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1. MICROSOFT WORD
It is a Word processing program. It helps in creating professional-looking documents that can be
printed, e.g., letters, reports, memos, essays, projects, books, etc,.

More about Ms-Word.

Microsoft Word is one of the components of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office is an integrated
software with a number of interrelated programs, which include; Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel
(a spreadsheet), Microsoft Access (a database management system), Microsoft PowerPoint (a
presentation package), etc. Each program allows the user to solve a variety of common computer
related tasks.
Microsoft Office allows the user to work with programs that have the same basic structure and
interface. It also allows the users to share information quickly and easily between different
programs.
There are several versions of Microsoft Word, the most common being Word 97, Word 2000, Word
XP, and Word 2003 2007,2010,2013,2016,2019,2021. These versions of Microsoft Word are
found in Microsoft Office 97, 2000, XP and 2003, 2007,2010,2011 suites respectively.

Getting information about your program and computer.

You can check which version of the Microsoft Office XP program is installed on your computer,
and determine the product ID number of your copy of the program.
You can also get system information and perform a test of your network connection.
1. On the Help menu, click About Microsoft <Program Name>.
2. Click the OK button.

Starting Microsoft Word.

There are a number of ways you can start Microsoft Word.
Method 1.
1. Click the Start button, point to Programs (or All Programs, if you are using Windows XP),
then click Microsoft Word from the programs menu.
Method 2.
Click on the Microsoft Word icon on the Microsoft Office Shortcut Bar, if it is displayed on the
desktop.
Parts of the Microsoft Word Screen.
Once you start Microsoft Word, it provides you with a blank document window where you can
create your document.
1. Title bar.
A Title is mostly a blue strip at the top of the window that displays the title of the currently
running application.
The Title bar also enables the user to move the window around the desktop. This can be done
by pointing to it, then drag using the mouse.

2. Resizing buttons.
They include; the Minimize, Restore/Maximize, and the Close button that are found on the right
of the Title bar.
The Minimize button - reduces a window to become a button on the taskbar.
The Maximize button – stretches the window to cover the entire desktop.
The Restore button - restores a window to its original size.
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The Close button – is used to close and exit a window.

3. Menu bar.
Provides a drop down list of commands that one can use to perform a task. Examples are File,
Edit, Window and Help.
4. Document (Work) Area.
This is the working area where you can enter text or graphical objects.

5. Rulers.
Ms-Word provides the user with a Vertical & an Horizontal ruler that helps the user position
text or objects in the right position.
Horizontal ruler:
A bar marked off in units of measure (such as inches) that is displayed across the top of the
document window.
Uses of the Horizontal ruler.
(i). Setting tab stops.
(ii). Contain markers for paragraph indentation, e.g., First Line, Left indent & Hanging indent.
(iii). Can be used to adjust the Left and Right page margins.
(iv). Can be used for adjusting the column widths of a table.
(v). Can be used to show column boundaries, and also adjust the size of text columns.
Vertical ruler:
A bar displayed along the left side of the document window. The vertical ruler can be used to
adjust the Top and Bottom page margins and the Row height in tables.
To Display the rulers.
1. Click the View menu, and then choose Ruler on the drop down menu that appears.
A checkmark or tick will appear next to it showing that the ruler is displayed on the screen.

6. Text cursor (Insertion Point).

A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam ( I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear.

7. Scroll bars, Scroll boxes & Scroll arrows.

Scroll bars are horizontal & vertical bars on the borders of a window. They contain boxes that
the user can drag to scroll upward, downwards, to the right or to the left of the document.
Scroll arrows are found at the end of the scroll bars, and the user can click on them.

8. View buttons.
They are found at the left hand corner of the Horizontal scroll bar.

9. Status bar.
This is an interactive bar or strip at the bottom of the screen that acts as a communication link
between the user and the program. It displays information about the current condition of the
program, such as saving operation, the name of the file in use, the current page, cursor position,
or information about the selected item.
Importance.
√ The Status bar helps the user to interact with the application because it displays the processing
status of the application.

10. Toolbars.

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 These are rows of buttons or icons that represent commands.
 A Toolbar is a group of shortcut command icons arranged on a single graphical structure.
A Toolbar contains buttons and options that you use to carry out commands. The command
buttons are shortcuts to the same commands you can access from the Menu bar.
Examples of toolbars in Ms-Word include;
~ Standard. ~ Picture.
~ Formatting. ~ Tables and Borders.
~ Drawing. ~ Word Count.
~ Mail merge. ~ Word Art, etc.
To select the Toolbars you want to use.
1. To display a toolbar, click on the View menu, point to Toolbars.
2. Click on the toolbars you want to use, and make sure they have are checked (have ticks or
checkmarks next to them).
Alternatively, Right-click any toolbar, then select the toolbars required. You can also
deselect any toolbars that you do not require.
To Show or hide ScreenTips for the toolbar buttons.
2. On the Tools menu, click Customize, then click the Options tab.
3. Select or clear the Show ScreenTips on toolbars checkbox.
Customize the Toolbars.
Purpose.
√ Ms-Word buttons are automatically grouped into different toolbars depending on their
functionality. Ms-Word allows you to create your own toolbars where you can combine
your most frequently used commands.
1. On the View menu, point to Toolbars, then select Customize.
2. In the resulting dialog box, click New. In the Toolbar name box, type in a new name for
your new toolbar such as ‘My Own’, then click the OK button.
3. Click the Commands tab to allow you to select the buttons you need on the new toolbar.
The left side of the dialog box are the categories of commands that you can select, whereas
on the right side are the commands.
4. Drag the desired buttons onto your new toolbar.
To remove a button from any toolbar, drag it off the toolbar and drop it onto the Customize
dialog box.
5. When you have finished adding buttons to your toolbar, click on the Close button.
Your new toolbar should now be complete with all the buttons you dragged onto it, and the
name of the toolbar should be visible.
6. You can drag or move your new toolbar to any convenient position on the screen.

Review Questions 1.1

1. (a). What is Microsoft Word?
(b). Under what category of applications does Microsoft Word fall in?
(c). Apart from Microsoft Word, name two other Word processing programs.
(d). What are the importance of Microsoft Word to the Market today?
(e). Name and explain any 5 parts of the Microsoft Word application window.
2. (a). What is a Toolbar?
(b). Give Four examples of Toolbars used in Microsoft Word application.
(b). What is the function of Status bar in a Microsoft Word application window?
3. Give FOUR uses of the horizontal ruler in Microsoft Word.
4. What is Word wrap?

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Exercise (b).
1. (a). Give Two examples of modern Word processors.
(b). Give 2 advantages and 3 disadvantages of using Microsoft Word.
2. Explain the importance of the Status bar.
3. You have just started the Microsoft Word program and discovered that the Drawing toolbar
and the Ruler are not present. Describe how you would display them.

CREATING A DOCUMENT.
Document - Whatever you create with an application, including information you type, edit, view
or save.
Creating a document means typing text in a new document screen.

Creating a New Blank Document.

In case you are working in Ms-Word and you want to create another new document,
Method 1.
1. Click the New Blank Document button on the Standard toolbar (or press CTRL+N).
Method 2.
1. On the File menu, click New.
2. Click the General tab, and then double-click the Blank Document icon.

Creating documents using Templates.

 A Template is a file that contain the structure & tools for shaping elements such as the style
and page layout of finished files. It contains the standard text, graphics and formatting for use
in all documents of this type.
 A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same
type.
Purpose.
√ Using templates helps to save time & makes creating of new documents easy.
√ It also ensures that there is consistency between the documents being created.
To create a New Document from a template or wizard.
Wizard - A feature that asks questions and then creates an item, such as a form or Web page,
according to your answers. A Wizard lets you choose the formatting and content options you want
to apply.

Using Ms-Word 97 or 2000.

1. Create the document on which you will base other new documents.
• Insert all the text, graphics and formatting you want included.
• Set the Page margins and other print layout options.
2. On the File menu, choose Save As, then enter the filename.
3. In the Save as type box, select Document Template, then click Save.
Using Ms-Word 2002.
1. On the File menu, click New.
2. In the New Document task pane, under New from template, click General Templates.
3. Click the relevant tab depending on the type of document you want to create, then double-click
the icon for the template or wizard you want.

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Examples of documents that can be created using templates.
 Blank Documents.  Web Pages.  E-Mail messages.
 Reports.  Memos.  Letters.
 Faxes.  Mailing labels.  Envelopes.
 Calendars.  Resumes (CV).
 Publications such as, Brochures, Manuals, Directories, Theses.
To create a letter,
1. Click the Letters & Faxes tab.
2. Double-click Letter Wizard, and then follow the instructions in the Letter Wizard.
Create a résumé,
1. Click the Other Documents tab.
2. Double-click Résumé Wizard, and then follow the steps in the wizard.
Create a calendar,
1. Click the Other Documents tab.
2. Double-click Calendar Wizard, and then follow the steps in the wizard.
Create a Web Page using the Web Page Wizard,
1. Click the Web Pages tab.
2. Double-click Web Page Wizard, and then follow the steps in the wizard, so as to provide
information like the title, pages, and even the visual theme for the web page.
3. Click on the Finish button.
After a few seconds, the template is presented complete with placeholders.
4. Click on the sample text and replace it with your own text.
Create a folded booklet,
To create a booklet, start with a new blank document so that you can control the placement of text,
graphics, and other elements.
1. On the File menu, click Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
2. In the Multiple Pages list, select Book fold.
If your document is not set to landscape orientation, Ms-Word sets it to landscape.
3. In the Inside & Outside boxes, select the amount of space you want for the inside and outside
margins.
If you need more space along the fold to accommodate binding, select it in the Gutter box.
4. In the Sheets per booklet list, select the no. of pages you want to include in a single booklet.
If the no. of pages in the document exceeds those you select for a booklet, Word prints the
document as multiple booklets.
5. Select any other options you want in the Page Setup dialog box.
6. Add text, graphics, headers or footers, and other elements to your document as usual.
Note. When you select Book fold for your Page Setup, Word prints two pages on one side of the
paper. When you fold the paper, it opens like a book. This option is intended for documents that
have more than two pages.

Inserting Text into a document.

When you start Ms-Word, a blank document appears with a blinking vertical bar called the
Insertion point (or cursor), ready for you to start typing. The Insertion point indicates the place
where text and graphics will appear when typed or inserted.
1. When you get the Insertion point, start typing your text.
-OR-
2. Position the Insertion point where you want to begin typing, then type your text.

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Starting a New Paragraph.
When typing text in paragraphs, you don’t have to start a new line when you reach the right margin.
Ms-Word wraps the text automatically to the next line when it reaches the right margin. This
facility is known as the Word Wrap.
Word Wrap:
 Moving a word to the beginning of a new line if it cannot fit at the end of the previous line.

When you want to end a short sentence or start a new paragraph, or when you want to leave a blank
line between paragraphs, press the ENTER key.
Note. To move the cursor back to where it was before pressing the ENTER or to omit a space
created by the ENTER key, use Backspace or Delete.
A Paragraph is any amount of text that ends with a paragraph mark, which is created by pressing
the ENTER key.
CAPS Lock key.
(i). Used to switch between Uppercase & Lowercase. When pressed on, an indicator with a green
light appears on the top-right hand corner of the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear
in capital letters. When pressed off, all the text typed will appear in small letters.
SHIFT key.
(i). Used to get the Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc) on top of the Number keys, or
symbols in certain keys.
Press & hold down the SHIFT key, then press the key for the letter.
(ii). To produce a single capital letter.
Hold down the SHIFT, then press the key for the letter you want to appear as capital.
TAB key.
It is used to move the text cursor or a certain text at set intervals on the same line to the required
position on the screen, e.g., 10mm, 20mm, etc.
Note. To move back the text or cursor after using the TAB, press SHIFT+TAB keys or press
BACKSPACE key.
SPACEBAR.
(i). Used to separate every two words or sentences from each other.
To leave a blank space between words, after a comma or a semi-colon; press the Spacebar
once. To leave a blank space between sentences; press the Spacebar twice.
2.
Moving the Insertion point within a document.
3. To move the cursor press
 1 character to the left Left arrow
 1 character to the right Right arrow
 Down 1 line Down arrow.
 Up 1 line Up arrow.
 To the beginning of the current line HOME.
 To the end of the current line END.
 To the beginning of a document CTRL+Home
 To the end of a document CTRL+End
 To the page above the one displayed on the screen Page Up.
 To the next page (page below the one displayed) Page Down.

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Scrolling through a document.
Scrolling:
 Scrolling is the movement of text document on the screen up, down, left and right.
 To move forward or backward through a no. of lines in a file being displayed on a CRT screen.
Scrolling is done either using the Up or Down arrow keys, Page Up or Page Down keys, or using
the Mouse in Windows based word processors.
To scroll: Click.
Up 1 line Up scroll arrow.
Down 1 line Down scroll arrow.
Right Right scroll arrow.
Left Left scroll arrow.
Up 1 screen Above the scroll box.
Down 1 screen Below the scroll box.
To a specific page Drag the scroll box.
After scrolling, click where you want to start typing.
Tip. To scroll more slowly, use the Arrow keys, Page Up or Page Down on the Keyboard.

Correcting a document.
1. Use the Arrow keys to move the cursor to the position of the correction.
• If you had left out a character, type it. Ms-Word will insert the character to the immediate
right of the cursor.
• If you had typed a wrong character, you can delete it by positioning the cursor on the
immediate left of the character, then press the Delete key on the Keyboard.

VIEWING DOCUMENTS.
Ms-Word provides different ways to view your work, depending on the task at hand.

Normal view.
Normal view is convenient for most typing, editing and formatting tasks. It shows text formatting
and a simplified layout of the page so that you can type and edit quickly.
To switch to Normal view, click Normal on the View menu.

Print Layout View.

Displays how a document or other object will appear when printed. It shows how text, graphics,
headers, footnotes, columns, textboxes and other elements will be positioned on the printed page.
This view is useful for editing headers and footers, for adjusting margins, and for working with
columns and drawing objects.
To switch to print layout view, click Print Layout on the View menu.
Print Preview.
A view of a document as it will appear when printed.
In this view, you can see page breaks & watermarks and you can make editing or formatting
changes before printing the document.
To switch to print preview, click Print Preview on the File menu.

Web layout view.

Shows how a document will appear in a Web browser. In Web layout view, the document appears
as one long page (without page breaks), while text and tables wrap to fit in the window.
To switch to Web layout view, click Web Layout on the View menu.

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Full Screen mode.
In this mode, Ms-Word removes distracting screen elements, such as toolbars and scroll bars so
that it displays as much of your document as possible on the screen.
To switch to full-screen mode, click Full Screen on the View menu.
Tips.
 To choose menu commands in full-screen mode, rest the pointer at the top of the screen. The
Menu bar will appear.
 To turn off full-screen mode and switch to the previous view, click Close Full Screen on the
Full Screen toolbar, or press ESC.

Zoom in or out of a document.

You can "zoom in" to get a close-up view of your document or "zoom out" to see more of the
page at a reduced size.
1. Click the arrow next to the Zoom box on the Standard toolbar (or click Zoom on the View
menu).
2. Click the zoom setting you want from the drop-down list.

SAVING DOCUMENTS.
Purpose.
√ You save a document in order to use it at a later time, perhaps a few hours or even years later.
√ If done periodically, say after every 1 minute, saving helps to prevent data loss in case of power
failure.
Using the ‘Save’ command.
The Save command can be used when you are saving a new document for the first time or when
saving changes to an open document.
Using the ‘Save As…’ command.
Save As can be used if you want to:
 Name and save a new document or template.
 Save a document or template on a different disk drive or in a different folder.
 Make a copy of an existing document or template with a new name, leaving the original
document unchanged.
To name and save a new document for the first time.
1. On the File menu, select Save or Save As (or press CTRL+’S’) to display the Save As dialog
box.
2. In the File name box, type a name for the document.
3. To store the document in a different folder or drive, select a different location to save in by
clicking the down facing arrow next to the Save in list box.
4. To save the file in a different format or type, click the down arrow on the right of Save as type
list box, and choose a file type.
5. Click the Save button.
After you name and save a document once, the Save & Save As commands function differently.
To save changes to an existing document.
1. Click Save on the Standard toolbar (or on the File menu or press CTRL+S).
Save a copy of a document with a new name or in a different location.
1. Open the document you want to make a copy of.
2. On the File menu, click Save As.
3. In the File name box, enter a new name for the file.
To save the copy in a different folder or drive, click a different location in the Save in list.

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4. Click on the Save button.
Note. Changing a document's name or location using Save As creates a new copy of the document,
so two copies of the same document exist: one with the old name or location and one with the new.
The copies are completely separate, and the work you do on one document has no effect on the
other.

Saving files automatically when you are working.

Purpose.
√ You can set up Ms-Word so that it saves your files at the frequency that you specify in order
to safeguard against accidental loss of a file due to power failure.
1. On the Tools menu, choose Options. In the resulting dialog box, click the Save tab, then select
the Save AutoRecover info every checkbox.
2. In the Minutes box, enter the interval for how often you want to save files.
The more frequently your files are saved, the more information is recovered if there is a power
failure or similar problem while a file is open.
Note. AutoRecover is not a replacement for regularly saving your files. If you don’t save the
recovery file after opening it, the file is deleted and your unsaved changes are lost.
Tip. You can speed up saving a file by turning on fast saves,
1. On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Save tab.
2. Select the Allow fast saves checkbox, and then continue to save as you work on the file.

Protecting a document using a Password.

 A Password is a secret word or phrase by which you protect or lock your document so that no
one will be able to open or print the file without knowing the password.
 A Password is a combination of characters that prevents other users from opening and changing
a document without permission.
Use of Passwords is a security method used to restrict access to computer systems and sensitive
files that may be confidential in nature. Otherwise, if a document is protected by a password, only
the person who knows the password can open the document or edit it.
For example, Passwords can be used to:
(i). Prevent unauthorized users from opening a document at all.
(ii). Allow other users to open the document but only make changes to it. If someone makes
changes to a password-protected document, that person can save the document only by giving
it a different file name.
- A password can contain any combination of letters, numerals, spaces, and symbols, and it can
be up to 15 characters long.
- As you type the password, Ms-Word displays an asterisk (*) for each character that you type
to ensure confidentiality.
1. Create or open the document you want to protect with a password.
2. On the File menu, click Save As to display the Save As dialog box.
3. Click the down arrow on the Tools button, click Security Options.
4. Under the File sharing options for this document section, type a password under Password
to open. This prompts the user to enter password when opening a document.
5. If you wish, type in another password under Password to modify. This prevents the user from
making changes to a document unless the user enters the correct password.
6. Click OK.
Ms-Word prompts you to confirm the password. Re-type the password again, then click OK.
7. To save the document, choose OK.
Notes.

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 After creating a password, write it down and keep it in a secure place. If the password is lost,
you cannot open or gain access to the password-protected file.
 If you protect a document with a password, you must provide the correct password each time
you open the file.
 Passwords are case-sensitive, so if you vary the capitalization when you assign the password,
then you must type the same capitalization when entering the password.

Closing a document.
Closing a document means unloading the current active document from memory so that the user
can create or open another without necessarily exiting from Ms-Word.
1. On the File menu, click Close.

OPENING A SAVED DOCUMENT.

4.

5. Purpose.
6.

7. You open a saved document (i.e., a document stored on a floppy disk or on the hard disk of the
8.
computer) if you want to:
√ Continue working on it, if it was saved before completion.
√ View the data it contains.
√ Update it, if the data it contains represents information that changes periodically.
9. E.g., a Weekly report.
√ Print the data it contains.
1. Click Open on the File menu or on the Standard toolbar (or press CTRL+O) to display the
Open dialog box.
2. In the Look in list, click the drive or folder where the document was saved.
3. Click the filename from the File list box, then click Open (or double-click the document you
want to open).
Tip. To open a document you’ve used recently, click the filename at the bottom of the File menu.
In case the list of recently used documents isn’t displayed, you can Show or hide it;
To Show or hide the list of recently used documents,
 On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the General tab.
 Select or clear the Recently used file list checkbox.

Exiting / Quitting from Microsoft Word.

√ When you have finished working with Microsoft Word, you exit from it.
To exit from Word, make sure all open documents are saved.
Method 1.
1. Click the Close button on the top right hand corner of the Title bar.
Method 2.
1. On the File menu, click Exit.
Method 3.
1. Press ALT+F4.
Method 4.
1. Double-click the Control Box of the Microsoft Word program.

Review Questions 1.1

(iv). Define the following terminologies as far as a Word Processor is concerned.
(i). Word wrap.
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(ii). Scrolling.
(iii). Creating a document.
(iv). Document Template.
2. (a). What are the advantages of using a template to create a document?
(b). List 5 types of documents where you would use a template.
3. Explain the functions of the following keys in Word processing.
(i). End.
(ii). Home.
(iii). Tab.
(iv). Spacebar.
(v). Backspace.
4. Describe TWO procedures of creating a new document using Microsoft Word.
5. Explain the use of any THREE shortcut keys.
6. What keystrokes would you use to accomplish the following?
(i). Move your cursor to the beginning of a line.
(ii). Move your cursor to the end of your document.
Exercise (b).
1. Identify 2 uses of the SHIFT key in Word processing.
2. (a). Describe the use of each of the following commands in saving a document.
(i). Save.
(ii). Save As.
(b). Outline the steps followed when saving a new document in a 3.5-inch floppy disk.
3. Explain how you can protect a document from unauthorized opening or altering.
4. How can you save a document with a file type different from the one of your Word processor.
5. Give Three reasons why you would open a saved document.
6. Briefly distinguish between the following:
(a). Full screen mode and Page Layout view.
(b). Status bar and Title bar.
7. What is the function of the following combination of keys in Microsoft Word?
(a). CTRL+Home.
(b).CTRL+Page Up.
10.
11. EDITING A DOCUMENT
Editing refers to making any necessary changes to an already existing document.

12. Block Operations

Selecting (highlighting) a block of text.
Blocking of text refers to selecting a group of text e.g., a word, sentence or paragraph, in order to
work with it as a whole.
Importance.
√ The purpose of selecting text is to enable the user perform a number of editing or formatting
operations on the selected block of text.
Some of the operations that may need blocking include: moving, copying, deleting, inserting and
overtyping, formatting.
Ms-Word provides a number of ways of selecting a block of text. You can either select a block of
text using the Mouse or Keyboard.

Select text and graphics using the Mouse.

 To select a graphic, click the graphic.
 To select any amount of text, drag over the text.
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 To select a word, Double-click the word.
 To select a line of text, move the pointer to the left of the line until it changes to a right-pointing
arrow, and then click.
 To select a sentence, hold down CTRL, then click anywhere in the sentence
 To select a paragraph, Triple-click anywhere inside the paragraph.
 To select multiple paragraphs, Triple-click anywhere in the paragraph, then drag up or down.
 To select an entire document, on the Edit menu, click Select All.
 To select a vertical block of text, hold down ALT, then drag over the text.

Select text using the Keyboard.

1. Move the cursor to the start or end of the text, word, sentence or paragraph.
13. Press To select
SHIFT + Right arrow 1 character to the right
SHIFT + Left Arrow 1 character to the Left
SHIFT + CTRL+ Right arrow 1 word to the right
SHIFT + CTRL+ Left arrow 1 word to the left
SHIFT + HOME To the beginning of a line
SHIFT + END To the end of a line
SHIFT + Up arrow 1 line up
SHIFT + Down arrow 1 line down
SHIFT + Page Up 1 screen up
SHIFT + Page Down 1 screen down
SHIFT + CTRL+ Home To the beginning of a document
SHIFT + CTRL+ End To the end of a document
CTRL+A To select the entire document at once

DELETING TEXT.
BACKSPACE Key.
It has a backward arrow (←) marked on it.
 Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor.
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate letter / number
is erased.
1. To delete a character from the right to the left, place the insertion point on the right of the word,
then press the Backspace key.
2. To erase one word to the left of the cursor, press CTRL+ Backspace.
DELETE Key.
 Erases characters to the right of the cursor.
1. To delete a character to the right of the cursor position, place the insertion point on the left of
the word, then press the Delete key.

To delete a block of text.

1. Highlight (select) the text to be deleted, then press the Delete key.

Restoring deleted text.

To restore text that has just been deleted, click Undo from the Edit menu (or on the Standard
toolbar).

TYPING OVER EXISTING TEXT.

Typing Modes.
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There are 2 typing modes in a word processor that assist the user in typing or editing text
documents. These are;
(i). Insert mode.
(ii). Overtype (Type over) mode.

Insert mode
This is the default typing mode in most word processors. In Insert mode, Ms-Word inserts
characters as you type, and any new text you enter in the middle of a line is inserted between
existing texts, characters or words.
The Insert mode pushes existing text away as new characters are inserted at the location of the
cursor without replacing it.
Overtype mode
To Overtype is to replace existing characters as you type.
Therefore, if Overtype mode is turned on, tying new text between existing words or characters
automatically replaces the existing text by deleting it.
Overtype mode deletes the current text at the cursor position and replaces the existing characters
with new text.
Methods of switching between Overtype & Insert mode.
Method 1.
Double-click the OVR label on the Status bar to turn Overtype on or off.
Method 2.
Press the INSERT (Ins) key on the Keyboard to switch between Insert & Overtype mode.
Method 3.
On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Edit tab. Select or clear the Overtype mode
checkbox.
14.
COPYING OF TEXT AND OBJECTS.
Copying text means making a duplicate of the text or object.
Importance.
√ Copying reduces the effort & time taken to repeat the same information in other parts of the
document.
If a section is repeated several times in the document, you can save time by copying the first
occurrence of the text rather than typing it over again.
√ If the section appears several times but with a few differences, you can copy it and then make
minor changes to each copy, rather than type everything all over again.
√ Facilitates the transfer of information between different Ms-Word files.
√ Facilitates the transfer of information between Ms-Word and other Windows applications.
1. Select the text or item you want to copy.
To copy multiple items that aren't next to each other; select one item, hold down CTRL, then
click the other items.
2. Click Copy on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+C).
Ms-Word places a copy of the selection in the Clipboard.
3. Click where you want the copy of the text to appear. To copy the item to another document,
switch or open the document.
4. Click Paste on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+V).

