advises using Radio-Frequency IDentifi- and differential assaults. This AI-driven encryption solution secures
cation (RFID) and fingerprint technology for two-factor identification data storage and transmission in self-governing IoT systems.
to mitigate these risks. This system is for low-resource IoT devices Mashhadani et al. [99] focused on IoT security, a technology that
and its working is described in Fig. 8. This research prioritizes mes- merges the physical and digital worlds and has tremendous commercial
sage exchange and mutual authentication security, which conventional value in energy and health. Due to its complexity and resource con-
protocols neglect. straints, IoT security is problematic. The researchers recommend using
The suggested MQTT system uses RFID and fingerprint authenti- AES technology to fix this. Sensors are connected to a Espressif Systems
cation for safe mutual authentication. Registration and authentication ESP32 module for the study. These sensors’ data is encrypted and sent
boost security. Protocol testing measures fingerprint false acceptance to an authorized internet site using the ESP32 module. A publicly
and rejection rates to evaluate biometric security. Aim for optimum available IP address in the ESP32 device module’s internal network can
rates at 80%, with an equal error rate (ERR) of 59.5%. Empirical also be used to access the data. Decryption is also proposed to securely
investigations show the protocol resists brute force and sniffer attacks. retrieve valid sensor values. The suggested method ensures sensor data
The results show that the two-factor authentication approach improves transport and reception in IoT devices with strong security and good
IoT device security and protects against common cyber threats. performance. This method uses AES technology to provide high security
The best authentication method for IoT depends on the environ- for IoT devices with minimal resources. In healthcare systems that
ment and requirements. However, Xiao et al.’s MCU-Token technique must secure patient health records (PHR), Ali et al. [100] focus on
achieves a balance of precision, low cost, and resilience to replay IoT security and privacy. Group theory (GT)-based binary spring search
and machine learning attacks. This approach to IoT device security (BSS) with a hybrid deep neural network approach is proposed for
is pragmatic and efficient, making it ideal for low-resource environ- IoT intrusion detection. First, blockchain-based privacy is implemented.
ments while addressing major security issues. The PAAF-SHS design by The Internet of Medical Things makes PHR security vital, the research
Aldosary et al. is appealing for smart healthcare systems. Because it says. Traditional keyword-based access is unsafe. Blockchain technol-
uses PUFs with GIFT-COFB encryption, it reduces computational load ogy are secure but flawed. For secure PHR search and keyword access,
and improves insider security. Hwaitat et al. and Li et al.’s blockchain- use blockchain and homomorphic encryption. This method is more
based solutions for decentralized identity verification and data privacy secure and efficient with key revocation and policy updates. Simulation
are promising, but they require more complexity and storage. The best and evaluation employ Hyperledger Fabric and OrigionLab. Comparing
solution depends on the IoT system’s needs, constraints, and security. the proposed framework to benchmark models indicates its superior
security and searchable healthcare system mechanism, boosting secu-
rity, efficiency, transparency, and cost-effectiveness. Nithya et al. [101]
8.2. Encryption
and her colleagues stress the importance of IoT in military intelli-
gence. To gather real-time situational awareness from several areas,
Encryption is a critical security strategy in IoT networks, addressing
many visual sensor nodes are strategically arranged. The nodes must
the need to secure data as it traverses the network. A summary of eleven
safely send visual keyframes to command and control centers to detect
papers that outline or suggest various encryption strategies are given in
risks in risky locations. The work introduces Dominant Color Subband
the Table 4.
Image Encryption to protect conveyed data. Hybrid chaotic methods
In 2020, Sarker et al. [84] introduced error detection schemes for are used to encrypt the most prominent subband in an RGB image.
ring-LWE encryption within lattice-based cryptography, focusing on The hybrid chaotic technique combines Quadratic, Gingerbreadman,
thwarting active side-channel attacks and ensuring efficient operation and Baker’s maps to create a complex and unpredictable structure.
in embedded applications. Their schemes leveraged recomputation with Strong encryption and efficiency are guaranteed using this technology.
encoded operands to provide high error coverage with minimal hard- The Dominant Color Subband Image Encryption technique outperforms
ware overhead, making them suitable for post-quantum cryptographic other chaotic encryption algorithms for vision sensor real-time secu-
applications. Medileh et al. [85] examined the security and privacy rity. The suggested decryption method reduces calculation time and
consequences of IoT devices’ massive data sets, which connect vehicles, increases Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR), improving image quality.
homes, cities, and healthcare systems. To address these challenges, they In resource-constrained environments, this encryption method ensures
propose Flexible Encryption Technique (FlexenTech), a flexible encryp- real-time speed and high-quality picture transmission. By 2022, Paul
tion method that can handle large-scale applications. This technique et al. [87] proposed a software-hardware co-design for lattice-based
is designed for low-resource devices and networks. It protects against homomorphic encryption using FPGA and ARM-SoC systems. Their
replay attacks and enables rapid encryption. FlexenTech’s configurable work enhanced resource efficiency and throughput for lightweight IoT
mode lets customers set encryption rounds and key sizes for different applications, showcasing significant performance improvements over
levels of privacy. This adaptability optimizes resource constraints, en- traditional methods, making it ideal for edge-enabled IoT devices.
hancing efficiency. FlexenTech reduces encryption computation time In 2023, Tao et al. [88]developed a lattice-based matchmaking
by up to 9.7% compared to advanced methods, according to experi- identity-based encryption (LMIBE) scheme for IoT systems, enabling bi-
mental studies. FlexenTech’s calculating speed and security make it a lateral access control and resistance to quantum attacks. Their approach

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Table 4
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art encryption studies in IoT.
Author Objective Experimental finding Advantage Disadvantage
Sarker et al. [84] Introduced error detection Efficient error coverage Effective for post-quantum Limited to ring-LWE;
for ring-LWE encryption to with low hardware cryptography in further testing needed.
counter side-channel overhead. constrained environments.
attacks.
Paul et al. [87] Developed lightweight Improved resource Efficient for edge-enabled Hardware implementation
lattice-based homomorphic efficiency by 52.71×and IoT devices with hardware complexity.
encryption for IoT. throughput for lightweight acceleration.
IoT.
Tao et al. [88] Proposed lattice-based Enabled bilateral access Secure, quantum-resistant Implementation
matchmaking control and quantum encryption for IoT. complexity.
identity-based encryption resistance.
(LMIBE).
Heinz et al. [89] Protected lattice-based Enhanced performance Effective for cryptographic Specific to fault and
cryptography against fault with minimal overhead for security in smart cards. side-channel attack
and side-channel attacks. Kyber KEM protection.
implementations.
Lin et al. [90] Enabled identity-based Achieved Suitable for efficient Limited to keyword search
encryption with privacy-preserving post-quantum IoT. scenarios.
multi-keyword search for multi-keyword search with
post-quantum IoT. low storage overhead.
Subhashini [91] Combined ECC and Improved safety for Robust hybrid Validation needed for
blockchain for enhanced sensitive IoT data with cryptographic solution. broader applications.
encryption and decryption. hybrid techniques.
Murthy et al. [92] Secured low-cost IoT Demonstrated lightweight, Effective for Limited scope in
devices against MITM robust data security for resource-constrained implementation.
attacks. constrained devices. environments.
Ravindra et al. [93] Enhanced fog computing Optimized Efficient for bridging edge Specific to fog computing
security and efficiency encryption/decryption time and cloud in IoT systems. use cases.
using ECC. and resource allocation.
Motwani et al. [94] Proposed ELGamal + AES Outperformed ECC and Strong security with Needs broader application
(EL-AES) hybrid method AES across efficiency, operational efficiency. testing.
for IoT security. latency, and resource
metrics.
Wang et al. [95] Developed transport-layer Improved data Adaptable and efficient Broader validation
encryption for IoT. confidentiality, integrity, strategy for IoT networks. required.
and attack resistance.
Clemente et al. [96] Proposed chaos-based Enhanced real-time Suitable for Limited to chaos-based
encryption for IoT security for wearable IoT resource-limited healthcare encryption methods.
healthcare systems. devices. IoT systems.
Alawida et al. [97] Developed chaotic model Secured image data with Robust and efficient for Validation needed for
for image encryption in reduced processing time. IIoT sensors. non-image data types.
IIoT.
Hijazi et al. [98] Combined federated Reduced communication Strong privacy-preserving Implementation
learning and homomorphic overhead (80.15–89.98%) IoT solution. complexity.
encryption for IoT in smart and latency (70.38%).
cities.