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MOVING TEXT & GRAPHICS WITHIN A DOCUMENT.
Moving of text means relocating text from one place in a document to another (or changing the
position of text or an object in a document).
Purpose.
√ After typing in a document, you may need to shift some text or paragraphs to other locations in
the document in order for the document to be more logically organized.
Method 1: Drag-and-Drop editing.
1. Select the text you want to move.
2. Point to the selection, press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. While still holding down the left mouse button, move the mouse pointer to the required
location.
The dimmed insertion point that moves in the document shows you the position to which the
selected text will be transferred when you release the left mouse button.
4. Then release the mouse button.
Note. Drag-and-drop editing is suitable when you are moving text over a short distance, e.g.,
within one page. It is clumsy to use when moving text across several pages.
Method 2: Cut and Paste.
To move text to a distant page, say from page 1 to page 50, use the Cut and Paste method.
1. Select the text you want to move.
2. Click Cut on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+X).
Ms-Word will place whatever you had selected into a temporary storage area within the
computer called the ‘Clipboard’ from where it is available to any application in Windows.
3. Click where you want the cut text to be placed. To move the item to another document, open
or switch to the document.
4. Click Paste on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+V).
Ms-Word inserts the contents of the clipboard at the position of the cursor.
Note. In Moving, all the selected text is transferred to a new location, while in Copying, the
original text is left intact.
Question. Explain how a paragraph can be moved from one place to another using a Word
processor.
15.
16. FINDING & REPLACING TEXT IN A DOCUMENT.
The Find and Replace features are used to search for a specific word or phrase that you want to
review or edit and automatically replace with other text.
When you need to search for a word or phrase in a large document, use the Find command. In
case you wish to replace a word or phrase, use the Replace option.
Importance of using Find and Replace.
√ Enables you to change a particular word or phrase throughout a document.
E.g., an outdated product name in a brochure can be changed to its new name easily using Find
and Replace.
√ The Find and Replace feature is efficient and exact.
√ It is also easy to use and saves time compared to reading through the document (in search of
the text) and making the changes manually.
Search (Find) text.
1. On the Edit menu, click Find (or press CTRL+F).
2. In the Find what box, type the text that you want to search for. Select any other search
options that you want.
3. Click on the Find Next or Find All button.
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This will start the search and the first occurrence of the word will be highlighted.
4. Click OK when a message appears telling you that Ms-Word has finished searching the
document. Click Cancel to close the dialog box.
You can click the More button to display and specify search options.
 Match case: Identifies only text that has the same case with that typed in the Find What box,
e.g., it will not find the word DEEN if you typed deen and selected the Match Case option.
 Whole Word: Searches for a word or phrase that is whole. If it is part of another word, it will
not be found, e.g., the word ever will not be found in words like however, whenever, etc during
the search.
 Use wildcards: Wildcards are special symbols such as * and ? that are used to represent a set
of words that have some similar characteristics.
E.g., names like Jeff, Joe, Jane can be represented using a wildcard as J*, which means all
names starting with J.
 Like: Searches for words which are similar in pronunciation, e.g. Fare and Fair.

To Find and Replace text at the same time.

1. On the Edit menu, click Replace (or press CTRL+H).
2. In the Find what box, enter the text that you want to search for or replace.
3. In the Replace with box, enter the replacement text. Select any other options that you want.
4. If you want to replace only some occurrences of the text, click on the Find Next button, then
click Replace. This changes the selected text in the Find What box, then finds the next
occurrence.
However, if you want to replace all occurrences of the text in the Find What box at once, click
the Replace All button.

Using the Go To feature.

This feature is used when you want to quickly go to a specific item in a document, e.g., page, line,
graphic, footnote, table, etc.
1. Click the Go To tab in the Find and Replace dialog box.
-OR-
On the Edit menu, click Go To (or press CTRL+G).
2. Under the Go to what section, specify the item you want to locate, e.g. Page.
Type the page number, or section number in the Enter box.
3. Click the Go To button.
4. Close the dialog box.
INSERTING SYMBOLS & SPECIAL CHARACTERS.
17.

You can display on the screen, and also print Symbols and special characters that are not on your
Keyboard.
For example, you can insert symbols such as fractions (¼) and ©, special characters such as an
ellipsis (…), international characters such as (Ç, ë), and international monetary symbols (£, ¥)
depending on the available fonts.
1. Click where you want to insert the symbol or the special character.
2. On the Insert menu, click Symbol, then click the Symbols or the Special Characters tab.
3. In the Font box, click the font that you want.
4. Double-click the symbol or character that you want to insert, then click Close.
Note. To quickly insert a recently used symbol, in the Symbol dialog box, click a symbol in the
Recently used symbols list, then click Close.

INSERTING DATE & TIME.

Insert the current date and time in a document.

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1. Click where you want to insert the date or time.
2. On the Insert menu, click Date and Time.
3. In the Available formats box, click a date or time format.
 To insert the date and time as a field that will automatically be updated when you open or
print the document, select the Update automatically checkbox.
 To insert a date or time that will remain as originally inserted, clear the Update
automatically checkbox.

Exercise (a).
1. What is meant by the term Editing a document?
2. Define the following terminologies as far as a Word Processor is concerned.
(i). Blocking text.
(ii). Overtype.
3. Give the sequence of commands to delete the following.
(i). A Word.
(ii). A Paragraph.
4. (a). Distinguish between copying and moving text.
(b). Briefly describe how you can move or copy a picture from MUTI.doc to
CHESTER.doc, giving the relevant precautions taken.
4. (a). What is the disadvantage of drag-and-drop editing?
(b). To overcome the disadvantage above, what feature in Ms-Word are you supposed to
use?
5. (a). When is the Find and Replace command used?
(b). What is a wildcard? How can it be used to search for a word that starts with the letter
“O” in a document?
6. What is the purpose of the following keystrokes?
 Backspace and Delete.
 SHIFT+Arrow keys.
 CTRL+Arrow keys.
Exercise (b).
1. Give a brief description of each of the following terms as used in Word processing:
(i). Selecting text.
(ii). Shortcut menu.
2. Describe Four (4) ways of selecting text in Microsoft Word.
3. Explain the difference between Type over and Insert mode in word processing.
4. Name TWO keys used to delete a text in a document.
5. What is the function of the following combination of keys in Microsoft Word?
(a). Ctrl+Z. (b). Ctrl+Y.
(c). Ctrl+A. (d). Ctrl+P.
(e). CTRL+B. (f). CTRL+E.
6. Outline the steps you would follow to move a line of text from one paragraph to another within
a document in Microsoft Word.
7. You have a one-paragraph document that you would like to print three times on one page. How
would you achieve this efficiently?

PROOFREADING.
Proofreading refers to checking whether the document has typographical or grammar errors.
Importance.
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√ To remove mistakes and improve document wording selections.
Ms-Word provides the following tools for proofreading a prepared document; Spelling and
grammar checker, Thesaurus, AutoComplete and AutoCorrect.
CHECKING SPELLINGS & GRAMMAR IN A DOCUMENT.
Ms-Word has the ability to check spellings within your document as you type or edit the document.
The Spelling and grammar checker is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling errors
and incorrect grammar structures. The words you type in are compared to those in its dictionary.
However, the checker can only recognize errors of those words whose correct spelling is in its
dictionary. This implies that, a correctly spelt word used wrongly cannot be detected.
For example; if you mistype a word but the result is not a misspelling (e.g., typing "from" instead
of "form" or "there" instead of "their"), the spelling checker will not mark the word. To identify
those types of problems, the document should be carefully proof-read just before and after printing.
Importance.
√ The grammar checker provides a quick & convenient way to find many common grammatical
errors.
√ It also identifies mistakes in your document and offers suggestions that could be more effective,
and user-friendly. In some cases, the grammar checker offers suggestions on how you can
rewrite sentences.
Ms-Word uses wavy red underlines to indicate possible spelling mistakes & wavy green
underlines to indicate possible grammatical mistakes.
Check spelling & grammar automatically as you type.
1. Make sure automatic spelling and grammar checking are turned on.
2. Type in the document.
When the spelling checker encounters a word it doesn't recognize, it determines the words in
its dictionary that are similarly spelled and displays a list of those words with the most likely
match highlighted.
3. Right-click a word with a wavy red or green underline, to get a list of correct alternative words
to choose from.
4. From the list, click the correct command or the spelling alternative you want.
Turn on or off automatic spelling & grammar checking.
1. On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Spelling & Grammar tab.
 To turn automatic spelling checking on or off, select or clear the Check spelling as you
type checkbox.
 To turn automatic grammar checking on or off, select or clear the Check grammar as you
type checkbox.

Check spelling & grammar all at once.

You can choose to check the spelling & grammatical errors at once, and then confirm each
correction. This option is useful if you want to proofread the whole document after you have
finished typing or editing it.
1. Click Spelling and Grammar button on the Standard toolbar (or Press F7).
-OR-
On the Tools menu, select Spelling and Grammar.
When Ms-Word finds a possible spelling or grammatical problem, it highlights it and then
displays a list of similarly spelled words.
2. Choose a button in the Spelling and Grammar dialog box to make your changes.
(a). Change - accepts the current selection in the Suggestions box.
When the selected error is a repeated word, this button changes to Delete so you can
easily remove the second instance of the word.
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(b). Change All – corrects all the occurrences of the misspelled word.
(c). If the intended word is not in the Suggestions box, you can correct spelling and grammar
directly in the document while the Spelling and Grammar dialog box is still displayed.
Click in the document & type your correction, and then click Resume to continue
checking the spelling and grammar.
(d). Ignore Once - Leaves the highlighted error unchanged (if the highlighted word is a valid
word) & finds the next spelling or grammar error.
This button changes to Resume if you click in the document to make a change in the
document.
(e). Ignore All – retains all the occurrences of the same word or phrase in the document from
another language, e.g., a Kiswahili.
(f). Add - Adds the highlighted word in the Suggestions box to the Custom dictionary.
(g). Explain - gives a detailed explanation of a grammar flag.
(h). Ignore Rule –Leaves all instances of the highlighted error unchanged throughout the
document and continues to check the document.
3. When the Spelling and grammar check is complete, Ms-Word displays a message to that effect.
To return to your document when you finish checking on grammar, click OK.
Note. There are two types of dictionaries that are used by a spell checker program:
 Main (Standard) dictionary.
 Custom dictionary.

LOOKING UP FOR WORDS USING THESAURUS.

Purpose.
√ Thesaurus is an editing tool that provides the user with a list of synonyms (words that have
similar meaning) & sometimes antonyms (words that have opposite meaning) to the selected
word.
It also provides lists of related words and different forms of the selected word.
1. Select or type the word you want to look up.
2. On the Tools menu, choose Language, then click Thesaurus (or press SHIFT+F7).
The Thesaurus dialog box appears, and highlights the word that is closest to what you have
typed.
3. To replace the word with a synonym, click the replacement word from the list.
To replace a word or phrase with an antonym, select the word or phrase enclosed in brackets.
4. Click the Replace button.
5. To look up alternatives for a particular word, click it in the Replace with synonyms box, then
click the Look Up button that will enable you search through a wide range of synonyms and
related words until you find exactly the word you want.
Note. It is not possible to replace all occurrences of a word using the Thesaurus. One would have
to select each word individually and choose a synonym for it.

AutoComplete feature.
The AutoComplete feature displays a complete word when the user types the first few characters
of the word.
This enables the user to type faster/quickly by completing a word that the user has already started
typing automatically.
18.

To accept the suggested word (if indeed he/she intended to type it), simply press the ENTER key
and continue typing other words or phrases.
To turn AutoComplete on or off.

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1. On the Insert menu, point to AutoText, then click AutoText from the dropdown list that is
displayed.
2. Select or clear the Show AutoComplete suggestions checkbox.
3. Type in an Auto text in the Enter AutoText entries here textbox, then click Add.
4. Click Close.

AutoCorrect feature
Importance.
√ The AutoCorrect feature can be used to automatically detect and correct wrongly spelled
words, and replace them with the correct ones as set by the user.
E.g. if you type teh plus a space, AutoCorrect replaces it with "the.", or if you type This is theh
ouse plus a space, AutoCorrect replaces it with "This is the house."
√ AutoCorrect can also be used to quickly insert symbols that are included in the inbuilt list of
AutoCorrect entries. E.g., type (c) to insert ©.
√ AutoCorrect can automatically detect and correct incorrect capitalization. It can also capitalize
the first word in a sentence, the names of days of the week, the first letter of text in a table cell,
etc.
To automatically correct text as you type,
1. Turn on the AutoCorrect options you want.
To turn on or off the AutoCorrect options you want.
(i). On the Tools menu, click AutoCorrect Options, then select or clear the Replace text as
you type checkbox.
(ii). To turn the spelling checker corrections on or off, select the Replace text as you type
checkbox, then select or clear the Automatically use suggestions from the spelling
checker checkbox.
(iii). Click OK to close the dialog box.
2. Type the text you want to correct, followed by a space or other punctuation.
Add an entry during a spelling check.
1. Right-click a word with a wavy red underline.
2. Point to AutoCorrect on the shortcut menu, then click the correction you want.

Question: Distinguish between the AutoComplete and the AutoCorrect feature in word processing.
19.

AutoComplete – helps a person to type quickly by completing a word that the user has already
started to be type automatically.
20.

AutoCorrect – automatically replaces mistyped words with the correct ones as set by the user.

UNDO, REDO AND REPEAT ACTIONS.

Purpose.
√ Undo is used to reverse changes you make in a document, such as editing, formatting, checking
spelling, inserting breaks, footnotes and tables.
This is useful when you make changes and then realize that these changes were a mistake.
Undo mistakes.
1. To quickly undo/reverse recent actions one at a time, click Undo on the Standard toolbar
or on the Edit menu (or press CTRL+Z).
To undo several actions at once, click the down arrow next to the Undo button on the Standard
toolbar, and select the actions you want to undo from the list. Ms-Word reverses the selected
action and all actions above it.

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Note. If you later decide that you didn't want to undo an action, click the Redo button on the
Standard toolbar (or press CTRL+Y).
E.g., you can choose the Undo command to remove a bold formatting you had applied. To reapply
the bold formatting, choose the Redo command.

Repeat your last action.

1. On the Edit menu, click Repeat (or press CTRL+Y).
If the action cannot be repeated, the Repeat command changes to Can't Repeat.

WORD COUNT
21.

Word Count assists a person to know how many words, pages, paragraphs, lines, no. of characters,
are in your document including spaces.
1. On the Tools menu, click Word Count.
If you want to recount as you make revisions without reopening the dialog box, click Show
Toolbar. The Word Count toolbar will open in your document. Click Recount (or press
ALT+C) at any time to update the count any time you want.
Note. You can also view the no. of words & lines in a document by clicking Properties on the
File menu, then click the Statistics tab.
Exercise.
1. (a). Explain the importance of proofreading a document.
(b). Give two methods of proofreading a prepared document.
2. Give two types of dictionaries that are used by the spell-checker program. Which one is likely
to have non-English words, and Why?
3. Name and explain the use of any FOUR buttons found in a Spell check dialog box.
4. Explain how to do Word Count.
5. Explain how you would look up for a word in your computer dictionary.
6. What is a Thesaurus?
7. Distinguish between the AutoComplete and the AutoCorrect feature in word processing.
8. Explain the use of Undo and Redo commands.
9. In Spelling and Grammar check, what do the following buttons do?
 Ignore All.
 Add.
 Change.

FORMATTING A DOCUMENT.
Formatting:
 Formatting refers to applying various styles or features to enhance the appearance of a
document.
 It can also mean making a document attractive or enhancing the appearance of a document by
bolding, italicizing, bordering, coloring, etc.
Importance.
√ To create professional documents by using different colours, and adding special effects like
dropped capitals, Superscripts and Subscripts.
√ To draw attention to important words or sentences by making them Bold, Italic or Underlined.
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√ To draw attention to titles and headings by making them larger and changing their font type.
√ To draw attention to some important paragraphs and text by creating additional effects with the
text in a document.
√ To make the overall document appealing to the eye as you read through.
Note. Before you enhance a particular portion of a document, you must select the portion first.

TEXT FORMATTING.
Text formatting refers to features such as changing font types & font style, changing size of
characters, changing text color, underlining, bolding, italicizing, text alignment, etc.
You can use the Formatting toolbar or the Format menu to change the format of a given text.

Applying Bold, Italics, Underline, and changing the Font type, Font Size & Color of
text.
Bolding text: Bolding makes the selected text appear darker than the rest of the text.
Underline text: Underlining refers to placing a line at the base or bottom of a word or phrase.
Italicizing text: To italicize is to make the text slant forward.
Font (also called typeface): A graphic design applied to numerals, symbols, & alphabetic
characters.
Changing the font color: Changing the color of the selected text from black to either blue, green,
etc.
Method 1. Using the Formatting toolbar.
1. Select the text you want to format.
2. On the Formatting toolbar,
 Click the Bold or Italic or Underline button to format selected text as bold, italics or
underlined.
 To change the font type, click the arrow next to the Font box, then click a font name.
 To change the size of text, type (or click) a size in the Font Size box. E.g., type 10.5.
 To change the text color, click the Font Color button. This applies the color appearing on
the Font Color button.
To apply a different color, click the arrow next to the Font Color button, then select the color
you want from the Color palette.
Method 2. Using the Format menu.
1. Select the text whose format you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Font, then click the Font tab.
 In the Font box, click a font type.
 In the Font Style box, click Bold, Italic or Bold Italic.
 To change the size of text, click a point size in the Font Size box.
 To change the text color, click the arrow next to the Font Color box, then select a color.
 In the Underline style list, click the style you want. In the Underline color list, click the
color you want.
When you select a formatting option, Ms-Word displays a preview of what you have selected.
3. Click the OK button.
To ensure that any new document you open uses the font settings you have selected, click the
Default button, then choose Yes from the resulting prompt.

Apply Special text Effects such as embossed, engraved, outlined, or shadow

formatting to text.
1. Open the Font dialog box.
2. Under Effects, select the checkbox for the options you want, then click the OK button.

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Applying Superscript, Subscript and Small Caps.

Superscript: - any text that is slightly higher than other text on a line, such as a footnote reference
mark.
Subscript: - any text that is slightly lower than other text on a line. Subscripts are often used in
scientific formulas.
‘Small caps’ formats any selected lowercase text as capital letters and reduces their size. Small
caps do not affect uppercase letters, numbers, punctuations, or non-alphabetic characters.
1. Select the text to be formatted.
2. On the Format menu, click Font, then click the Font tab.
3. Under Effects, select the checkbox for Superscript, Subscript or Small Caps.
Superscript raises the selected text above the baseline, while Subscripts lower the selected
text below the baseline.
4. Click the OK button.

Animating text.
1. Select the text you want to animate.
2. On the Format menu, click Font, then click the Text Effects tab.
3. In the Animations box, click the effect you want.
Notes.
 You can apply only one animation effect at a time.
 Animated text effects are not printed. If text in your document is animated, it will print with the
underlying text formatting — such as bold or italic — but the animated effects will not be
printed.

Exercise (a).
1. (a). Explain the term document formatting.
(b). Give any five document formatting features.
2. Give at least four examples of fonts available in Microsoft Word.
3. Differentiate between superscript and subscript font.
4. In Microsoft Word, how do you do the following operations?
(a). Italicize a text on typing.
(b). Boldface and underline text after typing.
Exercise (b).
1. Given a block of text, outline the steps you would use to:
(i). Bold and italicize the text.
(ii). Double underline the text.
(iii). Change Font size and font name.
2. Clearly explain the meaning of the following terms as used in Microsoft Word.
(a). Saving.
(b). Formatting.
(c). Highlighting.
(d). Deleting.
(e). Aligning.

PARAGRAPH FORMATTING.
CAPITALIZATION OF TEXT.
You can capitalize letters by changing their case, or by creating a large letter at the beginning of a
paragraph.

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Changing the case of text.
When typing a text, the user can apply different cases in order to create contrast within the text.
They include;
Sentence Case: – makes the first letter of the first word in the selected sentences a capital.
Lowercase: - changes all selected text to small letters.
UPPERCASE: - changes all selected text to capital letters.
Title Case: - makes the first letter of each word in the selection a capital.
tOGGLE cASE: - changes all uppercase letters in the selection to lowercase and vice versa.
1. Select the text you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Change Case.
3. Form the Change Case dialog box, click the case type you want to be applied.
4. Click the OK button.

Creating a large dropped initial capital letter.

Purpose.
√ A Drop cap is used to attract the reader’s attention by making the first character in a sentence
large, taking more space in the next line.
√ It also emphasizes a particular starting word in a paragraph.
To apply drop cap;
1. If you are in a different view, switch to Print Layout view. This will allow you to view the
dropped capital letter, as it appears in the document.
2. Click in the paragraph you want to begin with a dropped capital letter. The paragraph must
contain text.
3. On the Format menu, click Drop Cap. This opens the Drop Cap dialog box.
4. Under Position, choose Dropped or In Margin.
The Dropped option positions the dropped capital letter in line (flush) with the left margin,
inside the main text area.
The In Margin option positions the dropped capital letter in the left margin.
5. Select the font you want to apply to the dropped capital letter, the no. of lines to drop, and the
amount of space you want to leave between the dropped capital letter and the text in the
paragraph.
6. Click the OK button.
Removing the Dropped capital letter.
1. Click anywhere in the paragraph that contains the dropped capital letter.
2. On the Format menu, click Drop Cap.
3. Under Position, choose None, then click the OK button.

ADDING BULLETS & NUMBERS TO TEXT.

Bullets and numbers are used to mark steps in a procedure or items in a list.
Bullet: - A dot or any other symbol placed before text, such as items in a list, in order to add
emphasis.
Purpose.
√ Adding numbers or bullets to a list to make a document easier to read & understand.
You can add bullets or numbers to existing lines of text, or you can have Ms-Word automatically
create lists as you type.

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Adding bullets or numbers to an existing text.
Method 1.
1. Select the items to which you want to add bullets or numbers.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the Bullets button or Numbering button.
Method 2.
1. Select the list.
2. On the Format menu, select Bullets and Numbering. This displays the Bullets and
Numbering dialog box.
3. To apply bullets, click the Bulleted tab.
To apply independent numbers, click the Numbered tab.
To apply outlined numbered list, click Outline Numbered tab.
4. Select a Bullet type or Number format you want to use.
To adjust spacing between a bulleted or numbered list and the text.
 Click the Customize button.
 To format a bulleted list, under Bullet position and Text position, select the options you
want in the Indent at boxes.
 To format a numbered list, select the options you want under Number position and Text
position.
5. Click the OK button.
To use a unique symbol or a picture bullet.
1. Open the Bullets and Numbering dialog box, then click the Bulleted tab.
2. Click the bullet style you want to modify, and then click the Customize button.
 To use a different symbol, click the Character button to change the symbol.
 To use a different picture, click the Picture button to select the picture you want.
3. Click the OK button.
22. Restart numbering in the middle of a numbered list.
1. Right-click the number that you want to restart with 1, then click Restart Numbering on the
shortcut menu.
23. To Number lists separated by non-numbered text.
1. Right-click the first no. of the list that will continue the numbering sequence, then click
Continue Numbering on the shortcut menu.
To move an entire list to the left or the right.
1. Click the first no. in the list & drag it to a new location. The entire list moves as you drag,
without changing the numbering levels in the list.

Adding bullets or numbers to a list as you type.

1. Select a Bullet or Number format in the Bullets and Numbering dialog box, and then type
any text you want.
2. Press ENTER key. Ms-Word automatically inserts the next number or bullet in the list.
3. To finish the list, press ENTER twice, or press Backspace to delete the last bullet or
number in the list.
Remove bullets or numbers.
1. Select the text from which you want to remove bullets or numbers.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the Bullets or the Numbering button.
Note. To remove a single bullet or number, click the bullet or number, then press BACKSPACE.

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TEXT ALIGNMENT
Text Alignment refers to how text is positioned (lined up) in a paragraph relative to the left, right,
or centre of the page.
Types of text alignment.
There are 4 ways in which text can be aligned;
(a). Left alignment.
This is the default alignment.
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the left margin, but unevenly at the right margin.
E.g., in a left-aligned paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin.
(b). Right alignment.
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the right margin, but unevenly at the left margin.
(c). Center alignment.
The lines of text are centered unevenly between the left & right margins.
(d). Justification.
Lines of text are arranged evenly along the left & right margin.
The Justify option expands the spaces in each line so that the text is aligned evenly along
both the left & right margins.
Aligning text to the left, right, center or justification of the text.
Method 1.
1. Select the text (or paragraph) you want to align.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the;
• Align Left button - to align the text on the left.
• Align Right button - to align the text on the right.
• Center button - to align the text on the center.
• Justify button – to align the text on both the right & the left margins.
Method 2.
1. Select the text (or paragraph) you want to align.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under General, click the arrow in the Alignment box, then click Left, Right, Centered or
Justified.
4. Click the OK button.

Changing the space between lines or paragraphs.