provided a formal security definition and demonstrated broad appli- Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) with blockchain technology to ad-
cation potential through superior performance compared to existing dress the growing security needs of IoT systems. This study introduced a
methods. Also in 2023, Heinz et al. [89]addressed fault and side- hybrid paradigm for encryption and decryption, focusing on enhancing
channel attack protection in lattice-based cryptographic implementa- the safety of sensitive IoT data, recognizing the ever-changing nature
tions. Their study introduced the redundant number representation of IoT devices and the critical need for robust security measures.
(RNR) method and a novel countermeasure based on the Chinese Hijazi et al. [98] studied smart building heterogeneous networks and
remainder theorem (CRT), offering better performance than masking IoT-enabled smart city security and privacy issues. Due to the large
techniques in applications like smart cards. Hijazi et al.’s [98] Fed- number of linked devices and the need for safe, privacy-preserving
erated Learning with Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) method solutions, IoT threats are developing. Federated learning (FL) allows
for securing heterogeneous IoT networks, notably in smart cities, is different devices to work on a global model without exchanging raw
unique and successful. In IoT deployments, communication overhead data, addressing these difficulties. FL transmits sensitive data (model
and latency must be reduced while maintaining privacy and security. parameters) over insecure channels, causing privacy and security risks.
Gupta et al.’s [102] dual-layer security solution using watermarking Combining FL with fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) permits com-
and cryptography works well for image encryption and transport. This putations on encrypted data without decrypting it, addressing these
approach ensures image fidelity and resists many cryptographic attacks, difficulties. The study presents four FL-based FHE methods that en-
making it ideal for IoT image communication. These studies show that crypt and secure data. These methods achieve high accuracy, recall,
encryption solutions should be tailored to IoT application requirements precision, and F-scores while protecting privacy and security. Com-
and limits to ensure robust security without compromising efficiency pared to baseline techniques, they dramatically reduce communication
and performance. Subhashini [91] laid the groundwork for combining overhead and latency, with 80.15% to 89.98% overhead improvements

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and 70.38% latency reduction. Gupta et al. [102] combined water- with ECC while addressing resource allocation challenges in FC envi-
marking and cryptography to encrypt photos for secure IoT device ronments. The effectiveness of their approach was validated through
transfer. This technique uses dual-layer security to provide secure and encryption time, decryption time, and other performance metrics. Also
perfect communication. Primary watermarking uses Discrete Wavelet in 2024, Motwani et al. [94] introduced a novel hybrid cryptographic
Transform (DWT). Encrypted secret images are used as watermarks. solution, ELGamal + AES (EL-AES), to strengthen the security of wire-
The hidden image is encrypted with a mild cryptography. This in- less sensor networks in IoT. Through extensive evaluations, the EL-AES
creases security by adding an encrypted watermark to the image. At method demonstrated superior performance over traditional ECC and
the second level, the system uses a crossover operation and logistic AES techniques across multiple parameters, such as efficiency, latency,
chaotic map for improved picture encryption. This hybrid technique and resource utilization. This innovative approach set a benchmark
generates random session keys for digital image encryption, improving for balancing strong security and operational efficiency in IoT ap-
encryption efficiency over chaotic algorithms. The Discrete Wavelet plications under constrained environments. In 2024, Lin et al. [90]
Transform (DWT), one-dimensional logistic map, and crossover op- introduced identity-based encryption schemes supporting disjunctive,
eration strengthen the encryption process to safeguard image data. conjunctive, and range keyword searches using lattice hardness as-
Testing Gupta et al.’s encryption method against various cryptographic sumptions. Their approach provided privacy-preserving searchable en-
attacks shows its strength. Differential attacks, statistical attacks, noise cryption with low storage overhead, enabling efficient multi-keyword
attacks, and secret user key vulnerabilities are tested using NPCR, searches under post-quantum security constraints Table 5.
information entropy, histogram analysis, and correlation coefficient.
The proposed technique achieves a high NPCR of 99.63 and informa- 8.3. Trust management
tion entropy of 7.9973. The method’s resilience and effectiveness in
preserving picture security make it a realistic solution for IoT secure Trust management in IoT networks has garnered significant research
image communication. attention, with researchers exploring various methods to assess node
Wang et al. [95] examined the critical need for enhanced infor- behavior dynamically and calculate trust based on real-time data.
mation security in ubiquitous network transport layers, particularly Access control strategies within trust management are considered vital
in the IoT. Assessing existing security methods, suggesting a ubiqui- due to their ability to mitigate ON–OFF attacks that directly impact
tous network-specific technique, and testing its viability and security node trust values. Smart trust computation mechanisms using machine
are their goals. The researchers examine current security methods, learning algorithms have been proposed to enhance trust assessment
build a unique strategy that considers network properties, and test and security against device compromise. Trust Based Access Control
it with real devices in simulations and trials. The findings highlight (TBAC) is recognized as a crucial aspect of IoT applications, addressing
the flaws of existing algorithms and demonstrate the suggested ap- authentication weaknesses and preventing security threats from ad-
proach’s ability to protect data confidentiality, integrity, efficiency, versary nodes. Multi-dimensional trust control systems have also been
and attack resilience. The study concludes with a feasible standard developed to safeguard IoT networks by considering diverse trust prop-
for network security worldwide and recommendations for further im- erties of nodes. The Table 6 below summarizes Ten Trust Management
provements and wider use. Clemente et al. [96] studied IoT-based studies, starting with Deng et al.
healthcare system security issues, focusing on health-tracking devices Deng et al.’s [103] lightweight Blockchain-Based Trust Management
like smartwatches and fitness trackers. Secure data transfer is essen- (BBTM) solution protects data in resource-constrained IoT devices that
tial to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive health information. lack computational capacity and energy for encryption. Project goal:
Lightweight encryption techniques protect data in IoT systems due to secure, efficient communication modules for intelligent IoT systems.
their speed and efficiency. Because chaotic systems are unpredictable BBTM employs genesis blocks at network startup. Nodes record transac-
and sensitive, chaotic cryptography has been a trustworthy choice in tions to create blockchain blocks. This blockchain secures and verifies
recent years. These qualities make it harder for attackers to intercept transactions. Real-time BBTM trust management matters. Monitor and
and tamper with data, increasing security. The authors propose a update node actions to affect trust. Historical behavior-based credibil-
chaos-based, lightweight encryption method for IoT healthcare systems, ity algorithms evaluate two nodes’ trustworthiness when they meet.
focusing on wearable devices. A custom 2D 4-scroll chaotic attractor This trust verification ensures only trustworthy nodes can securely
system is used in their plan. Encrypting Photoplethysmogram (PPG) communicate. Asymmetric encryption secures messages from BBTM
biosignal data on an ARM-based microcontroller was tested. The results trust-verified nodes. Data is private and hostile or selfish nodes are
show that chaos-based lightweight encryption increases IoT healthcare blocked. Simulations demonstrate that the BBTM system conducts trust
system security while maintaining real-time data flow. This makes it a verification and safe information transfer better than alternatives with-
feasible IoT health data protection solution. In the Industrial IoT (IIoT), out exhausting network resources. It helps intelligent IoT devices with
high-resolution image sensors require secure and efficient data transfer, limited computing and energy. If IoT resources are limited, BBTM
according to Alawida et al. [97]. Current methods often compromise balances security and efficiency for secure communication.
security or slow processing. They recommend a new picture encryption Premalatha et al. [104] recommend trusting IoT/User devices and
method for IIoT situations with low resources to address this issue. They fog networks to reduce harmful data and nodes. Their analysis empha-
use a unique chaotic model with a cyclic structure and 1-D perturbed sizes data and task protection by trusted IoT and fog layers. TwiI-FTM
logistic map. This model generates one data sequence, which is used detects and eliminates fog network anomalies and malicious nodes
to construct three image-sized matrices. Two matrices randomize pixel using Trusted Data Measurement (TDM) and Fog Access Trust Evalu-
coordinates, while a third matrix performs diffusion operations to cre- ation (FATE). TwI-FTM continuously scans fog control nodes against a
ate a permutation matrix. Moving forward to 2024, Murthy et al. [92] threshold to detect malicious behavior. Anomalous data and malicious
tackled the challenges of securing low-cost microcontroller IoT devices, nodes are automatically deleted from the IoT-FoG network, boosting
such as NodeMCU, against threats like man-in-the-middle attacks. Their security and reliability. TwI-FTM outperformed other methods with a
work demonstrated the lightweight yet powerful potential of ECC for trust degree of 0.68. It detects malicious fog access nodes 21%, 16%,
data security, providing a practical framework to secure resource- and 14% better than OTM, TTM, and SLA-Trust. The method completes
constrained IoT devices, ensuring their continued reliability in the tasks in 4.5, 5, and 13 ms, quicker than TTM, OTM, and SLA-Trust.
digital ecosystem. In the same year, Ravindra et al. [93] expanded the Rouzbahani et al. [105] assess the need for scalable and effec-
application of ECC into the domain of fog computing (FC), which acts as tive IoT trust management systems due to its growing importance in
a bridge between edge IoT devices and centralized cloud systems. Their daily life and data volume. SCoTMan integrates social interactions
study emphasized the efficiency and security enhancements achievable and smart contracts to improve Social IoT trust management. The

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Table 5
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art trust management schemes in IoT.
Author Objective Domain Experimental findings Advantage Disadvantage
Deng et al. Protect IoT data using IoT Security, Blockchain Real-time trust Real-time trust, secure Requires blockchain
[103] (BBTM) Blockchain-Based Trust management, secure communication. infrastructure.
Management (BBTM). communication, efficient
data transfer.
Premalatha et al. Establish trust in IoT-fog IoT, Fog Computing Achieved 0.68 trust degree, Higher trust, improved May need more
[104] (TwI-FTM) networks with Two-way 21% better malicious node detection, faster tasks. computational resources.
IoT Data & Fog Trust detection, 8.5 ms faster
Management (TwI-FTM). task completion.
Rouzbahani Improve Social IoT trust Social IoT, Blockchain Reduced 30% storage cost, Lower storage cost, Integration complexity
et al. [105] using smart contracts and enhanced trust improved trust with smart contracts.
blockchain (SCoTMan). convergence, successful convergence.
Hyperledger Fabric
implementation.
Dhelim et al. Mitigate large-scale IoT Large-scale IoT, Security Up to 94% attack High attack mitigation, Requires network
[106] trust attacks with mitigation, successful effective isolation. embeddings, potential
Trust2Vec. harmful node isolation. overhead.
Awan et al. Secure IoT edge from IoT Edge Networks Prevents assaults, Prevention, reliability, May add complexity with
[107] malicious nodes using guarantees reliability, cloud integration. edge cloud integration.
Edge Trust. integrates well with edge
clouds.
Marche et al. Develop a SIoT model to Social IoT, Security Effective isolation of Improved security, Increased model
[108] isolate malicious nodes. malicious nodes, increased effective isolation. convergence overhead.
security, successful
simulations.
Neureither et al. Enable cost-effective trust Massive IoT Networks Reduced trust assessments Less assessment, efficient Specific trust evaluation
[109] management in massive by 20x, effective management. methods may be needed.
IoT with LegIoT. management, successful
Sawtooth deployment.
Wang et al. Ensure adaptable IoT IoT Security, Access Practical access Practicality, secure Integration complexity
[110] access control with Control management, secure authorization. with blockchain
ABAC-BC. authorization, successful frameworks.
Ethereum experiments.
Ma et al. [111] Protect multihop IoT from Multihop IoT Networks 40% better insider attack Improved detection, Additional resources for
insider attacks with detection, effective harmful effective mitigation. network embeddings.
DCONST. node mitigation, successful
simulations.
Amiri et al. Enhance SIoT trust with Social IoT, Blockchain High success in detecting High success, accurate Specialized implementation
[112] LBTM using blockchain. untrustworthy nodes, ratings. for blockchain metrics.
accurate ratings, successful
Ethereum implementation.

SCoTMan model improves trust management methods by offering a up to 94% across network topologies, Trust2Vec may enhance trust
complete data view and trust value dissemination using blockchain management in large-scale IoT scenarios.
technology. Smart contracts can integrate trust management methods, Awan et al. [107] explore how the IoT has improved daily jobs
unlike decentralized systems. Hyperledger Fabric estimates indirect and operations, transforming modern civilization. IoT’s heterogeneous
trust by selecting counselors and restricting storage. Complete test- structure allows nodes operate independently, enabling continuous
ing assessed the model’s efficacy. Trust convergence, success rate, connectivity and information sharing. Healthcare patient monitoring
transaction duration, computation and communication overhead, and requires IoT, yet rogue and corrupted nodes are hard to discover. The
memory use were evaluated. The study suggests using Total Storage work offers a machine learning-based edge node trust management
Cost to compare literature techniques more precisely. The results reveal system to identify malicious nodes. Trust’s knowledge and expertise, de-
significant trust convergence benefits at a specified Total Storage Cost. pending on numerous aspects, are used. Edge clouds, such as adjacent
The SCoTMan concept suggests smart contracts and social metrics may data centers, can collect indirect and combined trust recommendations
regulate scalable IoT trust. Its advantages over current methods are to resist positive and negative reputation attacks. Only nodes that fulfill
significant. a trustworthiness level can join the network, assuring IoT safety and
Dhelim et al. [106] stresses the need of trust management systems reliability. Several comprehensive simulations compared the recom-
(TMS) in IoT network security and integrity. A trustworthy TMS should mended method to existing ones. The approach can prevent various
reward genuine devices and punish malicious ones based on trust scores assaults, confirming its reliability and security in IoT edge networks.
and future behavior. Many TMSs in the literature handle small trust as- Marche et al. [108] propose a paradigm shift in IoT capabilities
saults but fail at large ones. TMS for large-scale IoT systems Trust2Vec with the Social IoT (SIoT), where objects can autonomously develop
can minimize trust attacks from multiple rogue devices. Trust2Vec social relationships. This paradigm creates trust and security problems
computes trust network embeddings and browses device trust linkages because assaults and malfunctions can reduce SIoT’s benefits. IoT trust
via random-walk network exploration. Without assessing harmful de- attacks and trust management methods are identified in the study. Net-
vice trust, this method assesses trust connections’ structure. Network work isolation prevents rogue nodes from compromising IoT reliability.
embeddings community detection system detects and stops large-scale The suggested model separates most hazardous network nodes, accord-
attacks like self-promotion and bad-mouthing in the research. Find and ing to simulations. Model convergence requires more transactions due
isolate dangerous IoT node communities with this method. Large-scale to security. The report emphasizes the importance of trust management
IoT network simulations validate Trust2Vec. With a mitigation rate of systems in protecting the SIoT ecosystem from attacks and failures.

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Table 6
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art trust management schemes in IoT.
Author Objective Domain Experimental findings Advantage Disadvantage
Deng et al. Protect IoT data using IoT Security, Blockchain Real-time trust Real-time trust, secure Requires blockchain
[103] Blockchain-Based Trust management, secure communication. infrastructure.
Management (BBTM). communication, efficient
data transfer.
Premalatha et al. Establish trust in IoT-fog IoT, Fog Computing Achieved 0.68 trust degree, Higher trust, improved May need more
[104] networks with Two-way 21% better malicious node detection, faster tasks. computational resources.
IoT Data & Fog Trust detection, 8.5 ms faster
Management (TwI-FTM). task completion.
Rouzbahani Improve Social IoT trust Social IoT, Blockchain Reduced 30% storage cost, Lower storage cost, Integration complexity
et al. [105] using smart contracts and enhanced trust improved trust with smart contracts.
blockchain (SCoTMan). convergence, successful convergence.
Hyperledger Fabric
implementation.
Dhelim et al. Mitigate large-scale IoT Large-scale IoT, Security Up to 94% attack High attack mitigation, Requires network
[106] trust attacks with mitigation, successful effective isolation. embeddings, potential
Trust2Vec. harmful node isolation. overhead.
Awan et al. Secure IoT edge from IoT Edge Networks Prevents assaults, Prevention, reliability, May add complexity with
[107] malicious nodes using guarantees reliability, cloud integration. edge cloud integration.
Edge Trust. integrates well with edge
clouds.
Marche et al. Develop a SIoT model to Social IoT, Security Effective isolation of Improved security, Increased model
[108] isolate malicious nodes. malicious nodes, increased effective isolation. convergence overhead.
security, successful
simulations.
Neureither et al. Enable cost-effective trust Massive IoT Networks Reduced trust assessments Less assessment, efficient Specific trust evaluation
[109] management in massive by 20x, effective management. methods may be needed.
IoT with LegIoT. management, successful
Sawtooth deployment.
Wang et al. Ensure adaptable IoT IoT Security, Access Practical access Practicality, secure Integration complexity
[110] access control with Control management, secure authorization. with blockchain
ABAC-BC. authorization, successful frameworks.
Ethereum experiments.
Ma et al. [111] Protect multihop IoT from Multihop IoT Networks 40% better insider attack Improved detection, Additional resources for
insider attacks with detection, effective harmful effective mitigation. network embeddings.
DCONST. node mitigation, successful
simulations.
Amiri et al. Enhance SIoT trust with Social IoT, Blockchain High success in detecting High success, accurate Specialized implementation
[112] LBTM using blockchain. untrustworthy nodes, ratings. for blockchain metrics.
accurate ratings, successful
Ethereum implementation.