Line spacing:
 Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between two lines of text in a paragraph.
 The amount of space from the bottom of one line of text to the bottom of the next line.
Line spacing determines the amount of vertical space between two lines of text in a paragraph. If
a line contains a large text character, graphic, or formula, Ms-Word increases the spacing for that
line so that it can be accommodated.
Types of line spacing.
(i). Single line spacing.
Single line spacing accommodates the largest font in that line, leaving a small amount of extra
space between the lines, which varies depending on the font used.
(ii). 1.5 line spacing.
It is 1½ times that of single line spacing.
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(iii). Double line spacing.

It is twice that of single line spacing.
(iv). At least.
This is the minimum line spacing that is needed to fit the largest font or graphic on the line.
(v). Exactly.
It is a fixed line spacing that Ms-Word does not adjust.
(vi). Multiple line spacing.
It is a line spacing that is increased or decreased by a % that you specify, e.g. setting line
spacing to 1.2 will increase the space by 20%.
Paragraph spacing determines the amount of space above or below a paragraph. When you press
ENTER to start a new paragraph, the spacing is carried over to the next paragraph. However, you
can change the settings for each paragraph.
Changing line or Paragraph spacing.
Method 1.
1. Select the paragraphs in which you want to change the spacing.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the arrow next to the Line Spacing button, and then select
the number that represents the line spacing you want from the list.
Method 2.
1. Select the paragraphs in which you want to change the spacing.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Line Spacing, click the arrow, then select the options you want in the box.
If you select Exactly or At least for line spacing, enter the amount of space you want in the At
box. If you select Multiple, enter the number of lines in the At box.
4. Click the OK button.

Creating Paragraph Indents.

Indentation refers to moving the text away from the margin.
Page margins determine the distance (or the space) between the text & the edge of the page, while
paragraph Indents and alignment determines the distance of the paragraph from either the left or
right margins.

Types of paragraph indents.

(i). Left indent.
(ii). Right indent.
(iii). First-line indent.
This is a type of indent where only the first line of the paragraph is indented.
(iv). Hanging indent.
This is a type of indent where the first line of the paragraph extends to the left of the
paragraph, but the other lines of a paragraph are indented more than the first line (i.e., they
‘hang’ below the first line).
(v). Negative indent (also known as an outdent): - pulls the paragraph out towards the left margin.

Changing the right indent of an entire paragraph.

1. Select the paragraph you want to change its right indent.

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2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the Right Indent marker to the position where you want the text
to end.
Note. To increase or decrease the left indent of an entire paragraph, click the Increase Indent or
Decrease Indent button on the Formatting toolbar.
Creating a First-line indent or a Hanging indent.
Method 1.
1. Select the paragraph you want to indent.
2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the First Line Indent marker to the position where you want the
text to start.
Method 2.
1. Select the paragraph you want to indent.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Click the arrow in the Special list box, then click First line.
To set a Hanging indent, select Hanging from the drop-down list.
4. In the By textbox, specify how far the paragraph is to be indented from the margin.
5. Click the OK button.

Create a Negative indent.

1. Select the paragraph you want to extend into the left margin.
2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the Left Indent marker to the position where you want the
paragraph to start.

Set an indent by using the TAB key.

1. To indent the first line of a paragraph, click in front of the line.
To indent an entire paragraph, click in front of any line but not the first line.
2. Press the TAB key.
Note. To remove the indent, press Backspace before moving the insertion point (or click Undo
on the Edit menu).

Setting tab stops & Tab spacing.

Tabs are used to indent the first line of a paragraph or to create columnar data.
Tab spacing: - is a short distance moved by the text cursor when the Tab key on the Keyboard is
pressed. It is used to align text on the page.
Tab stop: - is a location on the horizontal ruler that indicates how far a certain text is indented or
where to begin a column of text.
By default, the tab stop is set at 0.5 of an inch.
Importance.
√ Tab stops enable the user to line up text to the left, move the text to the right, or center it.
√ Tabs also allow easy entry of tabulated data.
√ The user can also automatically insert specific characters, such as periods or dashes, called Tab
leaders, before the tabs.
Tab leaders – are characters usually dots or hyphens, that fill the space between words
separated by tabs. They are intended to draw the reader’s eye across a line, as in Tables of
Contents.
There are 3 types of Tab leaders:
 Solid leader lines (_______).
 Dotted leader lines (.........…).
 Dashed Leader lines (--------).

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1. Select the paragraph in which you want to set a tab stop.
2. On the Format menu, click Tabs. This opens the Tabs dialog box.
3. In Tab stop position box, type the measurement for the tab stop.
4. Under Alignment, select where the text typed at the tab stop will be aligned; Left, Center or
Right.
5. To change the spacing between default tab stops, enter the amount of spacing you want in the
Default tab stops box.
6. If need be, specify the Tab leader option.
7. Click the Set button, then choose OK.
Once you no longer need the Tab stops, open the Tabs dialog box, then click the Clear All button.

Setting tabs using the Horizontal Ruler.

The easiest way to set tabs is by using the ruler. On the left corner of the horizontal ruler (at the
point of intersection between the horizontal & vertical rulers) is a tab alignment button that lets the
user select the type of tab.
The table below shows various tab alignment buttons.
Button Name Purpose (explanation for each button)
∟ Left tab Text is left aligned
┴ Centre tab Text is centered
l Bar tab Inserts a vertical line at tab stop and align text to the right of the line
┘ Right tab Text is right aligned

To set the tab using the ruler;

1. Select the paragraph in which you want to set a tab stop.
2. Click the tab button at the far left of the horizontal ruler until it changes to the required type of
tab: Left, Center or Right.
3. Set the tab stop by clicking where you want it to be on the ruler.
4. Drag the tab stop.

HYPHENATION OF TEXT.
If a certain word is too long to fit on the end of a line, Ms-Word moves the word to the beginning
of the next line. However, you can use the hyphenation feature to insert hyphens in order to:
√ Give your documents a polished and professional look.
√ You can also hyphenate text to eliminate gaps in justified text or to maintain even line lengths
especially when you have a document with narrow columns.
You can insert Optional hyphens or Non-breaking hyphens or you can let Ms-Word hyphenate all
or part of a document for you.
Optional hyphen – A hyphen that is used to control where a word or phrase breaks. An optional
hyphen breaks a word if it falls at the end of a line. If the word or phrase falls at the beginning or
middle of a line, the hyphen doesn’t appear in the printed document.
Non-breaking hyphens – A hyphen that is used to prevent a hyphenated word, number or phrase
from breaking if it falls at the end of a line. For example, you can prevent 555-0123 from breaking;
instead, the entire item moves to the beginning of the next line.
There are 2 ways of inserting hyphens into a document. You can;
 Hyphenate text manually.
 Hyphenate text automatically.

(a). Hyphenate a document Automatically.

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When you turn on automatic hyphenation, Ms-Word automatically scans the whole document
and inserts hyphens where they are needed. If you later edit the document and change line
breaks, Ms-Word rehyphenates the document.
1. On the Tools menu, select Language, then click Hyphenation.
2. Select the Automatically hyphenate document checkbox.
3. In the Hyphenation zone box, enter the amount of space to leave between the end of the
last word in a line and the right margin.
To reduce the no. of hyphens, make the hyphenation zone wider. To reduce the unevenness
of the right margin, make the hyphenation zone narrower.
4. Click the OK button.
(b).Hyphenate a document Manually.
In Manual hyphenation, Ms-Word searches the document for the words to hyphenate, and then
asks the user to confirm whether to include a hyphen and where to position it.
If you later edit the document and change line breaks, Ms-Word doesn’t rehyphenate the
document but displays and prints only the optional hyphens that still fall at the ends of lines.
1. To hyphenate part of document, select the text you want to hyphenate. To hyphenate the
entire document, make sure no text is selected.
2. On the Tools menu, select Language, then click Hyphenation.
3. Click Manual.
4. If Ms-Word identifies a word or phrase to hyphenate, and proposes a location to insert a
hyphen. Click Yes to insert the hyphen in the location Ms-Word proposes.
Otherwise, to insert the hyphen in another part of the document, use the Arrow keys or
Mouse to move the insertion point to that location, then click Yes.
To Remove Hyphenation.
1. If you used automatic hyphenation, click on Tools, select Language, then click Hyphenation.
2. Clear the Automatically hyphenate document checkbox.
24. SECTIONS & SECTION BREAKS
A Break is used to identify where a section, a column or a page ends and the beginning of next.
This allows the user to apply more than one paragraph or page format in the same document
especially when it comes to page layout, size, different margins, etc.
A Section break is a mark that you insert to show the end of a section. Section breaks divide the
document into sections, and then each section is formatted as needed.
25.

A Section is a portion of a document in which one can set certain page formatting options.
Types of formatting elements you can set for sections.
* Margins * Paper size or orientation * Page numbering
* Page borders * Vertical alignment. * Line numbering.
* Headers and footers. * Columns * Footnotes and endnotes
Types of section breaks.
(i). Continuous - inserts a section break & starts the new section on the same page.
(ii). Next page - inserts a section break & starts the new section on the next page.
(iii). Odd page section breaks.
Inserts a section break & starts the new section on the next odd-numbered page.

(iv). Even page section break.

Inserts a section break & starts the new section on the next even-numbered page.
Inserting a section break.
Click in the document where you want the section break to be inserted.
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On the Insert menu, click Break.
Under Section break types, click the option that describes where you want the new section to begin.
Click the OK button.
Note. A section break controls the formatting of the text of the section that precedes it. If you
delete a section break, the preceding text becomes part of the following section and assumes its
section formatting.
Delete a section break.
1. Select the section break you want to delete.
If you're in Print layout view and you do not see the section break, click Show/Hide on the
Standard toolbar to display hidden text.
2. Press the Delete key.

Exercise (a).
1. (a). In Microsoft Word, what does the term UPPERCASE mean?
(b). Explain step by step how to convert a paragraph to All Uppercase.
2. State one function of drop cap in a document.
3. (a). What is Line spacing?
(b). Give and Explain any 5 types of line spacing used in Microsoft Word.
4. (a). Give and explain any FOUR types of text alignment.
(b). What is the difference between First Line indentation and Hanging Indentation.
5. (a). What is a tab?
(b). Why are tab stops important in a document?
(c). Give Two reasons for setting tabs.
6. Give two ways of inserting hyphens in a document.
Exercise (b).
1. Differentiate between the following:
(i). Enter Key and Page Break.
(ii). Soft Page break and Hard Page break.
2. How would you accomplish the following tasks?
(a). Insert Bullets and Numbering to your document.
(b).Apply a Drop cap to a paragraph in your document.
(c). Apply a Hanging Indent to a paragraph in your document.
(d).Change small letters into capital letters.
(e). Align text to the right margin.

PAGE FORMATTING.
INSERTING PAGE BREAKS.
A Page break identifies the end of one page and the beginning of the next page.
When typing, the text cursor inserts a new page automatically when the current a page is full with
text or graphics during typing. Such a page break is referred to an "Automatic" (or Soft) page
break.
However, if the user wants a page to begin at a particular spot (even before the end of the page),
he/she can insert a page break manually. Such a page break is referred to as a "Manual" (or Hard)
page break.
When a manual page break is inserted, Ms-Word automatically adjusts the automatic page breaks
that follow.
In Normal view, a page break is indicated by a dashed line across the page from left to right.
Insert a Manual Page Break.
1. Click to position the Insertion point where you want to start a new page.
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2. Press CTRL+ENTER.
-OR-
On the Insert menu, click Break.
3. From the Break dialog box, choose Page break, then click the OK button.
Ms-Word inserts a page break and adjusts the page numbers to accommodate the new page
break.
Note. The line indicating a manual page break has ‘Page break’ written on it, unlike that of an
automatic page break.
To Remove a Manually inserted Page break.
1. In Normal view, double-click the page break you want to delete, then press Delete.

CREATING NEWSLETTER-STYLE COLUMNS.

You can quickly format text into multiple columns. To create columns on existing text;
Method 1.
1. In Print layout view, select the text you want to format in columns. To select an entire
document, click Select All on the Edit menu.
2. On the Standard toolbar, click on the Columns button.
3. Drag to the right to select the no. of columns you want, then release the mouse button.
Method 2.
1. Select the text you want to format in columns.
2. On the Format menu, click Columns. This opens the Columns dialog box.
3. Under the Presets section, or in the Number of columns textbox, select the no. of columns
you want.
4. In the Width and spacing boxes, specify the column widths and space between the columns.
5. To add vertical lines in the spaces between the columns, select the Line between checkbox.
The line is as long as the longest column on the page or in the section.
6. Click the OK button, then type your text.
Note. In Normal view, Ms-Word displays one column at a time. In Print Preview or Print Layout
view, the columns are displayed side by side (i.e. the text flows from one column to the next on
the same page).
Forcing the start of a new column.
1. Click where you want to start the new column.
2. Press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER.
-OR-
On the Insert menu, choose Break, then click Column break.
Ms-Word moves the text that follows the insertion point to the top of the next column.
Changing the Width of the text columns.
1. Drag the column markers on the horizontal ruler.
Note. To specify exact measurements for column widths and spacing, use the Columns command
(Format menu).
Creating a Heading that spans the columns / removing columns.
Method 1.
1. At the beginning of the leftmost column, type your heading text, press ENTER, then select the
heading text. If heading text already exists, select it.
2. Click the Columns button on the Standard toolbar, then drag to select a single column.
Method 2.

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1. In Print layout view, select the heading text (or select the text you want to remove columns
from).
2. Open the Columns dialog box.
3. Under the Presets section or in the Number of columns box, select a single column.
4. Click the OK button.

PAGE SETUP
Page setup has options that allow the user to specify the size of the margins, paper size, and
layout/appearance of a printed page.

Setting Page margins

1.

Page margins are the visible blank spaces outside the printing area of a page. They mark the
distance that the text starts on a page away from the edge of the page.
Normally, text & graphics are inserted in the printable area inside the margins. However, items
such as headers, footers, and page numbers can be positioned in the margins.
Importance of setting page margins.
 Adjusting Page margins provides additional space for binding, punching or stapling.
 Setting the margins helps when printing a document on pre-printed stationery such as a
Letterhead. It ensures that, your text does not overwrite the pre-printed parts of the stationery.
E.g., to print on a Letterhead, change the top margin so that it is slightly larger than the pre-
printed part of the letterhead.
To set margins for a page;
1. Switch to Print Layout view.
2. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
3. Under Margins, type or select the values for the Top, Bottom, Left & Right margins in the
respective boxes.
4. Click the OK button.

Types of page margins in Ms-Word.

1). Gutter margins
They are used to add extra space to the left or top margin of a document you want to bind. It
ensures that the printed text is not hidden by the binding.
To set Gutter margins for documents that requires binding;
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
2. In the Gutter box, enter a value for the gutter margin.
3. In the Gutter position box, click Left or Top.
2). Mirror margins
They are used to set up facing pages for double-sided documents, such as a book or magazine.
In this case, the inside margins of the left & right page are the same width, while the outside
margins are the same width.
To set Mirror margins for facing pages;
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
2. In the Multiple pages list, select Mirror margins.
3. In the Inside and Outside boxes, enter values for the mirror margins.
3). Book fold option
It is used to create a menu, event program, or any other type of document that uses a single
center fold.

Setting page Orientation.

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Page orientation refers to how the text will be positioned on the printed page. It specifies how
the document on the screen will be printed on a page.
There are 2 types of page orientations:
1. Portrait: - Text & graphics are printed with the longest side of the page vertically upright.
2. Landscape: - Text & graphical objects are printed with the longest side of the page placed
horizontally and the lines of text printed parallel.
To set the orientation;
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
2. Under Orientation, select Portrait or Landscape.
3. Click the OK button.
Note. You cannot print in portrait and landscape orientation on the same page.
Selecting the correct paper size
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, click the Paper tab.
2. From the paper size list, select the size of the paper required, e.g., A4, then click OK.
Changing Page Layout
Page layout specifies how text will be placed on the page between the top & bottom margins.
To change the layout;
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Layout tab.
2. Under Vertical alignment, select the alignment required, e.g., Top, Center, Justified or
Bottom.
3. Click the OK button.
Note. Top usually aligns the text starting from the top margin downwards.

CREATING HEADERS & FOOTERS

Headers & footers contain standard text or information such as Page numbers, Chapter titles, or a
Company logo. They may also contain graphics.
A Header appears above the top margin of every page or in a section; Footer appears below the
bottom margin of every page in a document.
Note. Headers and footers appear only in Print layout view, and in printed documents.
Create the same header or footer for each page
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. To create a header, enter the text or graphics in the Header area. To create footer, click the
Switch Between Header and Footer button on the Header and Footer toolbar to move to
the Footer area, and then type your text.
3. If necessary, format the text using the buttons on the Formatting toolbar.
E.g., you can change the Font, Font size, Font style, alignment, or colour of the text.
4. Click the Close button on the Header and Footer toolbar.
Change the distance between the document text & a header or footer
1. Click on File, choose Page Setup, then click the Layout tab.
2. Enter a new margin size in the Header box, or in the Footer box.
Note. The settings for the Header and Footer should be smaller than those of the top and bottom
margins.
3. Click OK.

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Selecting Header or footer text
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer. If you’re in Print layout view, double-click
the header or footer text.
2. Point to the left of the header or footer until the pointer changes to a right-pointing arrow, and
then click.
Aligning (adjusting the horizontal position of) a header or footer
Normally, any text or graphic within a header or footer is automatically Left aligned.
To center or align a header or footer with the left or right margin;
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. Select the header or footer text.
3. On the Formatting toolbar, click center, or align right.
Alternatively, press the TAB key once to center the item, or press it twice to align the item to
the right.
Deleting a header or footer
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. Select the header or footer text, then press the Delete key.
Note. If the document is not divided into sections, Ms-Word will automatically remove the header
or footer throughout the entire document.

ADDING PAGE NUMBERS

Page numbers appear in the header or footer (i.e. at the top or bottom of the page).
√ Page numbers make it easy to locate information especially in a document that contains many
pages.
Method 1.
1. Click on Insert, then choose Page Numbers.
2. In the Position box, specify whether to insert the number in the Header (top of the page) or in
the Footer (bottom of the page).
3. In the Alignment box, specify whether to position the Page number to the Left, Center, or Right
relative to the left & right margins.
4. Click the Format button, then choose the format you want in the Number format box.
5. In the Start at box, enter the starting page number (e.g., 1), then click the OK button.
Method 2: Add page numbers and other information, such as date or time.
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. On the Header and Footer toolbar, click the arrow next to the Insert AutoText button, then
select any options you want.
3. Click the Close button.
Selecting a Page number.
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. Click the page number to make a frame border appear around it.
3. Place the pointer over the border until it changes to a 4-headed arrow, and then click to display
the sizing handles.
You can then change the Font & Font size using the Formatting toolbar.
Removing Page numbers.
1. Click on View, then choose Header and Footer.
2. Select the page number, then press the Delete key.

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APPLYING BORDERS & SHADINGS TO A DOCUMENT
2. Importance
3.

√ To make the document more appealing to the eye.

√ To draw attention to important data in the document.
Adding a border to text, or a picture.
1. Select the text, or picture you want to apply a border to.
2. Click on Format, choose Borders and Shading, then click the Borders tab.
3. Under Settings, select the Border style you want, e.g. Box, Shadow or 3-D.
4. To change the line style for the border, click a style in the Style list. If need be, specify the
colour of the lines from the Color drop-down list.
5. Under Apply to, click an option to indicate the placement of the border, then click the OK
button.
Adding a border to a page
1. Click on Format, choose Borders and Shading, then click the Page Border tab.
2. Under Settings, click a border option.
3. To specify an artistic (a special) page border, select it in the Art box.
4. Under Apply to, specify a particular page or section where the border will appear in.
5. Click the OK button.
To remove the border, under Settings, click None, then click the OK button.
Adding shading to a text, or picture.
1. Select the text or picture you want to add shading to.
2. Click on Format, choose Borders and Shading, then click the Shading tab.
3. Under the Fill section, click the color you want to use for the shading.
4. To include a background color with the pattern, click the arrow next to the Pattern box, then
click the pattern style and color you want.
5. Click the OK button.
To remove shading, under the Fill section, click No Fill.

ADDING BACKGROUNDS COLOURS & WATERMARKS

Backgrounds are used in Web layout view to create a more interesting background for online
viewing. Backgrounds are not designed for printing.
1. Click on Format, point to Background, then click a color. To get additional colors, click the
More Colors option.
2. To add or change special effects, such as gradients, textures or patterns, select the Fill Effects
option, then select the options you want.
3. Click the OK button.
Note. To remove a background color, click Format, point to Background, then click No Fill.

Adding a watermark to a printed document.

Watermark is a semi-transparent text, picture or image mostly used for letters & business cards.
When printed, the Watermark appears either on top of or behind the existing document text. E.g.
In a currency note, a watermark is visible when you hold the note up to the light.
A watermark adds interest or identifies the document status, such as marking a document as a
"Draft" or “Confidential”.
1. Click on Format, point to Background, then click Printed Watermark.
2. To insert a text watermark, click Text Watermark. In the Text box, type your own text, or
click the arrow & then select one of the in-built texts.
To change text settings, such as font, size, color and layout, select the options you want.
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3. To insert a picture as a watermark, click Picture Watermark, then click Select Picture. Select
the picture you want, then click Insert.
To change picture settings, under Picture watermark, select the options you want.
4. Click the Apply button.
To view a watermark as it will appear on the printed page, use Print layout view.
To remove a Watermark;
Click on Format, point to Background, then click Printed Watermark. In the resulting dialog
box, click No watermark.

INSERTING FOOTNOTES & ENDNOTES

Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide
references for text in a document.
Footnotes Endnotes
1. Footnotes appear either at the bottom of 1. Endnotes appear either at the end of a
each page in a document or directly below document or at the end of each section.
the text.
2. Footnotes can be used for detailed 2. Endnotes can be used to quote or mention
comments. sources.
A Footnote or Endnote consists of 2 linked parts:
(i). The note reference mark,
(ii). The corresponding note text.
A Note reference mark is a number or a character that indicates that additional information is
contained in a footnote or endnote.
1. In Print layout view, click the word you want to explain or comment on.
2. Click on Insert, point to Reference, then click Footnote.
3. In the resulting dialog box, select Footnotes or Endnotes, then click an option to indicate
where the Footnote or Endnote will be placed.
4. In the Number format box, click the number format you want to use. In the Start at box,
click 1.
If you want to use a Custom mark, click the Symbol button, choose the desired symbol, then
click OK.
5. Click the Insert button.
The window will be divided into two parts. In the lower portion of the window, type the text
of the footnote or endnote.
6. When you finish, click in the document and continue typing.
Note. After inserting the first footnote or endnote, Ms-Word will automatically number the
subsequent footnotes and endnotes with the format you have chosen.
Changing the number format of footnotes or endnotes.
1. Click on Insert, point to Reference, then click Footnote.
2. In the Number format box, click the format you want, then click the Apply button.
Changing the placement of footnotes and endnotes.
In the printed document, Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page, while Endnotes appear at
the end of the document or section. However, you can change the placement of footnotes or
endnotes.
1. Click on Insert, point to Reference, then click Footnote.
2. Under Location, select Footnotes or Endnotes.
3. In the Footnotes or Endnotes box, click the option to indicate where you want to place them,
then click the Apply button.
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Viewing Footnotes & Endnotes in an Ms-Word document.
1. In Print Layout view, rest the pointer on the note reference mark. The note text appears above
the mark in a ScreenTip.
Deleting a Footnote or an Endnote.
1. In the document, select the reference mark of the footnote or endnote you want to delete, then
press DELETE key.

Review Questions
1. Explain the meaning of the following terms as used in Word processing.
(i). Page margin.
(ii). Header.
(iii). Footer.
2. Name and describe the TWO types of paper orientation in Word processing.
3. Why is it necessary to specify the correct paper size before printing a document?
4. How would you insert Footer to your document?
5. (a). Explain the importance of page numbers in a document.
(b). How can you insert page numbers in a multipage document when working with Microsoft
Word?
6. Explain how you would achieve the following:
(a). Increase or reduce the margins of a document.
(b). Change the paper orientation of your document from Portrait to Landscape.

CREATING MS-WORD TABLES.

A Table is a feature in Ms-Word made up of rows & columns which intersect to form cells that
the user can enter text and graphics.
 A Cell is a box formed by the intersection of a row & column in a worksheet or a table, in which
the user can enter information.
 A Row is a horizontal arrangement of cells; a Column is a vertical arrangement of cells.

Importance of creating tables.

√ Tables are used to organize and enhance the display of information such as timetables.
√ Tables make it easier to read & understand information that would otherwise have to be written
in a repetitive and lengthy fashion.
Note. To perform calculations in a table, the table cells must be referenced as A1, A2, B1, B2,
etc, with the letter representing the column & the number representing a row.

Methods of creating a new table.

Method 1: Using the Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar.
1. Click where you want the table to be created.
2. Click the Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar,. A grid appears below the button.
3. Drag over the grid to select the number of Rows & Columns you want, then release the Mouse
button.
Method 2: Using the Insert - Table command on the Table menu.
1. Click on Table, point to Insert, then click Table.
2. Under Table size, specify the number of Columns & Rows.
3. Under AutoFit behavior, choose an option to adjust the table size.
4. To use an in-built table format, click the AutoFormat button, then select a table style.
5. Click the OK button.

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Method 3: Using the Draw Table tool for creating more complex tables.
1. Click on Table, then choose Draw Table.
The Tables and Borders toolbar appears, and the Mouse pointer changes to a Pencil.
2. Drag the pointer to draw the outline of the table. E.g., to define the outer boundaries for the
table, draw a rectangle.
3. Draw the column and row lines inside the rectangle.
After creating the table, click in a cell and start typing text.
 To move the text cursor from one cell to the next in the same row, press the TAB key.
 To move text cursor one column to the left in the same row (to move to the previous cell), press
SHIFT + TAB.
Inserting text before a table.
1. If you had already inserted the table, click in the upper-left cell in the first row of the table.
2. Press the ENTER key.

Selecting parts of a Table.

4. To select:
 A cell - point to the left edge of the cell, and then click.
 A row - click to the left of the row.
 A column - click the column's top border.
 Multiple cells, rows, or columns - drag across the cell, row, or column.
 The entire table - click the table move handle.
 Text in the next cell - press TAB key.
 Text in the previous cell - press SHIFT+TAB keys.
Note. To select a cell, row, column or the entire table;
1. Click in the cell, row, column or table.
2. Click on Table, point to Select, then click Table, Column, Row or Cell.

Changing the width of a Column in a Table.

Change the width of a column enhances the appearance of the table, e.g., if the cells are wider than
the text they contain.
1. Point on the boundary of the column whose width you want to change until the pointer becomes
a double-headed arrow.
2. Drag the boundary to the right or left until the column is the width you want.
Making the columns in a table automatically fit the contents.
1. Click in the table.
2. Click on Table, point to AutoFit, then click AutoFit to Contents.

Changing the Height of a Row in a table.

In Ms-Word documents, the height of each row in a table depends on the contents of the cells in
that row and the paragraph spacing before or after text.
5. In addition, pressing the ENTER key when the text cursor is in a cell will increase the height
of the row.
1. Point on the boundary of the row whose height you want to change until the pointer becomes
a double-headed arrow, and then drag the boundary.

Making multiple columns or rows the same size.

1. Select the columns or rows you want to make the same size.
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2. On the Table menu, point to AutoFit, then click Distribute Columns Evenly or Distribute
Rows Evenly.
Changing the column width or row height to a specific measurement.
1. Click a cell in the column or row.
2. Click on Table, click Table Properties, then click the Column tab or Row tab.
3. In the Size section, select the preferred column or height.

6. Adding Rows and Columns to a table.

7. You can add more rows and/or columns to an existing table.
To insert Rows;
1. Select the same number of rows as the number you want to insert, e.g., to insert 3 new rows,
select 3 existing rows.
2. Click on Table, point to Insert, then click Rows Above or Rows Below.
Tip. To quickly add a row at the end of a table, click in the last cell of the last row, then press
the TAB key.
To insert Columns;
1. Select the same number of columns as the number you want to insert.
2. Click on Table, point to Insert, then click Columns to the Right or Columns to the Left.
Adding a column to the right of the last column in a table;
1. Click in the last column.
2. Click on Table, point to Insert, then click Columns to the Right.
8. Clearing the contents of a table.
Clearing cells removes the cell contents (formulas and data), or number formats leaving the cells
on the table blank.
1. Select the cells, rows or columns whose contents you want to clear, then press DELETE key.
9. Deleting cells, rows, or columns from a table.
You can delete any no. of adjacent cells, rows, or columns from a table if you do not need the
information in them.
Deleting removes the cells, rows and columns from the document and shifts the surrounding cells
to fill the space.
1. Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to delete.
2. Click on Table, point to Delete, then click Columns, Rows, or Cells.
If you are deleting cells, the Delete Cells dialog box appears.
Select: To:
Shift cells left Move cells from the right of the selected cells to replace the cells
being deleted.
Shift cells up Move cells from below the selected cells to replace the cells being
deleted.
Delete entire row Delete the row(s).
Delete entire column Delete the column(s).

10. Deleting a table and its contents.

Deleting removes the cell contents together with the cells themselves.
1. Click inside the table.
2. Click Table, point to Delete, then click Table.

Displaying or hiding table Gridlines.

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Gridlines are the thin lines that indicate the cell boundaries in a table. Gridlines do not print when
you print a document.
1. On the Table menu, click Show Gridlines or Hide Gridlines.
Adding Borders & Shading to table cells.
You can apply your own borders and shading to a table. This is because Ms-Word does not print
the gridlines that divide the table cells on your screen.
1. Selecting the table cells you want to apply borders around.
2. Click on Format, then choose Borders and Shading.
3. In the resulting dialog box, click the Borders tab or the Shading tab, and then select the options
you want.
4. In the Apply to: box, select Table or Cell.
5. Click the OK button.
Note. To apply in-built/automatic table formats (borders) around table cells;
1. Click in the table.
2. Click on Table, then choose Table AutoFormat.
3. In the Table styles box, click the table format you want.
4. Under Apply special formats to and Formats to apply, select the options you want, then click
the Apply button.
11. Merging of cells in a table.
12.

Merging of cells refers to combining 2 or more cells in the same row or column to form a single
cell.
Importance.
√ You can merge several cells horizontally to create a table heading that spans several columns.
√ To create larger cells in a table without increasing the height or width of existing cells.
1. Select the cells you want to merge. This can be adjacent rows or adjacent columns.
2. Click on Table, then choose Merge Cells.
Note. When you merge several cells in a column to create a vertically oriented table heading that
spans several rows, you can change the orientation of the heading text.
1. Select the heading text that you want to span several rows.
2. On the View menu, point to Toolbars, then click Tables and Borders.
3. Click the Change Text Direction button.
Splitting a cell into multiple cells in a table.
This refers to subdividing one or more cells into parts.
1. Click in a cell, or select multiple cells that you want to split.
2. Click on Table, then choose Split Cells.
3. In the resulting dialog box, specify the no. of Rows and/or Columns that the selected cells will
be split into.
4. Click the OK button.
Numbering the cells in a table.
1. Select the cells you want to number.
To number the beginning of each row, select only the first column in the table by clicking the
column's top border.
2. Click on Format, then choose Bullets and Numbering.
3. Click the Numbered tab, then select a number format from the list.

Aligning a table on a page.

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You can change the horizontal placement of a table within a page, e.g., center a table between the
left & right page margins.
1. Select the table.
2. Click on Table, choose Table Properties, then click the Table tab.
3. Under Alignment, select Left, Center or Right.
4. Click the OK button.
Splitting a table into parts.
When a long table falls within a page break, Ms-Word allows the page break to divide the row
between the two pages.
You can adjust the table to make sure that the information appears as you want it to when the table
spans multiple pages.
To split a table into 2 parts;
1. Click the row that you want to be the first row of the second table.
2. Click on Table, then choose Split Table.

Converting a Table into lines of Text.

1. Select the entire table, or the rows and columns you want to convert to text.
2. Click on Table, point to Convert, then click Table to Text.
A dialog box is displayed that requires you to specify how the text will be separated after
conversion.
3. In the Separate text with: box, select the character to be used as a separator, i.e., Paragraph
marks, Tabs, or Commas.
4. Click the OK button.
Converting lines of Text into a Table.
1. Select the text you want to convert to a table.
2. Click on Table, point to Convert, then click Text to Table.
A dialog box is displayed that requires you to specify the number of rows and columns.
3. In the Separate text at: box, specify whether the table will be defined by Paragraphs, Tabs,
or Commas.
4. Click the OK button.

PERFORMING ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS IN A MS-WORD TABLE.

13. It is possible to perform mathematical calculations such as Sum, Product, and Count, if a table
has numerical figures.
1. Click in the cell in which you want the result to be placed.
2. Click on Table, then choose Formula. A formula dialog box is displayed.
3. If Ms-Word proposes a formula that you do not want to use, delete it from the Formula box,
making sure that you don’t delete the equal sign.

4. In the Paste function box, click a function. A Function is a mathematical formula that
accomplishes calculations in a table.
E.g., to add numbers, click SUM.
5. To refer to the contents of a cell in the formula, type the cell references in the parentheses. Use
a Comma to separate references to individual cells, or a Colon to separate the first & the last
cells in a selected range.
Examples;
 To add the numbers in cells A1, A3 & C2, type: =SUM(a1, a3,c2)
 To find the average of values in cells A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 & C2, type: =Average(a1:c2)
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6. In the Number format box, enter a format for the numbers, e.g., to display the numbers as a
decimal percentage, click 0.00%.
7. Click the OK button.

14. Sorting in tables.

Sorting refers to arranging of text, numbers or data in a list or table according to some
predetermined sequence.
1. Click on any cell in the table you want to sort.
2. Click on Table, then choose Sort. The entire table is automatically selected, and the Sort
dialog box appears.
3. Select the type of data to be used when sorting, i.e., Text, Number or Date.
4. Under Sort By, select the column number corresponding to the column you want to use as the
basis for sorting.
5. Select the Ascending or Descending option button.
Ascending will sort in increasing order (lowest to highest or A–Z); Descending will sort in
decreasing order (highest to lowest or Z–A).
6. If you want to use additional columns for sorting, enter the column in the Then by boxes.
7. Click the OK button.

Review questions
1. Define a Cell, Row and Column while working with tables?
2. Identify two importances of creating tables in Microsoft Word.
3. Differentiate between:
a). Drawing and inserting a table in a document.
b). Deleting a table and Clearing a table.
4. What would happen to the cursor in a table when the following actions are done:
(a). Pressing the TAB key.
(b).Pressing the SHIFT+TAB key.
(c). Pressing the ENTER key.
5. (a). Define the term “Merging of cells” as used in tables.
(b). Give a reason why it may be necessary to merge cells in a table.
6. Describe how would you do the following:
(a). Insert a blank row in your table.
(b). Insert borders around your table.
(c). Delete two rows from your table.
7. Explain how you can convert some typed text into a table using Microsoft Word.
8. What is a Function when working with calculations in word processing?
9. Define the term sorting text.

CREATING & PRINTING AN ENVELOPE

1. Click on Tools, point to Letters and Mailings, then click Envelopes and Labels.
2. In the resulting dialog box, click the Envelopes tab.
3. In the Delivery address box, type the mailing address (i.e., the address of the receiver).
4. In the Return address box, type the return address. Otherwise, select the Omit checkbox
to omit the return address (in case the envelopes have a pre-printed return address).
Formatting an envelope address,
1. In the Envelopes and Labels dialog box, click the Options button, then click the Envelope
Options tab.
2. To select an envelope size, click the size you want in the Envelope size box.
3. To change the font, font Style, Size, font Colour, and Effects for the envelope addresses,
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Under the item you want to adjust, click the Font button.
5. Click the OK button.

Printing the envelope.

After creating the envelope, you can print it.
1. Switch to the Envelopes Options dialog box, then click the Printing Options tab.
2. Insert an envelope in the printer as shown in the Feed box. In the Envelopes Options dialog
box, click the Print button.

MAIL MERGING
Mail merging is the process of generating personalized letters or documents by combining a
standard document, e.g., a letter, with a list of addresses, and producing several copies of the
standard document, but addressed to different recipients.
The standard document (letter) is referred to as the ‘Main Document’ and the list of addresses is
referred to as the ‘Data Source’.
Importance of mail merging.
√ Mail merge enables the user to send out the same document to several recipients at once.
√ Combining of letters saves time when printing.
√ The mailing list used in a Mail merge can be re-used on another document (unlike Copy &
Pasting).
The Mail merge process.
The Mail merge process consists of 4 main steps:
1. Create the Main document or Open an existing Main document.
Main document is the common document or letter that is to be sent to all the people on the
mailing list. It is sometimes known as the Form letter.
The Main document contains the text & graphics that are the same for each version of the
merged document, e.g., the return address or salutation.
2. Create the Data source or Open an existing Data source, with individual recipient information.
Data source (or Addresses file) is a file of data records of the people that will receive the form
letter.
The Data source contains the information or data that varies in each copy of a merged
document. E.g., the list of names & addresses you want to use in a mail merge.
3. Add Merge fields in the main document.
Merge field is a placeholder that you insert in the main document. It helps Ms-Word insert
the name or information that is stored in a particular data field.
4. Merge or combine data from the Data source with the Main document to create a new, merged
document.
Therefore, in a mail merge, there are three files created:
1. The primary file (Main document).
2. The secondary file (Data source).
3. Merged file.

15. Creating & printing of Form letters using Word 97/2000.

Creating the Main document.
1. Retrieve or type the letter that you want to use as the main document.
2. Click on Tools, then choose Mail Merge. The Mail Merge Helper dialog box appears.

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3. Under Main document, click the Create button, then select the type of document needed, e.g.,
Form letter
4. To use the on-screen document as your main document, click Active Window.
Creating a Data source.
5. Under Data source, click Get Data.
6. To use an existing list of names and addresses, click the Open Data Source button, select the
file that contains your data source, then click OK.
To create a new list of names & addresses, click Create Data Source, then choose the required
fields from the Create data source box.
 To rearrange the field names, select a field name, then click the Move arrows (or) until
the field name is in the correct position.
 To delete a field name that you don’t require in your data source, click the field name, then
choose Remove Field Name.
 To add a new field name to the data source, type the new field in Field Name box, then
click Add Field Name.
7. When you finish, click the OK button, then save the record structure of the new data source.
8. In the Save As dialog box, type a name for the data source, then click OK.
9. In the message box that appears, click Edit Data Source, then type the names & addresses of
the recipients in the Data Form dialog box.
To add a new address, click the Add New button after each full entry. When you finish adding
the required information, click OK.
10. If a message is displayed, click Edit Main Document. In the Main document, type the text
you want to appear in every form letter.
Inserting Merge fields into the Main document.
11. In the Main document, place the text cursor where you want to insert the merge fields (i.e., the
information from the data source).
12. On the Mail Merge toolbar, click the Insert Merge Field button, then select the merge fields
that you want to insert.
13. After you have inserted all of the merge fields, save the Main Document.
Merging the Data source with the Main document.
After inserting merge fields from the data source into the main document, you can now merge
them.
There are 4 ways of merging a document with its data source:
 Merge to new document.
 Merge to Printer.
 Merge to E-mail.
 Merge to Fax.
(a). To merge to a new document;
Click the Merge to new document button on the Mail Merge toolbar.
(b). To merge to Printer;
Click the Merge to Printer button. The Printer option sends the resulting merged
documents directly to the Printer.
Note. Before you merge to a printer, you can preview the appearance of the merged
documents (i.e., display the merged data in the main document)
1. With the main document displayed, click the View Merged Data (ABC) button on the
Mail Merge toolbar.
2. Click the Arrow buttons to move from one data record to the other.
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(c). Send merged documents by E-mail or by Fax;

1. Click the Merge button on the Mail Merge toolbar.
2. In the Merge to: box, select E-mail or Fax.
3. Click the Setup button to specify the e-mail addresses or faxing number.
4. Then click on the Merge button.
The Internet Connection wizard starts, and if your computer is properly configured, the
mail merged document will be sent.

16. Creating & printing of Form letters using Word 2002.

Creating the Main document.
1. Open or type the document that you want to use as the main document.
2. Click on Tools, point to Letters and Mailings, then click Mail Merge Wizard.
3. Under Select Document type, click Letters.
4. Under Select document, click Use the current document, if you want to use the open
document as your main document.
Creating a Data source.
5. Under Select Recipients, choose Type a new list, then click Create. This will display the New
Address List dialog box where you can create a new list of names & addresses.
To add a new address, click the New Entry button after each full entry.
6. When you finish, click the Close button, and then save the new data source.
7. On the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, click Edit, make changes to your addresses, then
click OK.
Inserting Merge Fields into the main document.
8. In the Main document, click where you want to insert the information from the data source.
9. On the Mail Merge toolbar, click the Insert Merge Field button, then select the merge fields
that you want to insert.
10. After you have inserted all of the merge fields, click the Close button, then save the Main
Document.
Merging the Data Source with the main document.
11. On the Mail Merge toolbar, click Merge to Printer, Merge to New Document, Merge to Email
or Merge to Fax.
12. Click Merge.
If you choose Merge to Printer, Ms-Word displays the Merge to Printer dialog box. Select
the records to be printed, then click the OK button. This takes you to the Print dialog box,
where you can select the printing options that your printer will use.

Review questions.
1. Describe the procedure of creating an envelope heading. Show how you can make it bold &
size 12.
2. (a). What is the meaning of the word Mail merging?
(b). Give two advantages of Mail merging.
3. Define each of the following:
(i). Main document / Form letter.
(ii). A Data source.
4. Explain the THREE basic steps required to Mail merge a document.
5. List four ways of merging a document with its data source.

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GRAPHICS & DIAGRAMS IN MICROSOFT WORD
The term Graphics refers to non-text images or objects generated by a computer. They include;
photographs, pictures, drawings, and graphs.
Importance.
√ Information presented graphically is easy to understand, e.g., if you have a lot of information,
representing it graphically is more effective than using text only.
√ Graphics & drawings can be used to enhance Ms-Word documents, e.g., one can use arrows to
draw attention to certain data.
√ A well-placed picture can help illustrate a point clearly, and can transform a plain looking
document into an interesting document.

Types of Graphics.
There are 3 basic types of graphics that you can use to enhance your Ms-Word documents:
1. Drawing objects
2. Pictures
3. Charts
Drawing objects.
A Drawing object is any graphic that is drawn or inserted into a document, and can be changed
or improved.
Drawing objects include AutoShapes and WordArt.
AutoShapes is a group of ready-made graphic images or shapes. AutoShapes usually have
predefined shapes, and the user can draw by selecting it, then dragging its size on the screen.
Examples of AutoShapes are; rectangles, circles, Lines, Connectors, Block arrows, Flowchart
symbols, Stars, etc.
Pictures.
A Picture is a graphic that was created from another file. They include Photographs, Scanned
pictures, Bitmaps, and ClipArt.
A Bitmap is a picture made from a series of small dots. When stored as files, bitmaps usually have
the extension “.bmp”.
Chart.
17. A Chart is a graphical presentation of data in a table. Charts are used to summarize data in a
document in a pictorial way.
Sources of graphics that can be used in Ms-Word.
There are 4 sources of graphics that can be used in Ms-Word. You can insert a graphical object;
1. From the Microsoft Clip gallery.
2. From a Scanner.
3. By using the Drawing tools available in Ms-Word.
4. Import from file.

DRAWING OF OBJECTS (AUTOSHAPES) IN MS-WORD

Ms-Word provides the user with basic drawing tools such as Polygons, Arrows, Lines, circles,
Stars and Banners, Callouts, etc, which can be found on the Drawing toolbar.
To display the toolbar, click on View, point to Toolbars, then click Drawing.
Drawing a line, an arrow, a rectangle, or a circle;
1. Click on the appropriate shape button in the Drawing toolbar. The pointer changes to a plus
sign.
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2. Place the pointer where you want to draw the shape, and drag to the required size.
 To create a perfect square or a circle, hold down SHIFT as you drag the AutoShape.
 Holding down the SHIFT as you draw a line will lock it into an angle of 450, 600, 900, etc.
Drawing an object using the AutoShapes;
1. In the Drawing toolbar, click the arrow next to AutoShapes.
2. From the menu displayed, point to the category of shapes you want to insert, e.g. Lines,
Connectors, Basic shapes, Block Arrows, Flowcharts, Stars and Banners, etc, then select the
object you wish to draw.
3. Place the pointer where you want to draw the shape, and then drag the mouse.
Inserting text in an AutoShape.
1. Click to select the AutoShape.
2. Right-click the shape, choose Add Text from the shortcut menu displayed, then type the text.

Inserting a Text Box.

A Text Box is a container used for text or graphics that can be moved and resized.
1. Click on Insert, then choose Text Box (or, on the Drawing toolbar, click the Text Box button).
2. Using the cross-shaped cursor, drag out a shape. The Insertion point is placed inside the
textbox.
3. Type in your text inside the Text Box.
4. Format the text as you want, e.g., change the size of text, font style, alignment, etc.
5. Drag and position the Text Box to the part of the document in which you want it to be.
Formatting the Text Box.
1. Select the Text Box by clicking the outside borders to display the sizing handles.
2. Click on Format, then select Text Box (or, double-click the Text Box),
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Right-click the Text Box, then choose Format Text Box.
This displays the Format Text Box dialog box.
3. To change the size of the Text Box using exact measurements, click the Size tab.
4. To fill the Text Box with colour, click the Colors and Lines tab. Under Fill, select a color.
5. Select any other options you want, then click OK.

Changing the text direction in a drawing object, Text Box or table cell.
This makes the text to be displayed vertically or horizontally.
1. Click the drawing object or table cell that contains the text you want to change.
2. Click on Format, choose Text Direction, then click the required orientation.
Aligning text in an AutoShape or Text Box.
1. Click the AutoShape or Text Box that contains text you want to align.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click Align Left, Center, Align Right, or Justify button.
Moving a drawing object in front of or behind text.
1. Select the picture, or drawing object.
2. On the Drawing toolbar, click Draw, point to Order, then click Bring in Front of Text or
Send Behind Text.

Formatting or editing a Picture, Drawing object or AutoShape

Method 1:

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1. Click the picture to select it.
Ms-Word will display the Picture editing toolbar. Incase it is not, click on View, point to
Toolbars, then select Picture.
2. Use the buttons on the Picture toolbar to adjust the brightness and contrast, change the picture
to black and white or grayscale, and crop the image.
Cropping refers to hiding the unwanted details so that they do not come out when printing.
Method 2:
1. Click the AutoShape you want to format.
2. Click on Format, then choose AutoShape (or, right-click the AutoShape, then choose Format
AutoShape).
-OR-
Double-click the AutoShape.
3. Use the tabs on the Format Picture dialog box to enhance the appearance of the object.
Filling a drawing object with a color or decorative effects.
To enhance an AutoShape, Textbox, or WordArt with colors, patterns, borders, and other effects;
1. Double-click the object.
2. On the Format Picture dialog box, click the Colors and Lines tab.
3. Under Fill, click the arrow in the Color box, then select a colour from the palette.
4. To apply special effects or a decorative fill to the object, click Fill Effects, then click the
Gradients tab.
Under Color, choose Preset. In the Preset Colors box, select an option, then choose a shading
style.
To change the patterns and texture of your object, use the Texture or Patterns tab.
Gradient is a gradual progression of colors and shades, usually from one color to another color,
or from one shade to another shade of the same color.
5. Click the OK button.
To remove a graphic color or fill, click the arrow next to Fill Color, then click No Fill.

Changing the Weight, Color and Style of a Line.

1. Select the object whose line weight, color or style you want to change.
2. Click on Format, select AutoShape, then click the Colors and Lines tab.
3. Select a line from the Style box. To use a dashed line, then select it under Dashed.
4. Use the Up & Down arrows in the Weight box to adjust the line weight.
5. To apply a different color to the line, select it from the Color drop-down list.
6. Click OK.

Callouts
These are special AutoShapes into which you can add text. They can be used to draw attention to
an important point or to highlight information that you want to emphasize.

I wonder what I can do to

increase sales next
month?

Adding WordArt to a document.

WordArt is a text object that can be created with ready-made effects, and to which additional
formatting options can be applied.
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1. Click on Insert, point to Picture, then click WordArt.
2. In the WordArt Gallery dialog box, click the WordArt effect you want, then click OK.
3. In the Edit WordArt Text dialog box, type the text you want.
4. To change the font type, select a font in the Font list. To change the font size, select a size in
the Size list. To make text bold or italic, click the Bold or Italic button.
5. Click OK.
Changing the text in WordArt.
1. Double-click the WordArt object you want to change.
2. In the Edit WordArt Text dialog box, type the new text, then click OK.
Formatting WordArt text.
1. Click the WordArt, click on Format, then choose WordArt (or, right click the WordArt, then
choose Format WordArt).
2. Use the tabs on the Format WordArt dialog box to change the WordArt text.

INSERTING A CLIPART (PICTURE) FROM THE MICROSOFT CLIP GALLERY

The Microsoft Clip Organizer contains a variety of useful drawings, photographs, sounds, videos,
and other media files called clips that you can insert and use in presentations, publications, and
other Microsoft Office documents.
Inserting a clip from the Clip Organizer.
A Clip is a single media file including art, sound, animation, or movies.
1. Position the insertion point where you want your clip to be inserted.
2. Click on Insert, point to Picture, then click Clip Art.
3. At the bottom of the Insert Clip Art task pane, click Clip Organizer. Use the Clip Organizer
to browse through Microsoft Office clip collections.
4. Click the Pictures tab. In the Categories list box, select the category of Clip Art pictures you
want, e.g., Plants. A preview of images appears for that category.
5. In the Results box, click the media clip you want to insert, then drag it into your open
document.
INSERTING AN IMAGE FROM A SCANNER.
A Scanner is a data capture device that transforms a hardcopy or real graphical object into digital
form.
To scan an object;
1. The computer must be connected to a Scanner.
2. Position the insertion point where you want your picture to appear.
3. Click on Insert, point to Picture, then click From Scanner or Camera.
4. To scan, follow the instructions that come with your scanner.
5. When the image appears on the screen, edit or format it as required the same way you would
with a ClipArt.

INSERTING A PICTURE FROM ANOTHER FILE.