Neureither et al. [109] study how to build trust in massive IoT net- and efficiency. They demonstrate safe, efficient, and adaptable IoT
works with multiple devices and stakeholders with different trust levels. access management.
The innovative trust management solution LegIoT leverages probability Ma et al. [111] protect multihop IoT networks from insider attacks
to construct secure, dynamic, and cost-effective trust relationships in in a multiple-mix-attack paradigm where attackers can tamper, drop,
these networks. The most striking aspect of LegIoT’s graph-based design and repeat attacks with unexpected probability. Rogue nodes and at-
is its ability to employ trust links (graph edges) without individual tacks are detected using their DCONST Distributed Consensus-based
trust evaluations. LegIoT decentralizes the trust relation graph using Trust Model. DCONST uses K-Means clustering to identify hostile IoT
DLT since there is no trusted authority. The study found that Le- nodes and their attack patterns and share cognitive information to
gIoT trust evaluation may be done using multiple methodologies, with judge trustworthiness. DCONST modes Light, Normal, and Proactive as-
a focus on remote attestation for integrity verification. Researchers sess cognition aggregation’s effects on detection accuracy and network
built a LegIoT Hyperledger Sawtooth prototype. The network reduced stress. DCONST detects 10%–40% more than HD and PDE. DCONST-
trust assessments significantly, according to one evaluation. In a 400- Normal and DCONST-Proactive surpass DCONST-Light by 5%–20% in
node network, reduction factor can reach 20. A 1000-node network multihop IoT network insider threat detection and prevention.
can reduce by 5. LegIoT scales smartly to manage trust in large IoT To enable secure IoT connectivity and reliable information shar-
networks. ing, Amiri et al. [112] highlight trustworthy methods. Social IoT, a
Untrusted authority sharing resources produced IoT security risks, novel concept, sees IoT gadgets as social networks. For Social IoT,
according to Wang et al. [110]. The authors propose a dynamic and the authors propose a lightweight blockchain-based trust management
lightweight ABAC architecture for blockchain-enabled IoT devices. system (LBTM) employing network social information. Blockchain pro-
This framework grant secure, complete permission. The platform uses vides decentralized trust evaluation. The framework is tested on an
blockchain smart contracts to secure and alter access controls based on Ethereum-based private blockchain. The suggested method detects un-
access request attributes, processes, and environmental conditions. IoT trustworthy nodes with excellent accuracy and cost-efficiency, outper-
device constraints are addressed via DApp-based access control. This forming earlier methods. Their LBTM technology enhances Social IoT
framework protects records and allows apps use them immediately. IoT trust management.
device vulnerabilities with changing properties cause security fluctua- Analyzing each technique offers pros and downsides. For real-time
tions, hence they advocate Markov chain-based trust management. On trust management and efficient communication, Deng et al.’s BBTM
Ethereum, researchers evaluate their system prototype for applicability needs blockchain. Premalatha et al.’s TwI-FTM increases trust and

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Table 7
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art routing strategies in IoT using clustering and metaheuristic Approaches.
Author Protocol Key features Simulation results Advantages Disadvantages
Rekha et al. [113] K-LionER K-means clustering, Ant Improved network lifetime Efficient CH selection, Limited scalability,
lion optimization, REM, (10%–48%), Enhanced Extended network life Implementation complexity
CBD, Intra-cluster performance
communication cost
Pedditi et al. [114] MACR Honey Badger Algorithm, Superior network lifetime, Energy-efficient CHs, Increased latency, CH
African buffalo Delivery ratio, Throughput Effective routing selection overhead
optimization
Kiran et al. [115] Privacy Key-Agreement Gateway-based network, Enhanced security, Privacy focus, Energy Computational overhead,
Routing Key arrangement protocol Reduced energy, Improved efficiency Key management
connectivity complexity
Sharma et al. [116] PRESEP Swarm optimization, Long network life, Reliable Sustainable data routing, Control message overhead,
Energy-efficient heuristic clusters, Low energy use Global search Parameter sensitivity
Chaurasia et al. [117] ACRA Adaptive clustering, Energy economy, Deadlock Efficient management, Tuning complexity,
Deadlock avoidance resolution, Event coverage Flexible algorithms Resource-intensive
Jaiswal et al. [118] FAGWO-H Hybrid optimization Enhanced reliability, Fault-tolerance, QoS Convergence time, Network
algorithm Optimal routing, Improved enhancement dynamics sensitivity
QoS

detection but requires more processing. Rouzbahani et al.’s SCoTMan route WSNs energy-efficiently in IoT applications.
increases smart contract complexity after improving trust convergence Pedditi et al. [114] presented an energy-efficient clustering and
and storage costs. Trust2Vec by Dhelim et al. mitigates well but needs routing (MACR) protocol for WSNs in their study. The protocol fo-
network embeddings. Edge Trust by Awan et al. avoids attacks but cuses on optimizing energy consumption by employing the Honey
complicates edge clouds. Marche et al.’s SIoT Trust separates malicious Badger Algorithm for cluster head selection, which considers factors
nodes but may increase transaction overhead. Neureither et al.’s Le- like residual energy and node proximity to choose the most effective
gIoT minimizes trust but requires processes. ABAC-BC by Wang et al. cluster head. For communication routing between base stations and
secures access but requires blockchain expertise. DCONST by Ma et al. cluster heads, the protocol utilizes the African buffalo optimization
detects more but uses more. Amiri et al.’s LBTM works but may need technique, leveraging parameters such as residual energy and node
blockchain and social analytics. Performance and trade-offs may deter- degree to determine the shortest path. Simulation-based experimental
mine the optimal IoT trust management system. Blockchain design may verification validates the model’s effectiveness. Comparative analysis
provide real-time trust management with BBTM. Trust2Vec or TwI-FTM against established protocols like LEACH, HEED, FRLDG, and FEEC-IIR
can address resource and scalability challenges. Edge networks may use highlights MACR’s superior performance in terms of network lifetime,
trust. The ideal plan fits network goals, resources, and security. packet delivery ratio, throughput, and end-to-end delay, showcasing its
energy-saving capabilities and suitability for WSNs.
8.4. Secure routing protocol Kiran et al. [115] proposed an optimized meta-heuristic clustering-
based privacy key-agreement routing method for WSN privacy and
Recent research has proposed new security methodologies and
security. Recent studies have neglected source node (SN) and base
frameworks to tackle the significant challenges within IoT environ-
station (BS) location privacy and security, but this study focuses them.
ments. This topic involves an examination of the latest literature
The suggested system ensures communication privacy with a gateway-
concerning security frameworks and protocols designed for IoT con-
based network and key arrangement protocol. Cluster heads (CHs)
texts. The following provides an in-depth analysis of IoT protocols,
are efficiently selected to prioritize sensor nodes (SNs) with minimal
including a discussion on their limitations.
change, reducing energy consumption (EC) and improving network se-
curity and connection. To prove the strategy works, the study measures
8.4.1. Routing using clustering and metaheuristic approaches
energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR), throughput, end-to-end
Metaheuristic algorithms, such as GA, ACO, and PSO, have demon-
delay (E2 delay), and EC.
strated significant promise in improving routing patterns to improve
Sharma et al. [116] present a metaheuristic-based hybrid data rout-
both security and efficiency. These algorithms have the ability to
adjust to changes in the network, offering strong solutions that effec- ing method for energy-efficient IoT WSN applications. The paper im-
tively manage energy consumption, latency, and security needs. The proves heterogeneous WSN data routing using swarm optimization and
Table 7 summarizes six studies based on cluster based routing and an energy-efficient heuristic. PRESEP achieves long network lifetime,
metaheuristic algorithm, starting with Rekha et al. reliable cluster formation, and low energy usage. Reactive protocol ben-
Rekha et al. [113] addressed energy consumption issues in IoT- efits and swarm optimization for global search reduce the cluster head
based Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). WSNs sense, acquire data, (CH) selection cycle in energy-efficient, cluster-based heterogeneous
and communicate with base stations in IoT, but their limited resources WSNs, ensuring sustainable data routing. The approach outperforms
make energy-efficient communication difficult. Traditional hierarchi- heterogeneous techniques in network longevity, alive nodes, and CH
cal routing techniques select Cluster Heads (CHs) randomly, which selection processes across various network sizes.
is inefficient. Rekha et al. offer the K-LionER system, which uses K- Chaurasia et al. [117] handle deadlock and livelock in IoT-assisted
means clustering for cluster formation and ant lion optimization for WSNs with opportunistic routing. They present the adaptive meta-
CH selection based on Remnant Energy (RE), Distance to Base Station heuristic-based Clustering and Routing Algorithm (ACRA), which in-
(CBD), and Intra-cluster Communication Cost. This hybrid technique cludes the inter- and intra-deadlock avoidance algorithms. Energy ef-
extends network life and improves energy efficiency. MATLAB 2017a ficiency, hotspot prevention, alternate pathways, and event coverage
simulations reveal that K-LionER outperforms baseline protocols like are optimized by these algorithms. Simulation results show that ACRA
LEACH, ECFU, and GADA-LEACH, improving network lifetime by 10% outperforms other algorithms in energy economy and deadlock and
to 48% and improving alive nodes, stability period, dead nodes, and livelock resolution, making it a promising alternative for efficient and
network performance measures. This study shows that K-LionER can flexible IoT-assisted WSN management.