1. Position the insertion point where you want the picture to be placed.
2. Click on Insert, point to Picture, then click From File.
3. Locate the file that contains the image you want to insert, e.g., from a floppy disk, CD, etc.
4. Select the object you want to insert, then click the Insert button.
5. When the image appears on the screen, edit or format it as required the same way you would
with a ClipArt.
Changing the size of a graphic.
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After you insert a picture, you may find that it is too big or too small for your needs.
To change the size of the object;
Method 1:
1. Select the graphic, then drag the sizing handles away from or toward the center until the object
is the shape and size you want.
Sizing handles are the small circles or squares that appear at the corners and sides of a selected
object.
Method 2:
1. Select the graphic.
2. Click on Format, select Picture, then click the Size tab.
3. Under Size and rotate, adjust the sizes in the Height and Width boxes.
 To resize the picture by a specific percentage, under Scale, enter the percentages you want
in the Height and Width boxes.
 To maintain the ratio between the height & width of the object when resizing, select the
Lock aspect ratio checkbox.
4. Click OK.
Rotating an AutoShape, a picture, or a WordArt.
1. Select the drawing object you want to rotate.
2. To rotate the object to any angle, drag the Rotate handle () on the object in the direction
you want to rotate it, then click outside the object to set the rotation.
3. To rotate the object 900 to the left or the right,
 On the Drawing toolbar, click Draw, point to Rotate or Flip, then click Rotate Left or
Rotate Right.
Deleting a drawing object, Text Box or WordArt.
1. Click to select the object you want to delete, then press the Delete key.
Create a mirror image of an object.
1. Click the AutoShape, picture, Clip Art, or WordArt you want to duplicate.
2. Click on Edit, click Copy, and then click Paste.
3. On the Drawing toolbar, click Draw, point to Rotate or Flip, then click Flip Horizontal or
Flip Vertical.
4. Drag and position the duplicate object so that it mirrors the original object.

Importing objects into a word processor.

Importing refers to getting ready-made objects and text from other applications into a word
processor.
Difference between Object Linking and Embedding.
In Linking, the object imported can only be edited in the original application from which it was
created; In Embedding, the object imported becomes part of the current application, and can be
edited there.
Review questions
1. Define the term Graphic.
2. List any three sources of graphics that can be used in Microsoft Word.
3. What is an AutoShape?
4. Explain how you would do the following tasks.
(a). Enter text in an AutoShape.

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(b). Insert a WordArt.
(c). Insert a ClipArt picture into your document.
(d). Fill a drawing object or an AutoShape with colour.
(e). Change the brightness of a graphic.
(f). Change the thickness of an AutoShape outline.
5. Give two advantages of using a Text Box to write the text in an advertisement.
6. Explain the concept of importing objects into a word processor.
7. (a). What is the difference between object linking and embedding.
(b). Describe how you would increase the size of a ClipArt that is embedded in a document.

PRINTING A DOCUMENT
18. Previewing a document (Display each page as it will look when printed).
Before you print a document, it is important to make sure that it will be printed the way you want
it.
Previewing a document enables you to see exactly the way the pages will appear when printed,
and where necessary, make any changes to the document.
Advantages of previewing a document before printing.
 To confirm that no details are outside the printable area, and that the page layout is okay.
 To go through the document before printing.
 To save printing papers & printer toner because; errors on printouts that may require reprints
will be minimal.
1. Click on File, then choose Print Preview (or, click the Print Preview button on the Standard
toolbar). The mouse pointer changes into a symbol that resembles a magnifying glass.
2. Click inside the document to increase or reduce the size of the view.
3. Use the buttons on the Print Preview toolbar to look over the page or make adjustments before
printing.
To: Do this:
Display one page at a time Click the One Page button.
Display two or more pages at a time Click the Multiple Pages button, then drag
over the grid to select the number &
configuration of pages.
Magnify an area of a given page Point to the location you want to view, and then
click the Magnifier button. To return to the
original magnification, click the mouse button
again.
Reduce or enlarge the page(s) displayed Click the down arrow next to the Zoom box,
then select a magnification.

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Hide all screen elements except the Click the Full Screen button. To return the
displayed page(s) & the Print Preview hidden elements to the screen, click the Mouse
toolbar. button again, or press ESC.

4. To exit Print preview, click the Close button.

19. Actual printing of the active document.
Method 1:
20.

1. To print the document using the default settings, click the Print button on the Standard
toolbar.
Method 2:
21.

1. Click on File, choose Print (or, press CTRL+P).

This opens the Print dialog box in which you can set the printing options, such as;
(a). The type of the printer installed in your computer.
(b). Whether to print the whole document or a range.
(c). Number of copies to print per page.
To print a range of pages.
1. Under Page range, click an option to specify what you want to print, e.g., All or Current
page.
 To print a portion of the document, select the portion, then click the Selection
checkbox.
 To print specific pages;
1. Under Page range, click the Pages checkbox.
2. In the Pages box, enter the page numbers or ranges you want to include.
Example
To print Noncontiguous pages, type the page nos. with commas between them. Use
a hyphen to separate the starting and ending numbers in the range. E.g. to print pages
2, 4, 5, 6, and 8; type 2, 4 – 6, 8

To print only odd or even pages.

1. In the Print box, click either Odd pages or Even pages.

Printing more than one copy at a time.

1. In the Number of copies box, enter the no. of copies you want to print per page.
2. Select the Collate checkbox, if you want a complete copy of the document to be printed
before the first page of the next copy is printed
If you want to print all copies of the first page and then print all copies of subsequent
pages, clear the checkbox.
Specifying the Print quality, Paper orientation, Paper Type or Paper Size that your
printer will use.
1. In the Print dialog box, click the Properties button.
 Under Print Quality, select the Normal, Best, or FastDraft.
Note. When you print a document in draft quality, Ms-Word does not print formatting
or most graphics. This makes the document print faster.
 Under Orientation, select the Portrait, or Landscape.
 Under Paper Type, select the Plain/inkjet, Transparency or Photo Paper.
 Click the arrow next to the Paper Size box, then a paper size.
2. Click OK to take you back to the Print dialog box.

Printing a folded booklet.

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1. Set up your document as a booklet.
2. Click on File, click Print, then set options for printing on both sides of the paper.
If you're using a duplex printer (one that automatically prints on both sides of the paper),
1. Click the Properties button, set the page orientation to Landscape.
2. Set the duplex options, and flip the document on the short edge or side.
If you are not using a duplex printer,
1. In the Print dialog box, select the Manual duplex checkbox.
Ms-Word will print all the pages that appear on one side of the paper, and then prompt you
to turn the stack over and feed the pages again.
3. Select the page range you want to print.
If you click Current page or Pages, Word prints the page you indicate, plus the three other
pages that belong on the same sheet of paper.

Review questions
1. Give two advantages of previewing a document before printing.
2. Explain the difference between printing of multiple pages and printing of multiple copies.

GETTING HELP AS YOU WORK IN MS-WORD

Purpose of the Help facility.
√ To get a step-by-step guide on how to perform tasks.
√ To get access to more information about features in Ms-Word while you are working.
There are several ways/resources that you can use to get help while you work in Ms-Word.
1. Using the Office Assistant.
2. From the Help menu.
3. From the Office Update Web site (if one is connected directly to the Internet).
Using the ‘Ask a Question box’.
Type questions in the Ask a Question box on the Menu bar to quickly find the answers you need.
Note. For best results, type a complete sentence or question, not just a single word or a phrase.
E.g. to find Help on how to print more than one copy of a file at a time, type print more than one
copy at a time instead of typing print.
Using the Office Assistant.
When you have a question about Ms-Word, you can ask the Office Assistant.
1. To turn on the Office Assistant at any time, click Show the Office Assistant on the Help menu
(or click the Microsoft Word Help () button on the toolbar).
2. Click the Office Assistant, and then type what you want help on. E.g., to get help about how
to create a table, type How do I create a table in the Office Assistant message box.
3. Click on the Search button. The Office Assistant will then provide options on the question
you have asked.
The Office Assistant Help topics.
The Office Assistant automatically provides Help topics and tips on tasks you perform as you work
– before you even ask a question. E.g. when writing a letter in Ms-Word, the Office Assistant
automatically displays topics that can help you create and format a letter.
Office Assistant ScreenTips.

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ScreenTips are notes that appear on the screen to provide information about a toolbar button,
comment or to display a footnote or endnote.
The Office Assistant displays ScreenTips on how to use the features in the Microsoft Office
programs more effectively. To display tips, click the Light bulb next to the Office Assistant.
For example,
 To get information about a menu command, toolbar button, or screen region, on the Help menu,
click What's This? then click the area for which you want help.
 To know more about an option in a dialog box, click the question mark in the dialog box,
then click the option.
 To see the name of a toolbar button, or to view information about items such as comments,
hyperlinks in Ms-Word, rest the pointer over the item.
Show or hide ScreenTips.
1. On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the View tab.
2. Under Show, select or clear the ScreenTips checkbox.
To turn the Office Assistant off.
1. On the Options tab, clear the Use the Office Assistant checkbox.
Select a different Office Assistant.
1. Click the Office Assistant, choose Options, then click the Gallery tab.
2. Click the Back or Next button until you see the Assistant you want, then click OK button.
Turn the Office Assistant sound on or off.
To hear sound from the Office Assistant, you must have a sound card installed on your computer.
1. On the Options tab, select or clear the Make sounds check box.
Note. The Assistant is shared by all Office programs. Therefore, any options you change will also
apply to the Assistant in your other Office programs.
Using the Help menu.
1. On the Help menu, click Microsoft Word Help (or press F1).
 Click the Contents tab, and then scroll to view the table of contents for Help. Click on the
topic you need information on.
-OR-
 Click the Index tab to search for specific words or phrases, or choose from a list of
keywords. Type the words you want to search for, and click the Search button.

Review Questions
1. List three ways in which one can invoke the Help facility in Ms-Word.

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SPREADSHEETS.
Definition of a Spreadsheet.
A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data.
A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.

Types of Spreadsheets:
There are 2 types of spreadsheets:
1). Manual spreadsheet:
A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and
columns for entering/writing data.
The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.
2). Electronic Spreadsheet:
A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows & columns for entering
data that can be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.

An electronic spreadsheet:
1. Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet.
2. Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These
functions enable the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
3. Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
4. Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.
5. Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve
documents.
6. Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual
calculations & are very difficult to amend.
7. The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the
information stored in an electronic spreadsheet.
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8. It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
I.e., when one value/figure is changed, the result of the formula is automatically adjusted by
the computer so as to correspond with the different input. For a manual spreadsheet, changing
one value means rubbing the result & writing the correct one again.
9. It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
10. Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
I.e., it enables the user to produce neat work because; all the work is edited on the screen and
a final copy is printed. With a manual spreadsheet, neatness & legibility of the work depends
on the writer’s hand-writing skills.
11. It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.

Examples of the commonly used Spreadsheet packages

 VisiCalc – this was the 1st type of spreadsheet to be developed for PCs.
 Lotus 123 – this is an integrated software with spreadsheet module, graphs, and database.
 Microsoft Excel.
 Corel Quattro-Pro
 Microsoft Works Excel
 Super calculators.
 Multiplan.
 Vp-Planner.

Review Questions.
1. Define a Spreadsheet.
2. Differentiate between the traditional analysis ledger sheet and an electronic spreadsheet.
3. Name three commonly spreadsheet packages.

COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET
A spreadsheet has 3 main components, namely;
(a). Workbook.
(b). Database.
(c). Graphs / Charts.

Workbook:
When working in any spreadsheet program, you use workbook files to hold your information.
 A Workbook is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The
worksheets are made up of rows & columns in which you work and store your data.
A Workbook allows the user to organize various kinds of related information in a single file.

Database:
Spreadsheet programs such as Excel have special features, which can be used to manage data
values entered in the cells of the spreadsheet.
These features, which are found on the Data menu, were incorporated in Excel but they belong to
Database Management System software.
Examples of such features include: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals,
data validation, Pivot tables and Pivot chart reports.
Example:
If related data values are entered on the same row, they form a Record. Hence, a worksheet can
be manipulated as a database that has data records entered in it.

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Graphs/Charts:
1. A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to
summarize data in a worksheet in a pictorial form.
They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple format that
they can understand.
Charts make it easy for users to see comparisons, patterns, and trends in data, e.g., instead of having
to analyse several columns of a worksheet, one can see at a glance whether sales are falling or
rising.
Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column charts, etc.

Review Questions.
1. Name and describe the three components of a spreadsheet.
2. Explain the following terms as used in spreadsheets.
i) Workbook.
ii) Chart.

Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)

1. Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. They are mostly
used by Accountants to record their daily transactions & also keep financial records.
For example; a spreadsheet can be used to do the following:
 Record sales & purchases.
 Calculate profits.
 Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
 Prepare budgets.
 Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from
customers in relation to goods delivered.
 Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the
period allowed in your terms of business.
 Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).
Note. Most spreadsheet programs come with inbuilt functions such as SUM, AVERAGE,
PRODUCT, etc, which enable the Accountant to carry out his/her daily accounting tasks
easily.

2. Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date.
For example;
 It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
 It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
 Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets,
the worksheets can be linked so that the data can be accessed easily.
Some of the data management functions include:
 Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the
data items).
 Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
 Use of Forms to enter & view records.
 Use of Total/Subtotal function.

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3. Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their
results.

4. Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.

Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex
statistical analyses. In addition, some of the tools generate charts.
Examples of statistical functions include:
 AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
 MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
Such mathematical operations can be used by:
- Teachers to compile their students’ marks and produce results.
- Clerks & Secretaries to enable them easily create tables of figures and manipulate them
quickly as required.

5. Forecasting (What if analysis).

The automatic recalculation feature makes it possible to use the “What if” analysis technique.
What if analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing
certain values in a worksheet on other cells.
It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to see the
difference the change would make on the result of the calculation.
This method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.

Review Questions.
1. Explain five application areas where spreadsheet software can be used.
2. Explain the concept of “What if” analysis.

Common features of Electronic spreadsheets.

The following are the typical facilities provided by electronic spreadsheets:
1. Have the ability to create, edit, save & retrieve worksheets.
2. Have inbuilt functions & formulae which can be used to perform calculations.
3. Allows Automatic recalculation, i.e., when you change one value, the rest of the values in
the spreadsheet are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the
different input. This enables you to play “what if” games with your system.
4. Have the ability to Sort and filter data (i.e., arrange data in a predefined order).
5. Have a Data validation facility, which ensures that the correct data is entered into the
Spreadsheet.
6. Have a Chart facility that can be used to draw line graphs, Bar charts, histograms, etc.
7. Have the ability to format data (both text & numeric data) using predefined formats.
8. Some Spreadsheets have a SOLVER facility that is used to uncover the best uses of scarce
resources so that desired goals can be achieved.
9. Have the ability to adjust Column widths & Row heights automatically.
10. Have the ability to hide and unhide rows & columns, and also freeze panes.
11. They enable printing of worksheets within the shortest time possible.
12. They have pre-designed Templates for automating tasks.

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A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same
type. It contains the standard text, graphics & formatting that will be used in all documents
of this type.
This means that, all formulas and formatting for similar workbooks such as Invoices can be
saved as templates and then be used to automate the task without having to create the
workbook again.
13. Have the ability to summarize data using Consolidation and Pivot tables.
Consolidation allows the merging of several worksheets into a summary sheet, while still
keeping the original worksheets intact. Consolidation adds together cells with the same co-
ordinates in the various worksheets.
Pivot tables can be used to cross-tabulate large amounts of data.

Differences between an Electronic Spreadsheet and a Calculator

An electronic spreadsheet: -
1. Has more memory than calculator.
2. Is able to perform complex logical operations, but a calculator cannot.
3. Uses the large storage capacity of the computer that a calculator does not have.
4. Has a large working area that a calculator does not have.

Review Questions.
1. Describe any five features of a spreadsheet program.
2. State five features of spreadsheets that are useful in financial modelling.
3. How does a spreadsheet differ from a Calculator?

MICROSOFT EXCEL
This is a Spreadsheet program that enables users to create electronic worksheets that can be used
to perform simple & complex calculations using a computer.
Ms-Excel has inbuilt functions that are used as shortcuts for performing mathematical, financial
and statistical calculations.
Starting Microsoft Excel.
1. Click Start, point to Programs, then click Microsoft Excel.
-OR-
Click the Microsoft Excel icon, if it is displayed on the desktop.

WORKSHEET LAYOUT (Features/ Parts/ Elements of the Ms-Excel Screen).

(a). At the top of the window,
 Title bar. It has the System /Control menu button on the left & the Resizing buttons
on the right.
 Menu bar.
 Toolbars, e.g., Standard & Formatting toolbars. They contain the Toolbar buttons.
 Name box – displays the active cell, e.g., A1.
 Formula bar: A bar at the top of the Ms-Excel window that is used to enter or edit values
or formulas in cells or charts. It also displays the constant value or formula stored in the
active cell.
To display or hide the formula bar, click Formula bar on the View menu.
(b). Column Identifiers (or Column headers) – Letters that identify the columns.
(c). Row Identifiers (or Row headers) – numbers that identify the rows.
A Worksheet has a total of 256 columns & 65,536 rows.
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(d). Active (Current) cell – the cell in which the selection box (Cell pointer) is placed.
(e). Cell Pointer.
(f). Gridlines - the thin lines that indicate the cell boundaries in a worksheet.
(g). At the bottom of the window,
 Status bar - displays different indicators about the current working environment.
To display or hide the Status bar, click Status bar on the View menu.
 Sheet tabs – these are names of the sheets that appear at the bottom of the workbook
window.
 Tab scrolling buttons - They enable the user to select and use a different sheet.
 Scroll bar, scroll box & the scroll arrows.
Scroll bars are the shaded bars along the right side and bottom of a window. To scroll
to another part of the file, click the arrows in the scroll bar or drag the scroll box.
THE WORKSHEET:
a. This is the primary document in a Spreadsheet program that is used to store & work with
data.
b. A Worksheet is a tool that is used for maintaining numeric data in a tabular form,
simplifying numerous calculations and presenting numerical data graphically.
A worksheet is basically a page stored in a workbook, and acts as the working area.

A Worksheet consists of cells that are organized into columns & rows in which data entries are
made.
Columns: – These are fields that make up the worksheet of a Spreadsheet. A Column is a
vertical arrangement of cells.
Rows: – These are records that form a worksheet. A Row is usually a horizontal arrangement
of cells.
Cell:
 A box formed when a row & a column intersect in a worksheet or a table, where the data
is entered.
A cell is referred to or identified by use of the column letter heading & the row number heading
(e.g., A1 refers to the first cell).
A Worksheet can be used in:
(a). A Company Sales Report to show the sales for each item over the year.
(b).An Employees’ Payroll to calculate the employee’s salaries for each month.
(c). A Students Progress record to store information on student’s marks and monitor their
progress.
(d).Personal Expenses to maintain a budget of your monthly expenses.
(e). Mortgage Repayment Calculations to calculate the monthly repayment amount on a
mortgage loan.
2.

3. To Insert a single new worksheet.

4.

1. On the Insert menu, click Worksheet.

Selecting worksheets.
To select Do this
A single sheet Click the tab for the sheet.
Two or more adjacent sheets Click the tab for the first sheet, hold down the SHIFT
key, then click the tab for the last sheet.

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When you select a sheet, the color of its tab will
change to white.
Two or more nonadjacent sheets Click the tab for the first sheet, hold down CTRL key,
then click the tabs for the other sheets.
All sheets in a workbook Right-click a sheet tab, then click Select All Sheets
on the shortcut menu.
Note. To deselect the sheets, click inside any of the worksheets.

To Rename a worksheet (Giving meaningful names to sheets).

1. Click the tab for the sheet you want to rename.
2. On the Format menu, point to Sheet, then click Rename.
The current name for that sheet will be selected.
3. Press Backspace or Delete, type a new name, then press ENTER.
To Delete worksheets.
1. Select the worksheet(s) you want to delete.
2. On the Edit menu, click Delete Sheet.

To Hide a worksheet.
1. Select the sheet(s) you want to hide.
2. On the Format menu, point to Sheet, then click Hide.
To Display a hidden worksheet.
1. On the Format menu, point to Sheet, then click Unhide.
2. In the Unhide sheet box, double-click the name of the hidden sheet you want to display.

Ms-Excel add-ins - Components that can be installed on your computer to add commands and
functions to Excel. These add-in programs are specific to Excel.

5. CREATING A NEW WORKBOOK.

6.

To create a new, blank workbook.

1. On the File menu, click New, then click Blank Workbook on the New Workbook task pane.
To create a new workbook based on the default workbook template.
1. Click on the New workbook icon on the Standard toolbar.

TYPES OF DATA IN SPREADSHHETS.

(1). Labels (Text).
 Labels are texts consisting of alphanumeric characters that can be entered into a cell.
E.g., Item codes such as Salary, Names such as John.
 Labels are made up of alphanumeric character strings.
In Excel, Text is any combination of numbers, spaces, & nonnumeric characters.
E.g., 10A19, 27AXY, 12-976, 208 4675.
(2). Values (Numbers).
Values consist of numerals & mathematical formulas entered into a cell.
In Excel, a number can contain only the following characters: digits 0 to 9 + - ( ) / $ %.
(3). Formulas.
 A Formula is a sequence of values, cell references, functions & arithmetic operators whose
calculation results to a numeric value.
 It is an equation that performs operations on worksheet data.
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Formulas can perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication.
A Formula is used to tell Ms-Excel how you want a particular value to be computed.
(4). Functions.
 It is a special command, which you can type into your formula to perform arithmetic
operations.
 It is an inbuilt equation that is used for calculations.
 A Function is a short predefined (inbuilt) formula used to perform a given specific task.
Functions can be used to perform both simple and complex calculations.

EDITING CELL CONTENTS.

1. Double-click on the cell that contains the data you want to edit.
-Or-
Click in the cell, then press F2.
2. Edit (make changes to) the cell contents.
E.g., if you had left out a character, use the Left or Right Arrow key to move the insertion
point to the position of the correction, then type the character. If you had typed wrong
characters, use the Backspace or Delete to erase them.
3. To enter your changes to the active cell, press ENTER, then use the Arrow keys to move to
another cell.

SAVING WORKBOOKS.
7.

Purpose.
8.

√ In order to use the worksheet at a later time.

√ If the saving is done periodically, say every 1 minute, it helps prevent data loss in case of power
9.
failure.
When you save a workbook for the first time, you assign a file name and indicate where you want
to store the file on your computer’s hard disk or in another location. Each time you subsequently
save the workbook, Ms-Excel updates the workbook file with your latest changes.
To save a new, unnamed workbook.
Click the Save button on the Standard toolbar.
-OR-
On the File menu, choose Save (or press CTRL+S) to display the Save As dialog box.
In the File name box, enter a name for the worksheet.
In the Save in list, select the drive and/or folder where you want the worksheet to be saved.
Click the Save button.
To save a copy of a workbook (or save a workbook with a new name).
Open the workbook you want to make a copy of.
5. On the File menu, click Save As….
6. In the File name box, enter a new name for the file.
To save the copy in a different folder or drive, click a different location in the Save in list.
4. Click the Save button.
To save workbooks automatically as you work.
3. On the Tools menu, click Options, click the Save tab, then select the Save AutoRecover info
every checkbox.
4. In the minutes box, enter the interval for how often you want to save files.

10. OPENING A SAVED WORKSHEET.

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Purpose.
You can open a saved worksheet (i.e., a worksheet stored on the hard disk of the computer or on a
floppy disk) in order to:
11.

√ Continue working on it, if it was saved before completion.

√ View the data it contains.
√ Update it, if the data it contains represents information that changes periodically. For example,
A Weekly report.
1. Choose Open on the File menu,
-OR-
Click the Open button on the Standard toolbar (or press CTRL+O) to display the Open dialog
box.
2. In the Look in drop down list, click the drive or folder that contains the file you want to open.
3. In the folder list, locate and open the folder that contains the file.
4. Double-click the file you want to open (or click the file, and then click the Open button).
Note. To open a recently opened file, select it from the bottom of the File menu.

Exiting / Quitting Ms-Excel.

Purpose.
√ You exit from Ms-Excel when you have finished working with it.
1. On the File menu, click Exit.
-OR-
Press ALT+F4),
-OR-
Click the Close button on the top right hand corner of the Title bar of the Ms-Excel window.
If the workbook was not saved before or the changes made to the open workbook are not saved,
Ms-Excel will give you an option to save those changes by displaying the Save As dialog box.
Choose Yes to save the changes, or No to discard the changes.

12. SELECTING DATA IN CELLS, ROWS OR COLUMNS.

To select Do this:
A single cell Click the cell, or press the Arrow keys to move to the cell.
Text in a cell Double-click in the cell (or click in the cell, press F2 to
display the Insertion point), then select the text in the cell.
A range of cells 1. Click the first cell of the range, hold down the left mouse
button, then drag to the last cell in the range.
-OR-
Click the first cell in the range, hold down SHIFT key,
then click the last cell in the range.
-OR-
Click the first cell in the range, hold down SHIFT key,
then use the Arrow keys to extend the selection.
All cells on a worksheet Press CTRL+A (or on the Edit menu, click Select All).
Nonadjacent cells or cell ranges Select the first cell or range of cells, hold down CTRL &
select the other cells or ranges.
An entire row or column Click the row or column heading.

Adjacent rows or columns Drag across the row or column headings.

-OR-
Select the first row or column, hold down SHIFT key, then
select the last row or column.
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Nonadjacent rows or columns Select the first row or column, hold down CTRL & select the
other rows or columns.
Note. To cancel a selection of cells, click any cell on the worksheet.
A Range is any group of cells in a worksheet. The cells in a range can be adjacent or nonadjacent.

Clearing cell contents.

Clearing cells removes the cell contents (formulas and data), or formats (such as number formats,
and borders), but leaves the blank cells on the worksheet.
1. Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to clear.
2. On the Edit menu, point to Clear, then click Formats or Contents.
Clicking All, will clear formats and contents, and also remove any cell comments and data
validation.
Note. If you click a cell and then press the DELETE key, Ms-Excel will remove the cell contents
but does not remove comments or cell formats.

Inserting blank cells, rows, or columns.

Purpose.
√ You can insert a row or column, to make room for additional information in the worksheet.
This may be necessary when some extra information, which was not expected earlier, needs to
be included.
To Insert new blank cells.
1. Select a range of existing cells where you want to insert the new blank cells. Select the same
number of cells as you want to insert.
2. On the Insert menu, click Cells.
3. In the Insert dialog box, click Shift cells right, Shift cells down, Entire row, or Entire
column.
To Insert Rows.
1. To insert a single row, select a row (or click a cell in the row) immediately below where you
want the new row to appear.
For example, to insert a new row above row 5, click a cell in row 5. To insert multiple rows,
select the same no. of rows as you want to insert.
2. On the Insert menu, click Rows.
To Insert Columns.
1. To insert a single column, select a column (or click a cell in the column) immediately to the
right of where you want the new column to appear.
For example, to insert a new column to the left of column B, click a cell in column B. To insert
multiple columns, select the same no. of columns as you want to insert.
2. On the Insert menu, click Columns.

Deleting cells, rows, or columns

Deleting removes the cells from the worksheet and shifts the surrounding cells to fill the space.
1. Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to delete.
2. On the Edit menu, click Delete.
3. If you are deleting cells, the Delete Cells dialog box appears. Click Shift cells left, Shift cells
up, Entire row, or Entire column.
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Exercise (a).
1. How many columns are there in an Excel worksheet?
2. Identify and explain the FOUR types of data in Spreadsheets.
3. Explain how you would do the following operations on a Worksheet in Microsoft Excel.
(i). Rename a worksheet.
(ii). Delete a worksheet.
(iii). Insert a single new worksheet.
(iv). Move from one worksheet to another.
(v). Select a cell.
(vi). Select a range of cells.
(vii). Select nonadjacent cells or cell ranges.
(viii). Select everything in a worksheet.
4. Define the following terms as used in Spreadsheets: (6 marks)
(i). Cell.
(ii). Formula.
(iii). Labels.
5. What is the difference between Clearing cells and Deleting cells?
Exercise (b).
1. What is the meaning of each of the following concepts?
(i). Labels.
(ii). Values.
(iii). Formula.
(iv). Function.
2. Distinguish between Labels and Formulae with respect to Spreadsheets.
Exercise (c).
1. List FOUR types of information that can be entered into a cell. (4 marks).
2. Explain THREE cell data types in spreadsheet. (6 marks).

POSITIONING (ALIGNING) DATA IN A CELL.

Purpose.
√ Adjusting the alignment of the cell contents, helps to distinguish different types of information
in cells.
Usually when you enter text data into a worksheet, it is normally aligned to the left in a cell,
while numbers, dates & times are aligned to the right.
To center the data, or align data to the left or right in a cell.
1. Select the cells with the data you want to reposition.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click the appropriate alignment button.
 Click the Align Left button - to align text to the left of the cell.
 Click the Center button - to center text in the cell.
 Click the Align Right button - to align text to the right.
Merging cells across columns.
You can easily merge headings across the top of a range of cells. When you merge cells, the
selected cells are combined into one cell. This spreads the content of one cell over many cells.
1. Copy the data you want into the upper-leftmost cell within the range.
2. Select the cells you want to merge.
Warning. Excel places only the data in the upper-leftmost cell of the selected range into the
resulting merged cell. If there is data in other cells, the data is deleted when you merge the
cells.
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3. To merge cells in a row or column and center the cell contents, click the Merge and Center
button on the Formatting toolbar,
-Or-
On the Format menu, click Cells, click the Alignment tab, then select the Merge cells
checkbox.
This will combine the cells and center the heading in the new, wider cell.
.

HIDING ROWS OR COLUMNS.

Purpose.
13.

√ Hiding rows or columns prevents the display and printing of data held in particular rows or
columns. For instance, when your rows or columns contain confidential formulas not
necessary in the printed report.
1. Select the rows or columns you want to hide.
2. On the Format menu, point to Row or Column, then click Hide.
The selected rows or columns including their headings will not be visible.
To display a hidden row or column.
1. To display hidden rows, select the row below and the row above the hidden rows.
To display hidden columns, select the column to the left and the column to the right of the
hidden columns. For example, to redisplay hidden column C, select column B & column D.
If you want to redisplay noncontiguous columns, say, column C, D & F, select all the columns
from B through G, i.e. columns B, E & G.
2. On the Format menu, point to Row or Column, then click Unhide.
Tip. If the first row or column of a worksheet is hidden, to display it;
1. Click Go To on the Edit menu.
2. In the Reference box, type A1, and click OK.
3. On the Format menu, point to Row or Column, then click Unhide.

APPLYING BORDERS, SHADINGS & PATTERNS TO A WORKSHEET.

You can apply borders to cells, shade cells with a background color, or shade cells with a color
pattern in order:
Purpose.
√ To distinguish between different types of information in a worksheet.
√ To make the worksheet more appealing to the eye.
To draw attention to important data in the worksheet.
To Apply a Border to cells.
1. Select the range of cells that you want to put a border around.
2. On the Format menu, select Cells. In the resulting dialog box, click on the Border tab.
3. Under the Presets section, select the Border style you want, e.g. Outline or Inside borders or
both.
4. To change the line style for the border, click a style in the Style list, and then click a button to
indicate the border placement.
You can specify the colour of the lines from the Color drop-down list.
5. Click the OK button when you are done.
To Apply or Remove cell Shadings.
1. Select the cells you want to apply shading to or remove shading from.
2. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Patterns tab.
3. In the Cell shading box, click the color you want to shade the cells with.

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4. To include a background color with the pattern, click the arrow next to the Pattern box, then
click the pattern style and color you want.
5. Click the OK button.
The borders, shades and patterns that you have specified all apply to the range you had selected.

FORMATTING NUMBERS IN A WORKSHEET.

Purpose.


 Formatting of numbers in a worksheet can make your worksheet much more presentable.
 For example,


√ Long numbers without commas are difficult to read.

√ Too many uneven decimal places in a worksheet make it difficult to compare figures.
√ A worksheet that has some figures with six decimal places, others with commas and others
with no decimal places has an untidy appearance.
 To Add or Remove the Thousands separator in a number.
Method 1.
1. Select the range of cells containing the numbers whose format you want to change.
2. Click the Comma Style (,) button on the Formatting toolbar.
Method 2.
1. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
2. In the Category list, click Number.
3. Select or clear the Use 1000 separator (,) checkbox.
All numbers in the selected range will be displayed with commas separating the thousands and
with two decimal points, e.g., 7,375.00
 To Change the no. of Decimal places displayed in a number.
Method 1.
1. Select the range of cells whose decimal places you want to change.
2. To display more digits after the decimal point (to increase the no. of decimal places), click the
Increase Decimal button on the Formatting toolbar.
To display fewer digits after the decimal point (to decrease the no. of decimal places), click the
Decrease Decimal button.

 Method 2:
1. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
2. In the Category list, click Currency, Accounting, Percentage, or Scientific.
3. In the Decimal places box, enter the number of decimal places you want to display.
If you want to change the currency symbol, click the symbol you want to use in the Symbol
list.
To Display numbers as Percentages or Fractions.
Method 1.
To quickly display nos. as percentages of 100, click the Percent Style (%) button on the
Formatting toolbar.
Method 2.
1. Select the range cells you want to format as percentages.
2. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
3. To display nos. as percentages, click Percentage in the Category list. In the Decimal places
box, enter the number of decimal places you want to display.

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4. To display nos. as fractions, click Fraction in the Category list, then click the type of fraction
you want to use.

 To Add or Remove a Currency symbol.

Method 1.
1. Select the range of cells you want to format as currency.
2. Click the Currency Style ($) button on the Formatting toolbar.


 Method 2.
1. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
2. In the Category list, click Currency.
3. In the Symbol list, select the currency symbol that you want.
To remove a currency symbol, click None in the Symbol list.
To Display minus signs on negative numbers.
1. Select the cells you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
For simple numbers, click Number in the Category list.
For currency, click Currency in the Category list.
3. In the Negative numbers box, select the display style for negative numbers.
To Reset a number format.
1. Select the cells you want to reset to the default number format.
2. On the Format menu, click Cells, then click the Number tab.
3. In the Category list, click General.
Exercise.
1. Explain step-by-step how you would perform the following operations on a worksheet in
Microsoft Excel.
(i). Enter data into a worksheet cell.
(ii). Edit cell contents.
(iii). Make text in a cell Bold, Italic and double-underlined.
(iv). Adjust a column width to accommodate the longest cell entry in a range of cells.
2. Explain what are Label prefixes in spreadsheets. (10 Mk)
3. A worksheet table has columns A through N. The Chief Accountant doesn’t require the
information contained in columns E, F and G. Give a step-by-step procedure on how to make
sure that only the columns with the required information are printed.
4. You have the number 435273.7865 in a cell. How will it look if you format the cell as commas
and 2 decimal places?

FINDING RECORDS.
Purpose.
√ Suppose you wanted to view records that meet given conditions, you would have to sort the
table according to the conditions so as to find out where those records appear in the list. Such
conditions are referred to as ‘Criteria’.
However, this method will require you to sort the table whenever you want to find something
different.
Ms-Excel offers an easier solution to this through the Filter command on the Data menu.
1. Click on any cell in the table that contains the records you want to search for.
2. On the Data menu, choose Filter, then select AutoFilter from the submenu.
A downward arrow appears on the right of each field name.

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3. Click the down arrow on a column to display the conditions that can be set. Select a condition
(Criteria) from that list.

Note. If the criteria you want is not in the list or if you want to enter two conditions, then
perform the following steps:
(i). Select the column / field to search by clicking on the down arrow to the right of the field
name.
The Custom AutoFilter dialog box appears.
(ii). In the Show rows where: box, select the conditions to use by clicking on the down arrow.
The list includes ‘is greater than’; ‘is less than’, etc.
(iii). Enter the Value to compare the contents of the field width. You could type or select it
from a drop down list of values available in the database.
4. Click the OK button to complete the task.
Note. To redisplay the records, click on the down arrow to the right of the field name that you had
selected, and select the option All.
Example:
A B C D
1 Date Person Item Amount
2 26-Jan-97 Morris Bar 95
3 28-Mar-97 Albert Take Away 136
4 28-Jan-97 Anne Lunch 53
5 09-Mar-97 Susan Breakfast 112
6 12-Jun-97 Jane Snacks 56
7 12-Apr-97 Richard Snacks 118
8 15-Mar-97 Peter Bar 114
9 25-Mar-97 Mike Take Away 80
10 01-Mar-97 James Bar 167
11 09-Jun-97 Morris Take Away 71
12 16-Jun-97 Susan Lunch 80
Suppose you want to view all the sales that exceed 100 Shillings but are below 150 shillings from
a week’s list of sales records.
 The field to use for the search would be Amount. So, click on the down arrow on the right of
the Amount field.
 The Operator would be is greater than, and the value would be 100.
 Enter the second criteria, as Amount is less than 150, then click the OK button.
 All the records whose amount is between 100 and 150 will be displayed (Only the records
matching the criteria are displayed).
A B C D
1 Date Person Item Amount
3 28-Mar-97 Albert Take Away 136
5 09-Mar-97 Susan Breakfast 112
7 12-Apr-97 Richard Snacks 118
8 15-Mar-97 Peter Bar 114
10 01-Mar-97 James Bar 167

PIVOT TABLES.
Purpose.
√ A Pivot table helps us to summarize and analyze large amounts of existing data, from a list or
table, using the format and calculation methods of your choice.
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Suppose we wanted the daily totals for each of the sales persons along with the total sale for
each day: A PivotTable can help us get that kind of information much more easily.
1. Select any cell in the list or table you want to summarize.
2. On the Data menu, select PivotTable and PivotChart Report…
3. This will activate Step 1 of the PivotTable Wizard. In this step, select the source of data Ms-
Excel will use to create the Pivot Table. From the choices given, select Microsoft Excel list
or Database.
Click on the Next button.
4. Step 2 of the Wizard shows you the range containing the list of data detected around the
position of your cell pointer of Step 1. If necessary, change the range.
Click on the Next button.
5. Click the Layout… button to specify how you want the PivotTable to appear.
6. On the right hand side of the PivotTable and PivotChart Wizard – Layout dialog box, the
Pivot Wizard shows the column titles (field names) found in your list.
 Drag the field name whose contents you want to summarize downward to the area marked
ROW.
 Drag the field name whose contents you want to summarize across the PivotTable to the
area marked COLUMN.
 Drag the field name that contains the data to be summarized into the area marked DATA.
7. Step 3 of 3 will be displayed again allowing you to specify a convenient location for the
PivotTable. The PivotTable may be positioned either as a new worksheet or on the existing
worksheet.
If you select Existing worksheet in this dialog box, then you must specify the cell where the
top left corner of the PivotTable will be positioned.
8. To specify a name for the PivotTable, click on the Options button.
9. Click on the Finish button. Ms-Excel places the Pivot Table in the location you specified.

Refreshing Records in the PivotTable.

1. Select a cell in the PivotTable.
2. On the PivotTable toolbar, click on the Refresh Data button.
Note. To refresh the PivotTable whenever you open the workbook, click Options on the
PivotTable menu of the PivotTable toolbar. Under Data source options, select the Refresh on
open checkbox.

CELL REFERENCES (Cell Addresses).

 A Cell reference is the identity of a cell in a worksheet.
 A Reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet and tells Ms-Excel where to
look for the values or data you want to use in a formula.
Examples of Cell references.
(i). Single cell reference.
(ii). Mixed cell reference.
(iii). Label cell reference.
(iv). Relative cell reference.
(v). Absolute cell reference.

REFERENCING OF CELLS.
A cell is identified by use of the Column letter heading & the Row number heading.
To refer to a cell, enter the column letter followed by the row number. For example, B2 refers to
the cell at the intersection of column B & row 2.
Examples of cell references.
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To refer to Type
The cell in column A & row 10 A10
The range of cells in column A & rows 10 to 20 A10:A20
The range of cells in row 15 & columns B to E B15:E15
All cells in row 5 5:5
All cells in rows 5 to 10 5:10
All cells in column H H:H
All cells in columns H to J H:J
The range of cells in columns A to E & rows 10 to 20 A10:E20

PERFORMING CALCULATIONS IN MS-EXCEL.

USING WORKSHEET FUNCTIONS.
 A Function is a special command, which you can type into a formula to perform arithmetic
operations.
 A Worksheet function is a special inbuilt formula that performs an operation on the values
that you provide.
 It is an inbuilt equation that is used for calculation.
A function performs operations or calculations using specific values, called arguments. The
arguments can be either cell references or values or both.
Categories of Functions in Ms-Excel.
Functions are grouped into broad categories by some common features particular to the function.
1. Financial functions.
Analyze investments and securities; determine depreciation, calculate cash flows and loans,
e.g. the PMT function.
2. Date & Time functions.
Calculate values that represent dates and times.
E.g., the TODAY function is used to return the current date according to the computer’s
internal clock.

3. Math & Trigonometry functions.

Can be used to perform simple mathematical operations, such as calculating Square roots
(SQRT), rounding a number (ROUND), calculating the total value for a range of cells (SUM),
etc.
They are also used to replace complex trigonometric calculations like Sine (SIN), Cosine
(COS), etc.
E.g., ABS – gives the Absolute value of a number. The Absolute value of a number is the
number without its sign.
Syntax: ABS(number)
4. Statistical functions.
Perform calculations (statistical analysis) on ranges of data.
E.g., AVERAGE - calculates the average (arithmetic mean) of a set of values in a range.
STDEV – Estimates Standard Deviation based on a sample. Standard Deviation is a
measure of how widely values are dispersed from the Average value (Mean).
Syntax: STDEV(number1,number2,….)
5. Logical functions.
Calculate the results of logical formulas. E.g., the IF Function.

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6. Look up & Reference functions.
Finds or refers to the contents of a cell. For example, the VLOOKUP function.

7. Database functions.
Perform statistical calculations and queries on database tables. For instance, DSUM will find
the total of values in a particular field (column).
8. Information functions.
Return information about cells, ranges, the operating system, and some Ms-Excel tools, or to
mark places where information is missing or incorrect.
E.g., CELL - returns information about the formatting, location or contents of a cell.

CREATING MS-EXCEL FORMULAS.

Purpose.
√ When you need to perform a calculation in Ms-Excel, you use a formula.
You can create simple formulas that can be used; lets say, to add the values in two cells, or you
can create complex formulas that can calculate the Standard deviation of certain values.
For example, the formula ‘=SUM(D1:D7)’ uses a function to add the values in the range
D1:D7. It gives the same result as the formula ‘=D1+D2+D3+D4+D5+D6+D7’.
Before you write your formula in Ms-Excel, it is advisable to do the following;
(i). Decide what you want to be calculated, e.g., the Total Cost of items.
(ii). Note down the values in the worksheet required for the calculation and use them to write
down the formula, e.g. Quantity * Price.
(iii). Substitute the values with their cell references, e.g. B3*D3.

Calculation operators in formulas.

Operator - A sign or a symbol that specifies the type of calculation to perform on the elements
of a formula.
Excel includes 4 different types of calculation operators:
(i). Arithmetic (Mathematical) operators.
(ii). Logical (Comparison) Logical operators.
(iii). Reference operators.
(iv). Text concatenation operators.
Arithmetic (Mathematical) operators.
Performs basic mathematical operations such as Addition, Subtraction, Division or Multiplication.
Arithmetic operator Meaning Example.
+ (Plus sign) Addition 3+3
- (Minus sign) Subtraction 3–1
* (Asterisk) Multiplication 3*3
/ (Forward slash) Division 3/3
% (Percent sign) Percent 20%
Logical (Comparison) operators.
Compares two values and produces a logical value, either TRUE or FALSE.
Comparison Meaning Example.
= (equal sign) Equal to A1=B1
> (greater than sign) Greater than A1>B1
< (less than sign) Less than A1<B1
>= (greater than or equal to sign) Greater than or equal to A1>=B1
<= (less than or equal to sign) Less than or equal to A1<=B1

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<> (not equal to sign) Not equal to A1<>B1

Reference operators.
Combine ranges of cells for calculations.
Reference operator Meaning Example.
: (colon) Range operator; produces one B5:B9
reference to all the cells between
two references, including the two
references.
, (comma) Union operator; combines multiple SUM(B5:B9,D5:D9)
references into one reference.
Text concatenation operators.
Use the ampersand (&) to join one or more strings to produce a single piece of text.
Text operator Meaning Example.
& (ampersand) Connects two values to produce “North” & “wind” produces
one continuous text value “Northwind”

Creating a simple formula.

A Formula in Ms-Excel always begins with an equal (=) sign. Ms-Excel uses this sign to
differentiate between a Label (text) and a Formula. The equal sign tells Ms-Excel that the
characters that follow constitute a formula.
Following the equal sign are the elements to be calculated called Operands or Arguments. The
Arguments are separated by calculation operators, and enclosed by an opening & closing
parentheses (brackets).
1. Click on the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
2. Type the = (equal sign) to activate the Formula bar. The equal sign (=) tells Ms-Excel that you
are entering a formula in the cell.
3. Type the formula directly into the Formula box.
To tell Ms-Excel where to find the data that will be used in the calculation, type a cell reference.
4. Press the ENTER key. Ms-Excel immediately calculates & shows the result in the cell, while
the formula is displayed in the Formula bar.
Notes.
 A Formula can refer to other cells on the same worksheet.
 Ms-Excel calculates a formula from left to right, according to a specific order for each operator
in the formula.
You can change the order of operations by using parenthesis. E.g., to calculate B4+25, then
divide the result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5 and F5, the formula would be:
=(B4+25)/SUM(D5:F5)
In this example, the parentheses around the first part of the formula forces Ms-Excel to calculate
B4+25 first, then divide the result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5, and F5.

Creating a formula that contains a function.

1. Click the cell where the result of the formula will be displayed.
2. On the Insert menu, click Function, (or click the Paste Function button on the toolbar).
3. Click a function from the Function Category list. When you select a function, a description
of the function appears in the dialog box.
Click the OK button.
4. Type in the arguments to compute in the parentheses in the formula. To enter a range, use a
Colon to separate the first & the last cells in the range, or use a Comma to separate reference
to individual cells.
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5. After you complete the formula, click the OK button or press the ENTER key.
Note. The structure of a function begins with an Equal sign (=), followed by the Function name,
& the Arguments for the function. The Arguments are separated by commas or a colon, and
enclosed in an opening & closing parenthesis.

Performing Common Calculations.

ADDING NUMBERS.
Method 1.
Type the numbers directly into a cell and press the ENTER key to display the results.
Example: cells D5, E5 & F5 contain the values 5, 15 & 20. To add all the values in the range,
type: =D5+E5+F5
-OR-
=5+15+20
To Add all numbers in a contiguous row or column.
You can insert a sum for a range of cells automatically using the AutoSum (Σ) button on the
Standard toolbar.
1. Click a cell below the column of numbers or to the right of the row of numbers.
2. Click AutoSum on the Standard toolbar. Ms-Excel suggests a formula.
3. To accept the formula, press the ENTER. To change the suggested formula, select the range
before pressing the ENTER key.
To Add numbers that are not in a contiguous row or column.
Use the SUM function. SUM adds all the numbers in a range of cells.
Syntax: SUM(number1,number2,…..)
Number1,number2,… are the arguments for which you want the total value or sum.
Example 1: Cells A2, A3 & A4 contain values -5, 15, and 30.
To add Formula
The numbers in the cells A2 to A4. =SUM(A2:A4)
The numbers in cells A2:A4, and 15. =SUM(A2:A4, 15)
The values in cell A2, A4 and 2. =SUM(A2,A4, 2)
3 and 2 =SUM(3,2)
Example 2:
A B
1 Salesperson Invoice
2 Buchanan 15,000
3 Buchanan 9,000
4 Suyama 8,000
5 Suyama 20,000
6 Buchanan 5,000
7 Dodsworth 22,500
Formula Adds
=SUM(B2:B4) the values in cells B2, B3 and B4.
=SUM(B2:B3, B5) two invoices from Buchanan, & 1 from Suyama
=SUM(B2,B5,B7) individual invoices from Buchanan, Suyama,& Dodsworth.
SUBTRACTING NUMBERS.
Type the formula ‘=10-5’ in a cell to display the result 5.
Example: cells A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 15,000, 9,000 & -8,000.
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Formula Description Result

=A2-A3 Subtracts 9,000 from 15,000 6,000
=SUM(A2:A4) Adds all nos. in the list, including negative nos. 16,000

 To calculate a running balance.


You can build a formula in a banking transaction to calculate your running balance.


 Example 1.
Assume that cell F6 contains the previous balance of 4,000/=, cell D7 contains the first
transaction’s deposit subtotal of 190,500, and cell E7 contains any cash-received amount of 50,000.
To calculate the current balance for the first transaction, enter the following formula in cell F7:
=SUM(F6,D7,-E7)
 Example 2.
A B C
1 Deposits Withdrawals Balance
2 $1,000 $625 =SUM(A2,-B2)
3 1000 740 =SUM(C2,A3,-B3)

TO INCREASE OR DECREASE A NUMBER BY A PERCENTAGE.

Example 1.
Assume that cell F5 contains a numeric value of 30,000. To increase the value stored in cell F5
by 5 percent;
=F5*(1+5%)
If the percentage amount is stored in a cell, let say, cell F2:
=F5*(1+$F$2) = (31,500)
Note. The reference to F2 is an Absolute cell reference so that the formula can be copied to other
cells without changing the reference to F2.
Example 2.
A B
1 Number Percent Increase
2 23 3%
Formula Description Result
=A2*(1+5%) Increases the no. in A2 by 5% 24.15
=A2*(1+B2) Increase the no. in A2 by the percent value in B2: 3% 23.69
=A2*(1-B2) Decrease the no. in A2 by the percent value in B2: 3% 22.31

MULTIPLYING NUMBERS.
Use the asterisk (*) operator or the PRODUCT function.
PRODUCT multiplies all the nos. given as arguments and returns the product.
Syntax: PRODUCT(number1,number2,…..)
Number1,number2,… are the numbers you want to multiply.
Formula Description Result
=5*10 50
=A2*B2 multiplies the contents in cells A2 and B2.
=(5+2)*3 adds 5 and 2 together then multiplies the result by 3 21

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Example: Using the values shown in the worksheet below, calculate the cost of the milk.
A B C D
1 Item Quantity Price Total cost
2 Milk 26 Litres 15.00
3 Sugar 19 Kgs 48.90
The Total cost of the milk will be given by, Quantity* Price. Therefore, in cell D2, type the
formula; =B2*C2.
Note. If you omit ‘=’ symbol before B2, Ms-Excel will not recognize it as a formula and what you
have typed will literally appear as ‘B2*C2’, which will not yield the expected result.
To Multiply numbers in different cells using a formula.
Cells A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 5, 15, 30.
To multiply Formula
The numbers in cells A2 & A3 =A2*A3
All the numbers in the range =PRODUCT(A2:A4)
All the numbers in the range, and 2. =PRODUCT(A2:A4,2)
DIVIDING NUMBERS.
Type a formula such as =10/5 in a cell to display the result 2.
Example.
Cells A2 & A3 contain values 15,000 and 12.
Formula Description Result
=A2/A3 Divides 15,000 by 12 1,250

CALCULATING THE AVERAGE (ARITHMETIC MEAN) OF NUMBERS.