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Table 8
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art MAC protocol approaches in IoT.
Author Protocol Key findings Strengths Weaknesses
Tilwari et al. [119] MCAIDeM Outperformed MBMQA, MEQSA-OLSRv2, Efficient routing based on energy, Complexity in parameter
and MP-OLSRv2 in simulations, showing queue lengths, and link quality. weighting during route
improved QoS and lower delay at higher establishment.
node speeds.
Singh et al. [120] AMMEE Better performance and efficiency Adaptive routing based on Complexity in load- and
compared to PRMMAC, QoS-AOMDV, predicted energy, bandwidth, and bandwidth-aware routing
QMR, and TA-AOMDV in simulations, channel utilization. for energy projections.
highlighting its effectiveness in dynamic
network conditions.
Anand et al. [121] CRF, HMMs, Improved detection of fake/malicious Comprehensive security through High complexity and
SDN gateways nodes. Enhanced data integrity and the integration of multiple computational overhead.
recovery advanced techniques. Robust
against unauthorized access and
data tampering
Manikandan et al. [122] SBLDAR Demonstrated improved network Multi-channel MAC, improves Complexity in data
longevity and performance through network longevity and exchange methods.
multi-channel MAC, a critical aspect in performance.
WSN sustainability.
Klayani et al. [123] Secured Highlighted its ability to optimize Optimal routing for security, Complexity in risk factor
Cross-Layer routing decisions for security, efficiency, energy efficiency, and data calculation and
and privacy, addressing key concerns in privacy. threshold-based
IoT network management. methodology.

Jaiswal et al. [118] provide a fault-tolerant cluster-based routing Multi-Criteria-Aware Integrated Decision-Making (MCAIDeM) routing
protocol for WSNs in IoT applications. The protocol utilizes a hybrid protocol addresses these issues. This protocol uses relay node energy,
algorithm dubbed FAGWO-H, which combines Firefly Optimization queue lengths, node mobility, and link quality to pick routes efficiently
(FA) and Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO). Firefly Algorithm (FA) is used and reliably. For multi-criteria decision-making, the MCAIDeM protocol
to optimize the clustering process, while Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) uses the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to weight node parameter
is employed to determine the most optimal route between cluster heads values to pick relay nodes during route establishment. The protocol out-
(CHs) and the base station. The approach utilizes innovative fitness performed standard routing protocols in network throughput, latency,
functions for Firefly Algorithm (FA) and Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO), and energy usage across multiple network characteristics in extensive
taking into account energy efficiency and fault tolerance to improve simulations. As node speeds rose from 5 m/s to 30 m/s, MCAIDeM
network performance and fulfill QoS requirements. The technique’s use- had a lower end-to-end delay than MBMQA, MEQSA-OLSRv2, and MP-
fulness is assessed in different WSN scenarios, showing enhancements OLSRv2. These results demonstrate MCAIDeM’s ability to improve QoS
compared to current methods in terms of reliability and performance and address IoT communication issues for 6G networks.
in IoT applications. A study by Singh et al. [120] examines mobile ad-hoc networks
The comparison research shows that the best protocol depends on (MANETs) in the IoT, where dynamic devices and high mobility can
the WSN priorities and restrictions in an IoT application. Despite scal- cause congestion, delay, and packet loss during information exchange.
ability and implementation complexity issues, Rekha et al.’s K-LionER They suggest the AMMEE routing approach to address these issues.
extends network lifetime and selects Cluster Heads (CHs) efficiently. AMMEE uses adaptive routing based on predicted packet energy con-
Despite higher latency and CH selection overhead, MACR by Pedditi sumption, bandwidth, queue length, and channel utilization. Multipath
et al. performs better for energy-efficient and effective routing appli- routing balances network demand and multichannel communication
cations. If privacy and security are important, Kiran et al.’s Privacy reduces collisions. Multichannel routing assigns sub-channels to split
Key-Agreement Routing protocol may be a good choice, however it link bandwidth, allowing numerous source nodes to access without
has computational complexity and key management issues. PRESEP collision, while multipath routing allows multiple pathways to the des-
(Sharma et al.) offers sustainable data routing and global search but tination without congestion. AMMEE routing uses load- and bandwidth-
must consider control message overhead and parameter sensitivity. aware routing to pick paths based on node energy and lifetime pro-
ACRA (Chaurasia et al.) is more flexible but requires tuning com- jections, improving network reliability. The study compares AMMEE
plexity and resources, whereas FAGWO-H has convergence time con- to PRMMAC, QoS-AOMDV, QMR, and TA-AOMDV to show that it
cerns and network dynamics sensitivity. Both offer efficient manage- performs better and is more efficient.
ment, fault tolerance, and QoS improvement. The optimal decision de- Anand et al. [121] address significant security issues in Wireless
pends on balancing these considerations with IoT WSN implementation Sensor Networks (WSNs), especially those in sensitive areas like border
requirements. surveillance systems. These networks are vulnerable to data loss and
security breaches from unauthorized devices. The study examines fake
8.4.2. MAC aware protocol node detection, encryption, and hostile node identification, stressing
MAC-aware routing protocols integrate MAC layer information like physical and analytical redundancy for error recovery and data au-
link quality and channel conditions to optimize routing decisions. They thenticity. Conditional Random Fields (CRF), Hidden Markov Models
enhance energy efficiency, load balancing, and reliability by selecting (HMMs), and SDN gateways improve security. The paper also suggests
routes with minimal energy consumption and lower contention. These a hybrid blockchain-CRF-HMM methodology to verify data integrity
protocols reduce latency and improve overall network performance by and authenticity. The study uses advanced encryption in the blockchain
considering real-time MAC layer metrics. The Table 8 summarizes five framework to restrict data access and verification to authorized entities,
studies based on MAC Aware routing protocol. Tilwari et al. [119] boosting WSN resilience and security against unauthorized access and
address energy limits, data packet congestion, mobility difficulties, and destructive actions.
relay node communication failures in IoT communication towards 6G Due to their widespread use in environmental monitoring, smart
networks, which can affect routing and network performance. The spaces, medical systems, and robotics, WSNs require energy efficiency,

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Table 9
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art techniques in RPL routing protocol studies in IoT.
Authors Protocol Key features Strengths Weaknesses Performance Best use case
improvements
Zahedy et al. [124] RI-RPL Reinforcement High delivery rates, Complexity in +28.87% Delivery Rate, Dynamic IoT
(2024) Learning, Q-learning reduced delay, energy implementation −13.12% Delay, environments
efficiency +36.35% Energy,
+46.88% Throughput,
−49.66% Data Loss
Lalani et al. QUERA Q-learning, Energy efficiency, Handling extreme −50% Energy, +12% Mobile IoT networks
[125](2024) Mobility-aware metrics improved PDR mobility PDR
Alilou et al. QFS-RPL Q-learning, Load Better load balancing, Control overhead in Improved Load Mobile and
[126](2024) balancing enhanced network large networks Balancing, PDR, stationary IoT
lifetime Latency, Throughput networks
Shahbakhsh et al. RAARPL Reliability-focused, High reliability, Limited scalability Improved Delivery Reliable IoT
[127](2023) Adaptive selection improved network Ratio, Network Stability applications
stability
Kaviani et al. DCTRPL Trust evaluations, Secure routing, Increased Reliable routing, Data Security-sensitive
[128](2023) Malicious node ID accurate data trust computational overhead Trust IoT networks

which Manikandan et al. [122] addressed in their study. Accidents count, link quality, and energy consumption. RPL supports multipoint-
during sensor node data transfer and high sink node traffic due to to-point, point-to-multipoint, and point-to-point traffic, making it suit-
excessive data transmission are issues. Scoring-based Link Delay Aware able for diverse IoT applications. The Table 9 summarizes and compares
Routing (SBLDAR) uses multi-channel Medium Access Control (MAC) in five studies based on RPL protocol. The study conducted by Zahedy
the study. This MAC technique uses Carrier-sense multiple access with et al. [124] presents RI-RPL, an improved version of the RPL that incor-
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) for data exchange, TDMA for node se- porates reinforcement learning. This approach aims to tackle key diffi-
quencing, and FDMA for collision-free simultaneous data transmission. culties in the IoT domain, including the absence of a central controller,
The study also recommends leveraging trust factors to identify rogue limited resources, and the need for efficient multi-path data routing. RI-
nodes and a fuzzy-based Modified Sun Flower Optimization (FMSFO) RPL is a decision-making and network efficiency improvement system
algorithm to elect efficient cluster chiefs. SBLDAR and multi-MAC that consists of three stages: optimization using Q-learning, adaptive
attempt to improve network longevity and performance. Comparing learning, and coordinated control. It is designed to enhance decision-
making and network efficiency without requiring excessive processing
SBLDAR to other methods in simulations shows its performance and
resources. The simulation results obtained from Cooja software clearly
lifespan improvements.
indicate that RI-RPL outperforms ELBRP, RLQRPL, and standard RPL
Kalyani et al. [123] examine the growing security risks of IoT
in various aspects. RI-RPL demonstrates significant improvements in
devices, including computing power, storage capacity, and energy re-
successful delivery rates (up to 28.87%), reduction in end-to-end delay
sources. They stress the necessity for robust IoT security solutions to
(up to 13.12%), optimization of energy consumption (up to 36.35%),
counteract expanding attack vectors, especially for mobile IoT devices increase in throughput (up to 46.88%), and reduction in network data
requiring secure data routing protocols. IoT security-aware routing is loss rate (up to 49.66%). The results demonstrate that RI-RPL is highly
complicated by its decentralized multi-hop design, dynamic topology effective in optimizing IoT routing in situations when resources are
changes from mobile devices, shorter connection lifespan, media access limited and conditions are constantly changing.
delays, and multi-layer security threats. It proposes a safe cross-layer Lalani et al. [125] address the constraints of the typical RPL rout-
protocol that uses MAC layer routing parameters. The protocol cal- ing protocol in resource-limited mobile IoT networks, where dynamic
culates optimal routing options based on distance, energy, and path and uncertain conditions prevent the selection of long-lasting com-
risk using the Self-Improved SLnO algorithm. Calculated risk factors munication links due to the lack of mobility measures like direction
for each path and a threshold-based methodology using Elgamal cryp- and speed. QUERA, an energy-aware and reliable RPL-based routing
tosystem and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) define data privacy algorithm leveraging Q-learning, addresses this. QUERA mixes mobility
levels. The study shows that the suggested secured cross-layer protocol and quality-aware measures including Time-to-Reside (TTR), Expected
is better at tackling IoT security issues and optimizing routing decisions Transmission Count (ETX), and Received Signal Strength Indicator
for security, energy efficiency, and data privacy. (RSSI) into an infinite-time horizon Markov Decision Process (MDP) for
Out of all the protocols that have been mentioned, the Secured routing. Effective neighbor table management helps QUERA maintain
Cross-Layer Protocol is notable for its ability to enhance routing in stable communication lines, lowering retransmissions and energy use.
terms of security, efficiency, and privacy. This solution effectively tack- QUERA improves energy efficiency by 50% over state-of-the-art ap-
les important issues in IoT network administration, making it highly proaches and increases IoT device lifetime. QUERA also boosts mobile
suitable for applications that prioritize strong security measures and network Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by 12%, proving its efficacy in
data safeguarding. Prior to selecting the optimal protocol, businesses dynamic mobile IoT scenarios.
The study by Alilou et al. [126] introduces QFS-RPL, a novel RPL-
should take into account variables such as scalability, implementa-
based routing protocol using Q-learning and Fisheye State Routing prin-
tion complexity, and individual application needs. Every protocol has
ciples to address the limitations of the standard RPL in IoT networks.
distinct advantages that correspond to various areas of IoT network
These limitations include poor scalability, lack of support for dynamic
administration, highlighting the importance of achieving a harmonious
environments, and inadequate load balancing. Using the Contiki OS
balance between performance, complexity, and functionality to make
and Cooja simulator, QFS-RPL was tested in scenarios with mobile
the best decisions.
and stationary nodes and random network topologies. Results showed
that QFS-RPL outperforms RPL and mRPL in load balancing, table
8.4.3. RPL routing protocol studies entries management, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), End-to-End (E2E)
RPL is a distance-vector routing protocol designed for IoT networks. latency, network throughput, convergence speed, control packet over-
It constructs a Destination-Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) head, and Remaining Useful Lifetime. Additionally, QFS-RPL demon-
using objective functions to optimize routes based on metrics like hop strated superior remaining energy and network lifetime, indicating

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Table 10
Comparative analysis of recent state-of-the-art QoS routing protocol studies in IoT.
Author Key contributions Advantages Disadvantages Key metric improvements
Wang et al. [129] Addressed clustering Energy savings, improved Limited focus on specific Energy savings, system
protocol issues system lifespan QoS aspects lifespan, QoS
improvements
Kirubasri et al. [130] Introduced LQETA-RP for Energy savings Limited scalability for Energy savings,
data forwarding (30%–40%), improved large-scale networks throughput, packet loss
throughput, reduced packet ratio improvements
loss ratio
Ramkumar et al. [131] Proposed NM-LEACH for Incorporates human Requires further real-world Decreased latency,
IoT Q-WSNs leadership principles, validation improved data delivery,
improved data delivery Quantum IoT advancement
Nazari et al. [132] Developed EQRSRL for Significant energy Complexity in Energy consumption
IoMT routing consumption reduction, implementing reduction, reduced
improved end-to-end delay reinforcement learning end-to-end delay, increased
packet delivery ratio
Li et al. [133] Introduced Enhanced routing security, Complexity in Routing security, energy
MCEAACO-QSRP for improved energy efficiency implementing consumption, multi-QoS
IWSNs multiobjective optimization improvements
Chandnani et al. [134] Introduced ARER for QoS Improved QoS metrics, Limited scalability for Throughput, end-to-end
improvement efficient data aggregation large-scale networks delay, routing overhead,
packet delivery ratio,
energy consumption
improvements