Use the AVERAGE function. AVERAGE gives the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments
provided.
Syntax: AVERAGE(number1,number2,...)
Number1, number2, ... are numeric arguments for which you want the average.
Note. The arguments must numbers or references that contain numbers. If a reference argument
contains text, logical values, or empty cells, those values are ignored; however, cells with the value
zero are included.
Example: Cells A2:A6 contain values 10, 7, 9, 27, & 4.
Description Formula Result
Average all of nos. in the list =AVERAGE(A2:A6) 11.4
Average cells A2 to A4 and A6 =AVERAGE(A2:A4,A6) 7.5
Average the nos. in cell A2 to A5, and 5 =AVERAGE(A2:A5, 5) 11.6
CALCULATE THE SMALLEST OR LARGEST NUMBER IN A RANGE.
Use the MIN or MAX functions.
MAX- Gives the largest value in a set of values.
MIN - Gives the smallest number in a set of values.
Syntax: MAX or MIN(number1,number2,...)
Number1, number2, .. are nos. for which you want to find the maximum or minimum value.
Notes. If the arguments in the reference contain no numbers, MAX or MIN returns 0 (zero). Empty
cells, logical values, or text in the reference are ignored.

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Example: Cells A2:A6 contain values 10, 7, 9, 27 & 2.
Description Formula Result
Largest number in the range =MAX(A2:A6) 27
Smallest number in the range =MIN(A2:A6) 2
Largest of the numbers in cells A2:A6, and 30 =MAX(A2:A6, 30)
Smallest of the numbers given, and 0 =MIN(A2:A6,0)
CALCULATE THE MEDIAN OF A GROUP OF NUMBERS.
Median is the value at the center of an ordered range of nos.
Use the MEDIAN function. MEDIAN gives the number in the middle of a set of numbers.
Syntax: MEDIAN(number1,number2,...)
Number1, number2, ... are numbers for which you want the median.
Notes.
 Cells with the value zero are included.
 If there is an even number of nos. in the set, then MEDIAN calculates the average of the two
numbers in the middle.
Example: Cells A2:A7 contain values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Description Formula
Median of the first 5 nos. in the list =MEDIAN(A2:A6)
Median of all the nos. given, or the average of 3 and 4 =MEDIAN(A2:A7)

MODE - Gives the most frequently occurring, or repetitive, value in a range of data.
Syntax: MODE(number1,number2,...)
Number1, number2, ... are the arguments for which you want to calculate the mode.
Note.
 Cells with the value zero are included.
 If the data set contains no duplicate data points, MODE returns the #N/A error value.
Example: Cells A2:A7 contain the values 5.6, 4, 4, 3, 2, and 4.
Description Formula
Mode, or most frequently occurring no. in the list =MODE(A2:A7)
Tip. In a set of values, the Mode is the most frequently occurring value; the Median is the middle
value; and the Mean is the average value.

COUNTING CELLS THAT CONTAIN NUMBERS.

COUNT - Counts the no. of cells that contain numbers within the list of arguments.
Syntax: COUNT(value1,value2,...)
Value1, value2, ... are the arguments that can contain or refer to a variety of different types of
data, but only numbers are counted.
Note. Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the reference are ignored.
Example 1.
A
1 Data
2 Sales
3 12/8/2007
4
5 19
6 22.44

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Formula Description Result
=COUNT(A2:A6) Counts no. of cells that contain nos. in the list 3 (date is a number).
=COUNT(A2:A3,A6) Counts no. of cells that contain nos. in cells 2
A2:A3, & A6
Example 2.
A
1 Sales
2 12/8/90
3
4 19
5 22.24
6 TRUE
7 #DIV/0!
Formula Description Result
=COUNT(A1:A7) Counts the no. of cells that contain nos. in the list 3
=COUNT(A5:A7) Counts the no. of cells that contain nos. in the last 3 rows
of the list 1
=COUNT(A1:A7,2) Counts the no. of cells that contain numbers in the list,
and the value 2 4

LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
Logical functions can be used either to test whether a condition is TRUE or FALSE or to check
for multiple conditions.
For example, use the IF function to determine whether a condition is true or false. One value is
returned if the condition is TRUE, and a different value is returned if the condition is FALSE.

NOT -Reverses the value of its argument. Use NOT when you want to make sure a value is not
equal to one particular value.
If logical is FALSE, NOT returns TRUE; if logical is TRUE, NOT returns FALSE.
Syntax: NOT(logical)
Logical - is a value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE.
Formula Description Result
=NOT(FALSE) Reverses FALSE TRUE
=NOT(1+1=2) Reverses an equation that evaluates to TRUE FALSE

AND - Returns TRUE if all its arguments are TRUE; returns FALSE if one or more argument is
FALSE.
Syntax: AND(logical1,logical2, ...)
Logical1, logical2, .. are the conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.
Note. The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or the arguments
must be references that contain logical values. If the specified range contains no logical values,
AND returns the #VALUE! error value.
Example 1.
Formula Description Result
=AND(TRUE, TRUE) All arguments are TRUE TRUE
=AND(TRUE, FALSE) One argument is FALSE FALSE
=AND(2+2=4, 2+3=5) All arguments evaluate to TRUE TRUE

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Example 2. Cells A2:A3 contain values 50 and 104.
If A2 contains a number between 1 and 100, then:
Formula Result
=AND(1<A2,A2<100) TRUE
Suppose you want to display A3 if it contains a number strictly between 1 and 100, and you want
to display a message if it is not. If A3 contains 104, then:
Formula Result
=IF(AND(1<A3,A3<100), A3,"The value is out of range.") “The value is out of range”.
If A3 contains 50, then:
Formula Description Result
=IF(AND(1<A2, A2<100), A2, "The value is out of range.") 50, because A3 it
between 1 & 100.

OR - Returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE; returns FALSE if all arguments are FALSE.
Syntax: OR(logical1,logical2,...)
Logical1,logical2,... are conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.
Notes.
 The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or references that
contain logical values. If the specified range contains no logical values, OR returns the
#VALUE! error value.
 If a reference argument contains text or empty cells, those values are ignored.
Formula Description Result
=OR(TRUE) One argument is TRUE TRUE
=OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) All arguments evaluate to FALSE FALSE
=OR(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE) At least one argument is TRUE TRUE
Example:
Cells A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 15, 9, and 8.
Formula Description Result
=AND(A2>A3, A2<A4) Is 15 greater than 9 and less than 8? FALSE
=OR(A2>A3, A2<A4) Is 15 greater than 9 or less than 8? TRUE
=NOT(A2+A3=24) Is 15 plus 9 not equal to 24? FALSE

THE “IF” function.

IF is used to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas.
It evaluates a condition and returns one of two values, depending on the result of the evaluation.
If the condition is TRUE, IF returns one value. If the condition is FALSE, IF returns the other
value.
Format: IF(Condition, Action-to-be-taken when condition is true, Action-to-be-taken when
condition is false)
Note. The condition is usually a logical formula.
E.g., A5=100 is a logical expression; if the value in cell A5 is equal to 100, the expression evaluates
to TRUE. Otherwise, the expression evaluates to FALSE.
Example 1.
Cell A2 contains the value 50.
On a budget sheet, cell A5 contains a formula to calculate the current budget.
=IF(A2<=100,"Within budget","Over budget")
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If the result of the formula in A5 is less than or equal to 100, then the function displays “Within
budget”. Otherwise, the function displays “Over budget”.
Example 2.
=IF(A2=100,SUM(B5:B15),"")
In this example, if the value in cell A2 is 100, then the condition is TRUE, and the total value for
the range B5:B15 is calculated. Otherwise, condition is FALSE, an empty text ("") is returned
that leaves the cell that contains the IF function blank.
Example 3.
Suppose an expense worksheet contains in A2:A4 the data for “Actual Expenses” for January,
February, and March: 1,500, 500 and 500. Cells B2:B4 contains the data for “Predicted Expenses”
for the same periods: 900, 900, and 925.
A B C
1 Actual Expenses Predicted Expenses
2 1500 900
3 500 900
4 500 925
You can write a formula in cell C2:C4 to check whether you are over budget for a particular month,
generating text for a message:
Formula Description Result
st
=IF(A2>B2,"Over Budget","OK") Checks whether the 1 row is over budget Over Budget
=IF(A3>B3,"Over Budget","OK") Checks whether the 2nd row is over budget OK

To check if a number is greater than or less than another number.

Cell A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 15,000; 9,000 and 8,000.
Formula Description Result
=A2>A3 Is A2 greater than no. in A3? TRUE
=IF(A3<=A4, "OK","Not OK") Is A3 less than or equal to the no. in A4? Not OK

NESTING FUNCTIONS WITHIN FUNCTIONS.

You can use a function as one of the arguments of another function.
Note. When a function is used as an argument, it must return the same type of value that the
argument uses.
For example, if the argument returns a TRUE or FALSE value, then the nested function must return
a TRUE or FALSE. If it doesn’t, Ms-Excel displays a #VALUE error value.
Example 1.
=IF(SUM(K10:K19)>=5000,10%,5%)
In this example, the SUM function is being nested. Assume that the result of the SUM function is
935. Since the sum of the range K10:K19 is not greater than or equal to 5000, the result is 5%.
Example 2. Cells A2, A3 and A4 contain the values 45, 90, 78.
Suppose you want to assign letter grades to numbers referenced by the name AverageScore. See
the table below.
If AverageScore is Then return
Greater than 89 A
From 80 to 89 B
From 70 to 79 C
From 60 to 69 D
Less than 60 F
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Formula Description Result
=IF(A2>89,"A",IF(A2>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the first score F
IF(A2>69,"C",IF(A2>59,"D","F"))))
=IF(A3>89,"A",IF(A3>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the second score A
IF(A3>69,"C",IF(A3>59,"D","F"))))
=IF(A4>89,"A",IF(A4>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the third score C
IF(A4>69,"C",IF(A4>59,"D","F"))))
In the above formula, the second IF statement is also the value_if_false argument to the first IF
statement. Similarly, the third IF statement is the value_if_false argument to the second IF
statement.
For example, if the first logical_test / condition (AverageScore>89) is TRUE, "A" is returned. If
the first logical_test is FALSE, the second IF statement is evaluated, and so on.

EDIT/ CHANGE A FORMULA.

1. Select the cell containing the formula you want to edit.
2. Click in the Formula bar, make the changes to the formula, then press the ENTER key.
Note. If formulas are not used, there will be no automatic recalculation when any of the numbers
change.
Automatic recalculation:
This means that, Spreadsheets are able to calculate values such as SUM, AVERAGES,
PERCENTAGES, etc automatically without requiring the intervention of the user (or without
putting the user into the hard task of thinking).

RELATIVE REFERENCES
When you create a formula, cells or ranges of cells will be referred to based on their position
relative to the cell that contains the formula. If cell B6 contains the formula =A5; Ms-Excel finds
the value one cell above and one cell to the left of B6.
If the position of the cell that contains the formula changes, the reference is changed.
A Relative reference is a cell reference, which changes automatically when the formula is copied
to another cell or range. It describes the location of a cell in terms of its distance (in rows and
columns) from another cell.
Note. When you copy a formula containing relative references down or across from one cell to
another, Ms-Excel adjusts the references in the pasted formula automatically to refer to a different
cell that is the same no. of rows & columns away from the formula.
Example 1:
If the formula in cell B6 (i.e., =A5) (which is one cell above & one cell to the left of B6) is copied
to cell B7. Ms-Excel will adjust the formula in cell B7 to =A6, which refers to the cell that is one
cell above and one cell to the left of cell B7.
Example 2:
If cell A3 contains the formula =A1+A2, and you copy cell A3 to cell B3, the formula in cell B3
becomes =B1+B2.

ABSOLUTE REFERENCES.
In a formula, an Absolute cell reference is the exact address of a cell, regardless of the position
of the cell that contains the formula.
An absolute cell reference takes the form $A$1, $B$1, etc.

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The table below shows the different types of references.
Reference: Effect on a cell reference
A1 Relative reference.
$A$1 Both rows and column references are absolute
A$1, B$1 Absolute row reference, i.e., only the row reference is absolute.
$A1, $B1 Absolute column reference, i.e., only the column reference is absolute.
Unlike relative references, Absolute references don’t automatically adjust when you copy formulas
across rows and down columns. For example, if you copy an absolute reference in cell B2 to cell
B3, it stays the same in both cells.
Therefore, if you don’t want Ms-Excel to adjust references when you copy a formula to a different
cell, i.e., if a formula refers to a particular cell and you would like to copy it such that the
subsequent copies of cell references still refer to that same cell reference, you must use Absolute
referencing.
For example,
If your formula multiplies cell A5 with cell C1 (=A5*C1), you can create an absolute reference to
cell C1 by placing a dollar sign ($) before the parts of the reference that you don’t want them to
change.
To create an absolute reference to cell C1, for instance, add dollar signs to the formula as follows:
=A5*$C$1.
Note. To enter the dollar sign in a cell reference; move the cell pointer in the cell reference to be
made absolute, then press the function key F4 or the keyboard combination SHIFT+4.
Worked Example:
A B C D E F G H
1 ABC Company Sales Performance Report
2
3 Salesman Target Qtr1 Qtr2 Qtr3 Qtr4 Total Commission
4 Albert 750 148 156 171 140 615 =G4*$A$13
5 Carl 650 122 131 153 118 524 =G5*$A$13
6 Cornell 800 211 243 246 250 950 =G6*$A$13
7 Edwin 700 129 150 92 218 589 =G7*$A$13
8 Francis 1,000 311 270 247 322 1,150 =G8*$A$13
9
10 Totals 3,900 921 950 909 1,048 7,728 =G10*$A$13
11
12 Commission Rate
13 15% (or 0.15)
To get the commission for each salesperson, the formula =G4*$A$13 is entered in cell H4. The
dollar sign ($) indicates an absolute reference to the cell A13. This means that, whenever the
commission rate formula is copied, it always refers to cell A13.
When the formula =G4*$A$13 is copied down to H10, the results will be as shown.
1. Determine which cell reference is to be absolute, e.g., in the example above cell A13.
2. Type the dollar sign ($) just before the part of the cell reference that you want to remain exactly
the same when you copy the formula to another cell.
3. Copy the formula to the rest of the cells.

FORMULAS AND ERROR VALUES.

If a formula cannot properly evaluate a result, Ms-Excel will display an error value.
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For example, error values can be as a result of using text where a formula expects a numeric value,
deleting a cell that is referenced by a formula, or using a cell that is not wide enough to display the
result.
1. #####
Causes.
- This error value occurs when the cell contains a number, date or time that is wider than the
cell.
-OR-
- It occurs when the cell contains a date or a time formula that produces a negative result.
Suggested action.
(i). Increase the width of the column by dragging the boundary between the column
headings.
(ii). Apply a different number format in the cell to make the number fit within the existing
cell width. E.g., decrease the no. of decimal places after the decimal point.
(iii). Ensure that the data and time formulas are correct. When you subtract dates and
times, make sure you build the formula correctly.
If a formula has a result of a negative value, you can display the value by formatting the
cell with a format that is not a date or time format.
1. Click Cells on the Format menu, click the Number tab, then select a format that is
not a date or time format.

2. #N/A
The #NA error value occurs when a value is not available to a function or formula.
Possible cause Suggested action
(i). Omitting 1 or more arguments in a function Enter all arguments in the function.
(ii). Using a custom worksheet function that is Make sure the function is working
not available properly
3. #DIV/0!
This error value occurs when you enter a formula that contains a division by zero (0).
E.g., =5/0. It may also occur when you divide a cell by another cell that is blank.
Suggested action.
(i). Change the divisor to a number other than zero.
4. #NULL!
The #NULL! error value occurs when you specify an intersection of two areas that do not
intersect. i.e., using an incorrect range operator or using an incorrect cell reference.
Suggested action.
(i). Use the correct range operator. For instance, to refer to two areas that don’t intersect, use
the Comma.
E.g. if the formula sums two ranges, separate the two ranges with a comma.
=SUM(A1:A9,C1:C6).
(ii). Check for typing errors in the reference to the ranges.
5. #NAME?
The #NAME? error value occurs when Ms-Excel doesn’t recognize text in a formula.

Possible cause Suggested action

(i). Deleting a name used in the formula, or Make sure the name exists.
using a name that does not exist
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(ii). Misspelling the name of a function Correct the spelling.
(iii). Omitting a colon (:) in a range reference Make sure all range references in the
formula use a colon.
E.g. =SUM(A1:A5)
(iv). Entering text in a formula without Enclose text in the formula in double
enclosing the text in double quotation marks (“). quotation marks.
Ms-Excel tries to interpret your entry as a name E.g. the following formula joins a
even though you intended it to be used as text. piece of text “The total amount is”
with the value in cell B5:
=”The total amount is” & B5
6. #NUM!
This occurs when a problem occurs with a number in a formula or function. E.g., Entering a
formula that produces a number to a number that is too large or too small to be represented in
Ms-Excel.
Suggested action
(i). Change the formula so that its result is between – 1*10307 and 1*10307.
7. #VALUE!
The #VALUE error value occurs when the wrong type of argument or operand is used.
8. #REF!
The #REF error value occurs when a cell reference is not valid. For instance, deleting cells
referred to by other formulas, or pasting moved cells over cells referred to by other formulas.
Suggested action
(i). Change the formulas, or restore the cells on the worksheet by clicking Undo immediately
after you delete or paste the cells.

Exercise.
1. You have entered a formula to add the contents of B5 and C4 in cell F5. What will it become
when you copy it to cell H8?
______________________________________________
Explain the reason for your answer.
2. What causes the following error messages in Microsoft Excel. Show how we can solve them.
(i). #####
(ii). #VALUE!
(iii). #DIV/0!
(iv). #NAME?
3. The first column in the table below contains formulas as entered into the cell D46. In the
second column, enter the formulas as they would appear when copied to B56.
Formula in D46 Formula when copied to B56
=D1
=F5*C10
=H$46+J40
=$E12-D$14*$F$2

DATA SORTING.


 Sorting is the process of arranging data within a range in a particular order.



 Purpose.


√ Sorting helps in arranging data in some order of priority, i.e., from lowest to highest or from
highest to lowest.
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√ It also helps to quickly locate the highest or lowest value in a list.
When you sort, Ms-Excel rearranges rows, columns, or individual cells by using the sort order
that you specify. You can sort a list in Ascending (1-9, A-Z) or Descending order (9-1, Z-A).
You can perform a sort based on the contents of one or more columns.
Note. The data is sorted in reference to columns.
To sort rows in ascending or descending order based on the contents of one column.
1. Click a cell in the column by which you want to sort. The column on which the list is arranged
is known as the Key.
2. To arrange the data from lowest to highest, click on the Sort Ascending button on the toolbar.
To arrange the data from highest to lowest, click on the Sort Descending button on the toolbar.
-Or-
On the Data menu, click Sort. In the Sort by box, click the column you want to sort and then
choose the sort order.
To sort rows based on the contents of two or more columns.
1. Click a cell in the list you want to sort.
2. On the Data menu, click Sort to display the Sort dialog box.
3. Under Sort By, specify the first column by which you want to sort, then choose the sort order
by clicking on the Ascending or Descending box.
4. You can add up to two keys in the Then By boxes according to your need.
Assume that you need to sort by more than 3 columns, i.e., your list contains employee
information and you need to organize it by Department, Title, Last Name, and First Name, sort
the list twice. Click First Name in the first Sort by box and then sort the list. Click Department
in the second Sort by box, click Title in the first Then by box, and click Last Name in the
second Then by box, and then sort the list.
5. Select any other sort options you want, then click OK to perform the sort.
Sort columns based on the contents of rows.
1. Click a cell in the list you want to sort.
2. On the Data menu, click Sort.
3. Click the Options button.
4. Under Orientation, click Sort left to right, then click OK.
5. In the Sort by and Then by, click the rows you want to sort.
Examples:
(i). A teacher may arrange pupil’s records according to the marks scored in a test, starting with
the highest to the lowest in order to assign class positions.
(ii). An Accountant may arrange a list of financial records according to the date of the transaction
and customer name in order for him to be able to quickly locate any record using the
transaction date and name of customer.
(iii). Arranging a telephone list according to alphabetical order of last name in order to easily
locate a name and phone number. If there are several people with similar last names, you
can specify two keys such that the records are arranged in order of first name as well.

LINKING WORKSHEETS.
Purpose.

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√ Sheets are normally independent. If a change in a value in one sheet is intended to affect other
values in different sheets, it is advisable to link the sheets so that Ms-Excel will automatically
update the affected values if you make any changes.
Alternatively, you can calculate the new values and manually make the changes to all the other
sheets. This would be unreliable & cumbersome especially if this is to be done for many values
in many large worksheets.
1. When typing in a formula that refers to a cell in another sheet, include the name of the sheet
before that particular cell reference separated by a colon.
Example 1:
The formula =G6*Sheet1!B6 (instead of =G6*B6) will refer to B6 in Sheet 1 rather than in the
current sheet.
Example 2:
Typing the formula =Salesinfo!A10 in cell A10 of Sheet2 will cause the contents of cell A10 in
the Sheet named Salesinfo to be also the contents of A10 in Sheet2.

Exercise.
1. How would you display the contents of the cell B45 of worksheet named Price in the cell B5
of worksheet named Sales such that the two cells always display the same value?

CREATING CHARTS.
 Purpose.


√ Charts are used to present data effectively. They make relationships among numbers easy for

users to see because they turn numbers into shapes that can be compared to one another.
 For instance, rather than having to analyze several columns on worksheet numbers, you can
see at a glance whether sales are falling or rising over quarterly periods, or how the actual sales
compare to the projected sales.
Different Types of Charts and their uses.
(i). Line Chart: A Line graph is used to show trends.
(ii). Bar Chart: - It can be used to show comparison of Sales and Target.
(iii). A Stacked Bar Chart: - It can be used to show the distribution of sales by month and compare
the performance of salesmen.
(iv). A Pie Chart: shows the distribution of sales.
(v). Scatter Charts.
(vi). Column Charts.
Steps required when creating a simple chart.
1. Enter the data you want to be represented in the chart on the worksheet.
2. Select the cells or range that contains the data you want to be represented in chart.
If the cells you want to select for your chart are not in a continuous range,
 Select the first group of cells that contain the data you want to include.
 Hold down the CTRL, then select any additional cell groups you want to include. The
nonadjacent selections must form a rectangle.
3. On the Insert menu, click Chart (or click the Chart Wizard button on the Standard toolbar).
Then use the Chart Wizard to help you through the process of choosing the chart type and the
various chart options.
4. Select Chart type.
 In the Chart type dialog box, click the Standard Types tab or the Custom Types tab.

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 Under Chart Type, click the chart category you want to use, then select the type of chart
under Chart subtypes on the right.
A brief description of the chart selected appears below the sub-types. This helps you decide
whether the type suits the data you have selected. You may also view a sample of the chart
that will be produced.
 Click on the Next button.
5. Specify the range of cells to include in the chart.
This gives you a chance to select your range again if necessary.
In the Chart Source data dialog box,
 Click the Data range tab, then confirm the selected range or enter a new range.
 Under Series in, click an option to change the way in which the data should be plotted;
across Rows or down Columns. To help you decide the right option, the sample chart
changes according to the selection you have made.
 If you are sure about the range you have selected and the sample chart is what is desired,
click on the Next button.
6. Select the Chart options.
In this step, there are several chart options as indicated by the various categories at the top of
the Chart Options dialog box.
 Click the Titles tab. Click in the Chart Title area and type in the title for your chart. Type
in the titles for axes in their respective places.
 Click the Legend tab, and then select the Show Legend box. Under Placement, click an
option to show where the legend will be placed.
 Click on the Next button.
Legend - A box that identifies the patterns or colors that are assigned to the data series or
categories in a chart. A legend indicates which color (pattern) represents what data item.
Axis - A line that borders one side of the plot area, providing a frame of reference for
measurement or comparison in a chart.
For most charts, data values are plotted along the value axis, which is usually vertical (Y-axis),
and categories are plotted along the category axis, which is usually horizontal (X-axis).
Note. Ms-Excel creates the axis values from the worksheet data.
7. Select the Location of Chart placement.
This step involves placing the chart you have created.
You can create a chart as an embedded object on the sheet you are working on or on its own
sheet.
 Under Place chart, click an option either to insert the chart as a new sheet or as an object
in the current data sheet.
8. Click on the Finish button.

To change the Chart type.

1. Click the chart to activate the Chart menu.
2. On the Chart menu, click Chart Type.
3. Click the Standard Types tab, click the inbuilt chart type you want to use, then click the OK
button
Changing Chart Options.
1. Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Chart Options to display the Chart Options dialog
box.

To add or change the Chart Title.

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1. Click the Titles tab.
2. Click in the Chart title box, and then type the text for the title.
To add a Legend to a chart.
1. Click the Legend tab.
2. Select the Show legend check box.
3. Under Placement, click the option you want.
Note. When you click one of the Placement options, the legend moves, and the Plot
Area (area bounded by the axes) automatically adjusts to accommodate it.
 To change Data series names or the Legend text.


1. Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Source Data.

2. On the Series tab, click the data series name you want to change.
3. In the Name box, specify the worksheet cell you want to use as the legend text or data series
name. You can also type the name you want to use.
To edit the Chart title and the Axes titles.
1. On the chart, click the title you want to change.
2. Type the new text you want.
3. Press the ENTER key.
How worksheet data is represented in a chart.
A chart is linked to the worksheet data it's created from and is updated automatically when you
change the worksheet data.
To change the Cell range used to create a chart.
1. Click the chart.
2. On the Chart menu, click Source Data, then click the Data Range tab.
3. Make sure the entire reference in the Data range box is selected.
4. On the worksheet, select the cells that contain the data you want to appear in the chart.
If you want the column and row labels to appear in the chart, include the cells that contain them
in the selection.

 To include a new range into an existing chart.




This helps to add information not already in the chart.
1. Select the range you want to add in the chart.
2. Position the mouse pointer along the edge of the selected range until it changes into an arrow.
3. Drag the range into the chart.
Ms-Excel will automatically update the chart so that it includes the new range.