enhanced data transfer efficiency and overall network performance in 8.5. QOS based routing protocol
IoT environments.
The research study published by Shahbakhsh et al. [124] introduces QoS-aware routing guarantees that the network can satisfy precise
the Reliability-Aware Adaptive RPL (RAARPL) protocol as a means to performance criteria, such as latency, throughput, and packet delivery
improve the dependability of IoT routing. This protocol specifically ratio, while simultaneously upholding security measures. Metaheuristic
addresses the shortcomings of the regular RPL protocol. Resource- algorithms can optimize routing decisions by considering QoS criteria,
constrained, wireless connection difficulties, and changeable topology so assuring that the routing paths are both secure and efficient. The
Table 10 summarizes six studies based on QoS routing.
pose challenges to the reliability of RPL, despite its extensive usage.
Wang et al.’s [129] research covers clustering routing protocol is-
RAARPL enhances RPL by choosing parent nodes according to different
sues such cluster head node single points of failure, network dynamics,
reliability-related factors and taking into account path conditions to
and uneven data transmission, which affect energy efficiency, network
establish a more robust network topology. This method effectively
longevity, and topology management. A new multi-objective cluster
manages the selection of parents and the assignment of children in
routing protocol, CHEABC-QCRP, targets energy consumption, system
order to reduce errors. Simulations conducted using Cooja demon- lifespan, and QoS. For faster search and convergence, the protocol uses
strated that RAARPL surpasses CLRPL and regular RPL in enhancing the a new chaotic hybrid elite artificial bee colony algorithm (CHEABC).
dependability of data exchange, increasing the successful delivery ratio, An innovative chaotic technique precludes local optima and premature
improving network throughput, and minimizing topological instability. convergence. Compared to existing routing protocols in IWSN contexts,
Kaviani et al. [128] presents the Dual Data-Communication Trust simulation findings show significant energy savings, system lifespan
RPL (DCTRPL) protocol to secure the standard RPL protocol for IoT, improvements, and QoS improvements.
which is vulnerable to internal attackers and selfish behavior despite Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) require efficient
control message encryption. DCTRPL improves RPL by assessing data sensor node energy use for routing protocol design due to resource lim-
and communication trust to protect routing and identify malicious its, which Kirubasri et al. [130] study. They emphasize QoS needs such
agents. A new objective function for trust evaluation and parent se- throughput, packet loss ratio, dependability, node energy, and network
lection selects nodes with higher trust and link quality as parent longevity. The connection Quality based Energy and Trust Aware Rout-
nodes, preventing erroneous data reporting. DCTRPL’s Cooja simulator ing Protocol (LQETA-RP) selects appropriate forwarding nodes based
implementation and evaluation showed dependable routing and data on connection quality, energy, and trust for energy-efficient and reli-
interchange, giving data confidence and accurate report assessments able data forwarding. The protocol predicts trustworthy routes with low
compared to earlier studies. energy consumption and packet drop rates using hardware and soft-
ware metrics like Link Quality Indicator, Received Signal Strength In-
Ultimately, the examination of the routing protocols—RI-RPL,
dicator, Expected Transmission Count, and Trust-based Link Cost Func-
QUERA, QFS-RPL, RAARPL, and DCTRPL that each protocol efficiently
tion (TLCF). Compared to EEPLQRR, LQER, LQEAR, and TERP, NS3
tackles certain issues in IoT networks. RI-RPL and QFS-RPL provide
simulations show energy savings of 30%–40%, throughput increases of
significant enhancements in network efficiency, rendering them well-
10%–15%, and considerable packet loss ratio reductions.
suited for dynamic environments with limited resources. QUERA demon- Ramkumar et al.’s [131] research explores IoT-based Quantum
strates exceptional performance in mobile IoT situations by greatly WSNs (IoT Q-WSN), which merge quantum principles with WSNs and
improving energy economy and packet delivery ratio. RAARPL pri- provide complex routing issues that require creative data transmission
oritizes dependability, guaranteeing consistent transmission of data solutions. NM-LEACH, a routing protocol inspired by Shri Narendra
and stability of the network, whereas DCTRPL strengthens security by Modi’s leadership ideals, is the first optimization protocol influenced by
assessing trustworthiness and blocking harmful operations. The optimal a human personality. The complete and disciplined network develop-
strategy will ultimately vary based on the precise demands of the IoT ment approach of NM-LEACH uses adaptive algorithms, clean coding,
application, as each protocol offers customized solutions for efficiency, and continuous feedback loops. NS3 simulations show that the protocol
mobility, reliability, and security. outperforms existing protocols in IoT Q-WSNs by decreasing latency

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A.C. Naik et al. Computer Networks 258 (2025) 111045

and maximizing data delivery. This research advances Quantum IoT high performance, achieving notable metrics such as accuracy and F1-
and shows how human leadership may improve WSN functionality by score, effectively detecting unusual activities in IoT networks. Abdelli
lowering delay and energy consumption. et al. [137] addressed vulnerabilities in optical fiber networks by
Nazari et al. [132] study the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), a proposing a system that combines an autoencoder for anomaly detec-
healthcare technology that improves quality of life and efficiency. IoMT tion with an attention-based GRU for fault diagnosis and localization.
monitors patients’ health in real time using IoT, AI, cloud computing, The system achieved an F1-score of 96.86% for detection and a diagnos-
computer networks, and medicine. IoMT requires quick and reliable tic accuracy of 98.2%, ensuring reliable identification and localization
network communication protocols between biosensors, patients, and of anomalies. Oleiwi et al. [138] proposed a hybrid ensemble learning
cloud environments. The study presents EQRSRL, an efficient routing framework for anomaly detection in wireless networks, using Random
technique for IoMT applications that aims to give a reasonable QoS. Forest and SVM classifiers with adaboosting and bagging techniques.
EQRSRL categorizes network traffic, handles it according to QoS crite- Their model, tested on NSL_KDD, UNSW_NB2015, and CIC_IDS2017
ria, splits the network into zones to decrease message exchanges, and datasets, achieved impressive accuracies of 99.6%, 99.1%, and 99.4%
uses reinforcement learning for optimal path computation considering respectively, with exceptionally low false-alarm rates.
QoS and energy metrics. Simulation results show an 82% reduction Bapurao et al. [139] focused on securing IoT-based precision farm-
in energy consumption, 25% reduction in end-to-end delay, and 7% ing systems by designing a machine learning-based threat detection
increase in packet delivery ratio over current routing strategies. framework using Random Forest, SVM, and Neural Networks. Tested on
In the Industrial IoT, Li et al.’s [133] research tackles the growing real-world agricultural IoT data, their approach excelled in identifying
demand for industrial WSNs (IWSNs) with powerful industrial informa- threats with high accuracy while minimizing false-positive rates. Shukla
tion perception capabilities. They emphasize the importance of secure, et al. [140] investigated anomaly detection in wireless communication
reliable data transmission with QoS assurance, including end-to-end networks using algorithms such as Decision Tree, Random Forest, CNN,
delay, security, and energy consumption. The study offers a trust- and XGBoost. By employing feature engineering and hyperparame-
aware multiobjective safe routing model to meet these needs. They ter optimization, their models achieved high accuracy and precision,
use multiobjective chaotic elite adaptive ACO to create MCEAACO- demonstrating the importance of refined features for detecting network
QSRP, a QoS-secure routing algorithm. This technique uses chaotic
anomalies.
optimization for population diversity and adaptive optimization for
The analyzed studies in Table 11 underscore the critical importance
dynamic adjustment to improve convergence time and avoid local
of machine learning in enhancing anomaly detection in various network
optima. Simulations show that the approach outperforms existing QoS
settings, such as IoT devices, wireless networks, optical fiber systems,
routing systems in routing security, energy consumption, and multi-QoS
and precision agriculture applications. The use of several machine
restrictions.
learning techniques, including k-NN, Decision Tree [141], Random
The research performed by Chandnani et al. [134] primarily aims
Forest, and ensemble approaches [142], exhibits notable improve-
to improve the QoS in WSNs used in the IoT. The authors provide a
ments in accuracy, efficiency, and reliability for anomaly detection and
new data aggregation and routing system called ARER, which combines
classification.
anchor-based routing with matrix filling theory. The ARER system com-
bines dynamic clustering and limited flooding techniques to enhance
9. Research challenges and future directions
energy efficiency and QoS factors. ARER surpasses previous protocols in
terms of QoS measures, exhibiting greater performance in throughput,
end-to-end delay, routing overhead, packet delivery ratio, and energy In this section, we explore the challenges faced in the field of IoT
consumption. security. By thoroughly examining these issues, we create possibilities
Overall, the comparative study emphasizes the varied contribu- for groundbreaking solutions and future research directions that aim
tions in enhancing WSNs and IoT technologies primarily investigate to overcome these challenges and drive advancements in securing IoT
energy efficiency, whereas Kirubasri et al. primarily focus on improving systems.
throughput. On the other hand, Ramkumar et al. propose a unique
1. Integration of Heterogeneous Devices
strategy inspired by human behavior. Nazari et al. focus on reducing
The diversity of IoT devices, with varying capabilities, proto-
energy consumption, Li et al. want to boost security, and Chandnani
cols, and standards, complicates the management of security
et al. seek to improve QoS indicators. Nevertheless, the studies have
across the ecosystem. Each device may require unique security
identified other problems, including scalability issues, validation needs,
measures, increasing overall complexity.
and complexity in implementation. The selection of the optimal pro-
Future Direction: To address this, the development of universal
tocol is contingent upon the unique requirements of the application,
standards and protocols is essential. Such measures will enable
including energy efficiency, scalability, security, and QoS demands.
This emphasizes the significance of taking these variables into account seamless integration of devices and enhance the overall security
when designing and implementing efficient and effective WSNs and IoT of IoT systems.
systems. 2. Resource Constraints in IoT Devices
Many IoT devices operate with limited computational power
8.6. Machine learning for anomaly detection and energy resources, restricting the implementation of robust
security measures and making them more vulnerable to attacks.
The use of machine learning for anomaly detection allows systems This challenge grows as IoT systems scale, with the need to
to recognize atypical patterns and possible threats in real-time, hence ensure low-latency processing for real-time applications.
assuring proactive security. Future Direction: Future research should focus on designing
Maseer et al. [135] benchmarked 31 machine learning models lightweight cryptographic algorithms and energy-efficient proto-
for anomaly detection in intrusion detection systems (IDS) using the cols to overcome these limitations. Furthermore, scalable frame-
CICIDS2017 dataset. The study found that k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN), works must be developed to maintain low-latency security and
Decision Tree (DT), and Naïve Bayes (NB) models achieved the best enable real-time threat detection.
results, excelling in both accuracy and computational efficiency for 3. Interoperability and Secure Communication
detecting web attacks. Gulhare et al. [136] developed an anomaly Ensuring secure communication between diverse IoT systems is
detection system for IoT devices using an ensemble of the Mean- challenging due to interoperability issues and vulnerabilities in
Shift clustering algorithm and Local Outlier Factor (LOF). By evaluat- routing protocols. These weaknesses expose systems to potential
ing the model on the UNSW-NB15 dataset, the authors demonstrated attacks, increasing the risk of data breaches and unauthorized

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Table 11
Summary of ML-Based Anomaly Detection Studies.
Author Objective Experimental finding Advantage Disadvantage
Maseer et al. [135] Benchmarking 31 ML Best accuracy and High performance across Focuses only on
models for anomaly computational efficiency in models. CICIDS2017 dataset.
detection in IDS. detecting web attacks
using CICIDS2017 dataset.
Gulhare et al. [136] Develop an anomaly High accuracy and Effective for IoT networks. Limited to a specific
detection system for IoT F1-score using dataset.
devices. UNSW-NB15 dataset.
Abdelli et al. [137] Address vulnerabilities in Achieved 96.86% F1-score Reliable anomaly Limited application scope
optical fiber networks. and 98.2% diagnostic localization. (optical fiber).
accuracy.
Oleiwi et al. [138] Propose hybrid ensemble Achieved accuracies of Low false-alarm rates. Requires extensive
learning for wireless 99.6%, 99.1%, and 99.4% computational resources.
network anomaly on NSL_KDD,
detection. UNSW_NB2015, and
CIC_IDS2017 datasets,
respectively.
Bapurao et al. [139] Secure IoT-based precision High threat detection Practical application in Real-world validation may
farming systems. accuracy with minimal agriculture. not generalize to all IoT
false positives on setups.
real-world IoT data.
Shukla et al. [140] Investigate anomaly High accuracy and Enhanced model accuracy. Limited to wireless
detection in wireless precision achieved through communication datasets.
networks. feature engineering and
hyperparameter
optimization.

access. frameworks are advancing IoT security. Additionally, distributed

Future Direction: Research should prioritize the development edge intelligence and quantum-safe cryptographic techniques
of interoperability standards that incorporate secure routing are becoming increasingly viable for securing IoT networks.
protocols. Additionally, efforts should focus on implementing ad- Future Direction: Future reviews and research efforts should
vanced privacy techniques and lightweight encryption methods incorporate these advancements to provide a more compre-
to safeguard user data effectively. hensive overview of state-of-the-art IoT security techniques.
4. Advanced Technologies for IoT Security
Addressing these challenges and exploring the proposed future di-
Leveraging machine learning (ML) for anomaly detection and rections will contribute to the development of a secure and resilient
utilizing blockchain technology to enhance trust can signifi- IoT ecosystem. This will ensure the ecosystem can withstand evolving
cantly improve IoT security. These technologies can enable bet- threats while supporting the increasing demand for interconnected
ter threat detection and promote transparency in the ecosystem. devices.
Future Direction: Future work should aim to develop ML-driven
trust management systems and integrate blockchain-based trust 10. Conclusion
protocols to strengthen the security of IoT networks.
5. Edge and Fog Layer Security IoT is a remarkable innovation that has transformed how objects
Securing data at the edge and fog computing layers is critical connect and communicate. This study has explored IoT’s privacy issues,
for reducing latency and improving system resilience against security vulnerabilities, and architectural layers, along with the current
emerging threats, including those posed by quantum computing. strategies designed to tackle these concerns. By categorizing threats
Future Direction: Future research should focus on implement- and countermeasures across IoT’s architecture, we have provided a
ing secure edge computing architectures and developing qua clear understanding of its unique security needs and the risks it faces.
ntum-safe cryptographic algorithms to prepare IoT systems for Specifically, this review has grouped existing security measures. By
quantum threats. analyzing various algorithms and QoS-aware routing protocols, we
6. Governance and Industry Collaboration have uncovered both the strengths and gaps in current IoT security
The lack of comprehensive regulations and limited collaboration frameworks. Our comparative analysis of various security approaches
across the industry hinders progress in addressing IoT security has highlighted their respective benefits and limitations, offering mean-
challenges. Establishing governance frameworks can enhance ingful insights for researchers Theoretically, this work underscores the
collective resilience and promote a secure ecosystem. importance of innovative, interdisciplinary approaches to designing
Future Direction: Efforts should be directed towards developing robust IoT security systems. Practically, it emphasizes the need for
international IoT security standards and fostering industry-wide adaptable, context-sensitive security measures to protect IoT networks
collaboration. Promoting joint research initiatives can create a in diverse environments. It primarily examines existing frameworks
unified approach to addressing IoT security concerns. without extensive real-world validation across different IoT scenarios.
7. Recent Advancements in ML, Blockchain, and Edge/Fog Se- Furthermore, emerging challenges like quantum computing threats and
curity sophisticated adversarial attacks remain areas that demand deeper
While the use of ML for anomaly detection, blockchain for exploration. Moving forward, researchers should focus on developing
trust enhancement, and securing edge/fog layers have been adaptive security solutions that harness AI and machine learning to
mentioned as future directions, recent studies in these areas detect and respond to threats in real time, tailored to the unique charac-
have demonstrated significant progress. ML-driven trust man- teristics of IoT systems. Additionally, the adoption of quantum-resistant
agement systems, federated learning for scalable and privacy- cryptographic techniques and conducting large-scale, empirical studies
preserving models, and blockchain-based decentralized security in practical IoT environments will be critical in refining and scaling

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[141] V. Guleria, A. Verma, R. Dhenkawat, U. Chaurasia, N.P. Singh, Brain tumor Dr. Priyanka is an Assistant Professor in the Department
detection using texture based LBP feature on MRI images using feature selec- of Computer Science & Engineering, National Institute of
tion technique, in: Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, Computing and Security Technology Hamirpur (H.P). In the past, she has worked
Volume 1, CRC Press, 2023, pp. 30–36. at the University of Delhi. She received her Ph.D. degree
[142] H. Vardhan, A. Verma, N.P. Singh, An ensemble learning approach for in 2018, M.Tech. degree (Computer Engineering) in 2011,
large scale birds species classification, in: Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, and B.Tech. degree (Honors) in Computer Science and En-
Computing and Security Volume 1, CRC Press, 2023, pp. 3–8. gineering in 2008. She has published many research papers
and book chapters in reputed national and international
journals and conferences, including papers in IEEE Xplore,
Mr. Azmera Chandu Naik received a B.Tech. degree in and SCI papers in wireless personal communication. She
Computer Science and Engineering from the University Col- had served as a Chairperson at the IEEE Young Professional
lege of Engineering, Kakatiya University, Telangana, India, Delhi Section.
an M.Tech. from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Hyderabad, and pursuing a Ph.D. from National Institute
of Technology, Hamirpur. He has 16 years of teaching Dr. T.P. Sharma is an Associate Professor in the Depart-
experience as an Assistant Professor and is currently work- ment of Computer Science & Engineering, National Institute
ing as a Senior Assistant Professor at CVR College of of Technology Hamirpur (H.P). He has been serving the
Engineering, Hyderabad Telangana. He has published 11 institute for more than 25 years. He received his Ph.D.
papers in National and International journals and also has degree in Computer Science & Engineering in 2010 from IIT
2 patents. Roorkee, His research interests include distributed systems,
wireless sensor networks, mobile ad hoc networks, vehic-
ular networks, the internet of things, and the internet of
Dr. Lalit Kumar Awasthi received his Ph.D. from the vehicles. He has published many research papers and book
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, in Computer Sci- chapters in reputed national and international journals and
ence and Engineering. He is working as Vice Chancellor conferences.
at Sardar Patel University Mandi. Before this, he was the
Director/Principal of the National Institute of Technology
Aryan Verma is pursuing a postgraduate degree in the
Hamirpur, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Tech-
School of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh, in the
nology Jalandhar, and Government Engineering College
United Kingdom. The focus of his research lies in the field of
Shimla. He has also served as a Professor and Head of
data science and deep learning, specifically in its application
the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, at
to practical, real-world issues. The author’s works have been
the National Institute of Technology Hamirpur. His research
published in numerous scholarly journals and international
interests are in distributed fault-tolerant computing, mobile
conferences. Additionally, he has been awarded a fellowship
computing, wireless sensor networks, and mobile ad hoc
in data science for social good from the University of
networks. He has published over 180 research papers in
Warwick. He is currently a Data Science consultant based
various national and international journals and conferences
in London.
and guided many Ph.D. scholars in these areas.

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