 To change the Placement of a chart.
1. Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Location.
2. To place the chart on a new chart sheet, click As new sheet, then type a name for the new chart
sheet in the As new sheet box.
To place the chart as an embedded object on a worksheet, click As object in, click a sheet
name in the As object in box, and then click the OK button.
Drag the embedded chart where you want it on the worksheet.

To Move and resize chart items by using the Mouse.

1. Click the chart item you want to move or resize.
To move an item, point to the item, then drag it to another location of the sheet.
To resize a chart item, point to a Sizing handle. When the pointer changes to a double-headed
arrow, drag the sizing handle until the item is the size you want.
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 Delete data from a chart



 To delete data from both the worksheet and the chart.

1. Delete the data from the worksheet. The chart will be updated automatically.
 To delete data from the chart only.
 Click the data series you want to delete.
 Press the DELETE key.
 To delete data labels, titles, or legends in a chart.
1. Click the chart item you want to delete.
2. Press the DELETE key.
 To change the Font, font Size, font Colour of text in a chart or make the text Bold, Italic
or Underlined.
1. Click the chart text, or select the individual characters you want to format.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click a button for the format you want.

Setting up a chart for printing.

You can adjust where the chart will print on the page by sizing and moving the chart with the
mouse in Page break view.
1. Click the worksheet outside of the chart area.
2. On the View menu, click Page Break Preview.
3. To set printing options for a chart sheet, click Page Setup on the File menu.
4. Click the Chart tab, and then select the options you want.
Tip. To print an embedded chart without its associated worksheet data, click the embedded chart
to select it, and then follow the above instructions for chart sheets.
Chart area - the entire chart and all its elements.
To zoom or size the display of a chart sheet.
1. Click the tab for the chart sheet.
2. Click Zoom on the View menu, then click the option you want.
To size the chart sheet so that it fills the entire workbook window, click Sized with Window
on the View menu. When a chart sheet is sized with the window, you cannot zoom in or out
of it.
To view an embedded chart in a separate window.
1. Click the embedded chart you want to see in its own window.
2. On the View menu, click Chart Window.
Printing the chart.
Purpose.
√ To create a paper copy of the chart to present to other people.
√ To maintain a paper filing system alongside the computer filing system.
1. To print both the worksheet and the chart, click on the Print button on the toolbar.
To print the chart only, select the chart by clicking on it, then select Print on the File menu.
2. Under Print what in the resulting dialog box, click on Selected Chart, and then choose OK.
Exercise.
1. (a). What is a Chart?
(b). What are the steps required when creating a simple chart?
2. The chart has ‘Thousands’ displayed along the Y-axis, yet the figures are in Millions of Kenya
Shillings. How do you change the chart such that it displays ‘Millions of Kenya Shillings’
instead?
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3. You want the legends to become the X-axis titles and the X-axis titles to be used as the legends.
How do you implement this?

PRINTING A WORKSHEET.
 Purpose.
√ Whenever you need a paper copy of the worksheet to present to other people.
√ If you maintain a paper filing system alongside the computer filing system.
PAGE SETUP.
You can control the appearance or layout of printed worksheets by changing options in the Page
Setup dialog box.
Purpose.
√ To define where one page ends and another page starts.
√ To print a large worksheet to fit on a single page.
√ To add descriptive information to be printed with your worksheet.
√ To define rows and columns you want to print on each page of the output.
√ To change the order in which various worksheets should print.
Setting the Page Margins.
1. Select the worksheet you want to print.
2. On the File menu, click Page Setup, then click the Margins tab.
3. In the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes, enter the margin size you want.
You can also tell Ms-Excel to automatically position your worksheet at the center of the page,
both horizontally (across) and vertically (downwards) by clicking the options under Center
on Page.
To set Header or Footer margins.
 To change the distance from the top edge to the header, enter a new margin size in the
Header box.
 To change the distance from the bottom edge to the footer, enter a new margin size in the
Footer box.
These settings should be smaller than your top and bottom margin settings.
Tip. To see how the margins will affect the printed document, click Print Preview before the
document is printed.
Setting the paper Orientation.
Orientation specifies how the worksheet will be printed on a page.
1. On the Page Setup dialog box, click the Page tab.
2. Under Orientation, click Portrait or Landscape.
To set the Paper size for printing.
1. Click the Page tab.
2. In the Paper size box, select the size of paper you want to use from the resulting drop down
list.
3. If you want Ms-Excel to fit your worksheet on one page; under Scaling, click on Fit to and
make sure that the specification is “Fit to: 1 page(s) wide by 1 tall”.

Setting the print Quality.

You can speed up the time it takes to print a worksheet by temporarily changing the printing
quality.
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1. Click in the worksheet.
2. On the File menu, click Page Setup, then click the Page tab.
3. In the Print quality box, click the resolution you want to use.
To print in Draft quality,
 Click Draft in the Print quality box.
Note. Draft quality increases printing speed by ignoring formatting and most graphics.
To add header and/or footer comments to be printed with your worksheet.
1. On the Page Setup dialog box, click the Header/Footer tab.
2. Under Header, type in the information you want to appear at the top of each page.
Under Footer, type in the information you want to appear at the bottom of each page.
Alternatively, you can click on the arrow on the right of the Header or Footer to reveal a list
of preset headers and footers and then select one of them.

To print with or without Cell gridlines.

1. On the Page Setup dialog box, click the Sheet tab.
2. Select or clear the Gridlines checkbox.
Note. Worksheets print faster if you print without gridlines.

To print the Row and Column headings.

Row headings are the row numbers to the left of the worksheet. Column headings are the letters
that appear at the top of the columns on a worksheet.
1. On the Page Setup dialog box, click the Sheet tab.
2. Select the Row and column headings checkbox.
To specify which areas of the sheet you want to print, click in the Print Area box, then drag
through the worksheet the areas that you want to print.

Choosing the printer.

There are many types of printers and Ms-Excel communicates with each one differently.
Therefore, you have to tell Ms-Excel which printer is connected in order to get the right results.
1. On the File menu, select Print to display the Print dialog box.
2. Select the printer you want to use from the list of printers shown in the Name box.
Note. If the wrong printer has been selected in the Printer Setup, the printer will produce funny
characters (garbage) when you order Ms-Excel to print the worksheet.

To define what part of the worksheet to print.

Purpose.
√ To select a certain portion of the worksheet for printing.
To print a selected area of a worksheet.
1. On the View menu, click Page Break Preview.
2. Select the area you want to be printed.
3. Right-click a cell within the selection (or on the File menu, point to Print Area), then click
Set Print Area.
When you save the document, your print area selection is also saved.
Note. Page break preview - shows you what data will go on each page so you can adjust the print
area and page breaks.
To print a selection, or the active worksheet(s).
1. To print a specific selection, select the range of cells to print.
2. On the File menu, click Print.
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3. Under Print what, select an option to print, i.e., Selection or Active sheet(s).
When you choose Selection, Ms-Excel prints the selection and ignores any print area defined
on for printing on the worksheet.
To print more than one copy at a time.
1. In the Number of copies box, enter the number of copies you want to print.

Preview a page before printing

1. Click Print Preview on the File menu (or on the Standard toolbar) to see a picture of how
your worksheet will look when it is printed on a paper.
2. Use the buttons on the toolbar to look over the page or make adjustments before printing.
3. If what you see in the Print Preview screen satisfies you, click the Print button on the toolbar
to start printing.
4. To return to the normal Ms-Excel screen, click the Close button in the Print Preview screen.
Print preview displays the printed page so you can adjust columns and margins. The way pages
appear in the preview window depends on the available fonts, the resolution of the printer, and the
available colors.

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MICROSOFT POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint is a graphics presentation program. It can be used for designing
presentations quickly.

PRESENTATIONS.
PowerPoint is most useful for creating formal presentations. PowerPoint can help you produce
professional looking presentations that can be printed on OHP transparencies, viewed on a
computer display or produced as a slide, together with printed notes for your audience to take away
for reference.

WHAT YOU CAN CREATE WITH POWERPOINT.

 On-screen Presentations.
You can create a slide for an electronic presentation that contains text, Charts, as well as ClipArt
pictures. You can make changes to your presentation; use Slide transitions, Timings and
Animation to control its pacing, and then run a stand-alone presentation on your computer screen
or you can also run the presentation over a network on multiple computers.

 Paper printouts.
You can design your presentation so that it looks great on the screen and print it out using a Printer.

 35 mm Slides.
You can design slides that have the correct height and width of 35mm or use a service Bureau to
transform your electronic slides into 35mm slides.
In order to design slides that have the correct height and width of 35mm;
1. Click Page Setup on the File menu, then choose 35mm in the Slides Sized for box.

 Overhead Transparencies.
You can create a presentation that uses overhead transparencies by printing your slides as Black-
and-White or color transparencies.

 Notes, Handouts and Outlines.

To support your presentation, you can give your audience Handouts (smaller versions of your
slides that are printed 2, 3 or 6 to a page). You can also print your Speaker notes for the audience.
Still, while working on a presentation, you can print your Outline, including Slide titles and Main
points.
1. On the File menu, choose Print.
2. In the Print What box, click Notes Page, Handouts or Outline view.

 World Wide Web documents.

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You can design a presentation specifically for the World Wide Web, and then save it in a Web
compatible format, such as HTML.
Presentations can be used in certain situations to convey information more effectively. Examples
of such situations include;
1. Marketing or internal company presentations.
2. To deliver company results to a shareholder meeting.
3. To report sales figures.
4. To launch a new product into the market.
5. To introduce/induct new employees into a company operations.
6. Advertising in the media, trade fairs or exhibitions.
With PowerPoint, you can create overhead slides, Speakers notes, audience handouts, and an
outline all in one single presentation file. PowerPoint has powerful wizards to help you create and
organize your presentation systematically.
Microsoft PowerPoint is also useful as an aid to Desktop Publishing.

Starting Microsoft PowerPoint.

Purpose.
√ You can start PowerPoint whenever you want to create or run a presentation.
1. Click Start, point to Programs, then select Microsoft PowerPoint from the resulting pop-up
menu.
2. The PowerPoint Startup dialog box appears giving you four (4) options from which you must
choose one in order to proceed with any other PowerPoint features or functions.
 The AutoContent Wizard:
This option starts the AutoContent Wizard, which is a sequence of screens offering you with
alternations.
The wizard allows you to select the type of presentation that you would like to create, and then
prompts you for a title for your presentation as well as information about the topic that you have
chosen.
PowerPoint then provides a basic outline to guide you in organizing your content into a
professional presentation.
 Design Template:
This option gives you a list of presentation designs; presentations and other templates that have
predefined slide colors and text styles.
 Blank Presentation:
This option brings up the New Slide dialog box, which has 24 blank slide layouts. The slides are
pre-designed.
After choosing a layout, the user fills in the rest of the content.
 Open an Existing Presentation:
Use this option to choose an existing PowerPoint presentation that had already been saved in the
computer.

Creating a PowerPoint Presentation.

A PowerPoint presentation consists of Slides, which are usually shown on the screen in sequence
when your presentation is displayed. A slide may include text, picture or other elements as well
as a background with solid colour or patterns.
There are 2 ways in which you can create a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation:
(i). Using the AutoContent wizard.
(ii). You can start from scratch by creating a new blank presentation.
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Creating a Presentation using the AutoContent Wizard.

Purpose.
√ The AutoContent wizard helps to create a new presentation that contains suggested content and
design.
The AutoContent wizard contains sample presentations for a variety of topics, for example, a
company meeting, status or team meetings, information kiosks, certificates, flyers, calendars of
events, and also presentations you can use on the Internet.
The wizard also contains templates, which give tips on how to become a better presenter.
The wizard guides you to select from many new pre-built content templates and it provides ideas,
starter text, formatting, and organization for your presentation.
(1). On the startup dialog box that appears when you start PowerPoint, select the AutoContent
wizard option, then choose OK.
-OR-
On the File menu, choose New. Click the General tab, and then double-click AutoContent wizard.
(2). Follow the instructions in the wizard.
The AutoContent Wizard will take you through a series of screens that provide an outline structure
for your presentation.
Each of the screens shows where you are in the process, from Start to Finish.
(a). The 1st screen describes the process (on the right). Click on the Next button.
(b).The 2nd screen – Presentation type – offers a variety of layouts for different purposes.
1. Select the type of presentation you are going to create, e.g., General, Corporate,
Projects, Sales/Marketing, etc.
2. Select the option you want to use from the list given on the right.
3. Click on the Next button.
(c). The 3rd screen – Presentation style – offers a list where you are required to choose the
type of output that you want to use.
1. Select On-screen presentation, Web presentation, Black and White Overheads, Color
overheads or 35mm Slides.
2. Click on the Next button.
(d).The 4th screen – Presentation Options – provides boxes where to enter information about
your topic and yourself.
1. Click in the box and type the title for your presentation.
2. Type any additional information (or select the items to include on each slide), then click
on the Next button.
(e). The last screen simply tells you that the wizard has completed its work.
1. Click on the Finish button.
(3). When you finish with the wizard, PowerPoint displays the outline with a thumbnail
representation according to what you have included during the sequences. You can add your
own words and pictures to the sample presentation and then displays it in Normal View.
Note. Each of the numbered sections represents one slide.
(4). If you like, you can work from Normal view, or you can switch to Slide view by clicking the
Slide View button at the lower left of the screen. Slide View will enable you to add other
objects like pictures, drawings, sounds, etc, to your slides.
(5). Use the scroll bar to move to other slides, and continue to type your text in place of the sample
text.
(6). You can delete any extra slides that you do not need for the presentation.

Creating a Blank Presentation.

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Purpose.
√ One can create a presentation in order to convey certain ideas in an organized manner, e.g., the
launching of a product.
If the presenter has a general idea about what is to be said, then he/she can open or start with a
blank presentation.

1. In the PowerPoint startup dialog box, select Blank Presentation, then click OK.
-OR-
If you are already working in PowerPoint, select New from the File menu to display the New
Presentation dialog box.
Select the General tab, click on the Blank Presentation icon, then click OK.
2. From the New Slide dialog box that appears, select a slide layout from the 24 ready-made slide
layouts displayed.
3. Click OK.
Depending on the layout chosen, a blank slide with text or object placeholders appears.
4. To add text to the slide, click on the text placeholder and type in your own text.
Add a sub-title to the presentation, if necessary.
5. Apply any formatting that is appropriate for your needs.

Adding other Slides to a Presentation.

Purpose.
√ Usually, most presentations have more than one slide, and as such, you may want to create or
add new slides to your presentation.
1. On the Insert menu, choose New Slide.
-OR-
Click the New Slide button on the Common Tasks toolbar.
The New Slide dialog box appears. Scroll to see more layouts
2. Choose the slide layout you would like to use for the next slide, then click on the OK button.
A new empty slide is added after the current slide in Slide View.
Add the content you want for each new slide.
From the Status bar, you can know the total number of sliders there are in the presentation.

Using the Different PowerPoint Views.

Purpose.
√ PowerPoint has six views that help you to view or work on your presentations in different
ways.
The View buttons are usually located at the bottom left of the presentation window. The different
views are: -
1). Normal view.
2). Slide view.
3). Slide Sorter view.
4). Outline view.
5). Notes Pages view.
6). Slide show.
The main views you use in PowerPoint are Normal view, Slide view, and Slide Sorter view.
To switch between the different views, click on the View buttons at the bottom of the screen,
-OR-
Select one of the options from the View menu.

Normal View:
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Normal View simultaneously displays the Slide, Outline, and Notes views in their own, allowing
you to see everything at once.
These panes let you work on all aspects of your presentation in one place. You can adjust the size
of the different panes by dragging the pane border.
In the Outline pane, you can organize and develop the content of your presentation. You can type
all the text of your presentation and rearrange bullet points, paragraphs, and slides.
In the Slide pane, you can see how your text looks on each slide. You can add graphics, movies,
and sounds create hyperlinks and add animations to individual slides.
In the Notes pane, you can add your speaker notes or information you want to share with the
audience.

Slide View:
Slide view is the default view when you open or create a presentation.
In Slide view, you can work with the text in your presentation one slide at a time.

Outline View:
Outline view allows you to see all the titles, text, etc of the entire presentation in a single window.
In the Outline view, the text appears exactly the way it appears when you work with Microsoft
Word, i.e., you can see how your main points flow from slide to slide.
In Outline view, each slide is numbered. A Slide icon appears to the left of each slide’s title. The
text below each Slide title is indented. This is the same text contained in that particular slide.
In Outline view, you can edit the text, add and delete slides, move text between slides and change
the order of the slides themselves.
You can type in, view or edit the text for all your slides at once. To type in text, position the cursor,
type in the text, and the press the ENTER key.

Slide Sorter View:

Slider Sorter View allows you to:
- Easily add, delete and move slides.
- Preview the entire presentation.
- Organize or rearrange the order of the slides in your presentation.
- Preview animations on multiple slides by selecting the slides you want to preview, and then
click Animation Preview on the Slide Show menu.
Use the buttons on the Slide Sorter toolbar to set timings for a slide show and transition effects
when moving from slide to slide.

Notes Page View:

This view enables one to create/type Speaker’s notes. These are the notes that a presenter uses as
‘cue cards’ or reminders during a presentation.
A miniature slide appears above the speaker’s notes.
you can also print a copy of your notes for reference.

Slide Show:
Slide Show view displays slides on the entire screen the way the audience will view the final
presentation.

Applying a Different Design to a Presentation.

Purpose.
√ When you want to use or apply a different design to the slides in a presentation.

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1. Open the presentation you want to apply a different design to.
2. On the Format menu, select Apply Design Template.
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On the Common Tasks toolbar, click Apply Design Template.
3. Select the design you want to use, then click Apply. You can also select any presentation
whose design you want to use, and click Apply.

Saving a Presentation.
Purpose.
√ The work done is currently stored only in the computer memory; to save your work for further
use you must save the presentation.
You can save the presentation you are working on. You can also save a copy of it with a different
name or in a different location.
You can save any presentation in a Web format, such as HTML so that it can be viewed and used
on the Internet.
You can also save a presentation so that whenever you open it, it always starts as a slide show.

Saving a New presentation.

1. On the Standard toolbar, click the Save button (or click Save on the File menu).
The Save As dialog box appears.
2. Select the folder and/or drive where you would like to store the presentation.
3. In the File name box, type in the name for the presentation.
4. Click on the Save button.

Saving a presentation so that it automatically opens as a slide show.

1. Open the presentation you want to save as a Slide show.
2. On the File menu, click Save As.
3. In the Save As type list, click PowerPoint Show.
4. Click on the Save button.
Note. A typical PowerPoint presentation has a .ppt filename extension, while a file saved as a
slide show has a .pps extension.

Saving a presentation in HTML format.

PowerPoint comes with an Internet Assistant that creates HTML documents from your
presentation ready to publish to the WWW. The Internet Assistant helps you customize your
presentation.
1. Open the presentation you want to save in HTML format.
2. On the File menu, click Save as HTML, and then follow the instructions in the Internet
Assistant.

Closing (How to quit) Microsoft PowerPoint.

Purpose.
√ You close PowerPoint when you want to exit from the application.
1. On the File menu, click Exit.
If the presentation had not been saved, a dialog box appears.
2. In the dialog box, click Yes if you want to save the presentation.

Exercise.
1. What type of software is Microsoft PowerPoint?
2. Give examples of situations where you can use PowerPoint presentations.
3. Give TWO ways in which you can create a PowerPoint presentation.
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4. Explain the difference between Slide view and Normal view.

Inserting a Chart.
Purpose.
√ A chart allows you graphically display data that is contained in a table or spreadsheet.
√ Charts help in summarizing information in graphical form, and thereby make the information
easier to understand.
Adding charts to a presentation can add impact to your presentation.
1. Open or create a presentation if necessary.
2. Click the New Slide button on the toolbar.
3. From the New Slide dialog box, choose a chart layout, and click OK.
A blank new slide appears.
Note. You can also insert a chart by clicking on the Insert Chart button on the toolbar or by
choosing Insert Chart from the Insert menu.
4. Type in a title for the slide, and then double-click the Chart placeholder.
5. PowerPoint starts Microsoft Graph, which is the application used to create and edit charts.
A datasheet and chart window will appear, and they contain default data, which can be replaced
with your own data.
6. Using the datasheet, enter the data for the chart and then close the datasheet.

Working with the Datasheet.

The datasheet is made up of rows and columns. A group of related data representing one row or
column from the table is called a Data series.
In a datasheet, you can select an individual cell, a range of cells, or an entire row or column when
you want to work with selected data.
Selecting items in a datasheet.
To select: Do this:
A cell Point to the cell and click
A range of cells Hold down the SHIFT key, then click the first
and last cells of the range that you want to
select.
A row or column Click the row number or column name
To enter data into a datasheet, you can:
(a). Type your own data into the datasheet.
The data entered in the datasheet is plotted on your chart at the same time.
(b). Copy and Paste a specified range of data or a worksheet.
(c). Import data from Microsoft Excel. This is especially useful when the data is already available
in Excel and you want to avoid retyping it.
To close the datasheet:
When you finish entering your data, click the View Datasheet button, or click the Close button.
Note. The View Datasheet button is a ‘toggle’ button. This means that, when the datasheet is on
the screen, clicking on this button will hide it from view; whereas if the datasheet is hidden,
clicking on it will make it appear.

Changing and Formatting a Chart.

Purpose.

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√ After creating a chart, you can select a new type of chart that will better suit the data, or format
your chart type to achieve the results you want.
A chart gallery allows you change your chart type and then automatically format the chart.
Changing the Chart Type.
1. Double-click the chart to activate it.
2. Click on the View Datasheet button.
3. On the Chart menu, choose Chart Type (or click the Chart Type button).
The Chart Type menu appears, displaying several chart formats.
4. Select the chart type you want.
Changing the Chart’s Appearance (Formatting).
You can format the following parts of the chart;
- Chart area.
- Chart title.
- Plot area.
- Axes (Y-axis, X-axis, Z-axis).
- Legend.
- Gridlines, etc.
To format any of these parts of the chart: -
1. Select the part of the chart you want to format by clicking on it.
2. Choose the relevant command on the Format menu.
For example;
To format the legend, click on the legend, and select Format Legend from the Format menu.
Alternatively, select the legend and then click the right mouse button, then choose Format
Legend.
This option changes depending on what part of the chart has been selected.
3. From the Format dialog box that appears, choose the desired option.
Excluding Data from a Chart.
In some cases, you may want to create a chart that leaves out some data or text that is contained in
the datasheet or table.
1. Click on the View Datasheet button to view the datasheet.
2. Select the row or column to be excluded.
3. On the Data menu, click Exclude Row/Column.
This will exclude data from your chart without deleting it from the datasheet. The excluded row
or column turns gray in the datasheet and that data series is excluded from the chart.
When you want to include the data again in the chart, click Include Row/Column.

THE CLIP GALLERY.

The Microsoft Clip Gallery contains a wide variety of Clip Art images, pictures, sounds, video
clips and movies that you can insert and use in your presentation. It is in the Clip Gallery where
we choose the images to use in the presentations.

Inserting ClipArt pictures in a Presentation.

Purpose.
√ When you incorporate the appropriate Clip Art image, your presentation will look much better,
and also easy to understand.
You can insert ClipArt pictures from the Clip Gallery or you can insert a scanned photo.

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1. Open the slide you want to add ClipArt picture to.
2. On the Insert menu, select Picture, then click Clip Art.
3. In the Categories dialog box that appears, select the category of Clip Art pictures, e.g., Nature.
A preview of images appears for that category.
4. In the Pictures list box, select the picture you want to use.
When you rest the mouse over the picture, you will see keywords, which help you to identify the
purpose or message of the Clip Art picture.
5. Click Insert clip on the menu that appears to insert the Clip Art picture in the slide.
Note. When you insert a picture (or click on a picture), the Picture toolbar appears with tools you
can use to change the brightness or contrast of the picture or to crop, recolor or add a border to it.

Inserting a scanned picture.

To do this, your computer must be connected to a Scanner.
1. Click in the slide to position the Insertion point where you to insert the scanned picture.
2. On the Insert menu, select Picture, then click From Scanner or Camera….
3. Scan the picture.
Follow the instructions that came with the Scanner you are using.
4. When the picture appears in the Microsoft Photo Editor, make any changes you want.
E.g., you can crop the picture, add special effects to it, and adjust its brightness, contrast and colour.
5. When you finish editing the picture, click Exit and Return To on the File menu of the Photo
Editor.
Editing the Picture.
1. Click on the picture you want to edit (to select it).
2. On the Picture toolbar, select the options you want.
Scaling the Picture.
Scaling a picture means resizing an entire object, or picture by a certain percentage.
1. Select the object you want to resize.
2. On the Format menu, click Picture, then click the Size tab.
3. Under Scale, enter the percentages you want in the Height and Width boxes.
4. Click the Preview button if you wish to see the new size before leaving the dialog box, and
click OK.
5. Click a blank area to deselect the object.
Note. You can also resize an object by dragging its resize handles. However, the Scale command
is used to resize an object numerically.

Cropping the Picture.

This option is used when you need only a portion of a picture in your presentation. You can trim
portions of a picture, so that you don’t see all of it. Basically, the original picture is not altered in
any way.
Photos are often cropped to focus attention on a particular area of the photo.
1. Click on the picture that you want to crop.
2. From the Picture toolbar that is displayed, click the Crop button.
The pointer changes to a cropping tool.
3. Position the center of the cropping tool on any of the resize handles and drag to achieve the
required size.
4. Click a blank area to deselect the picture.
To restore the proportions of a resized Picture.
1. Select the picture you want to restore to its original size.

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2. On the Picture toolbar, click Format Picture.
3. Click the Size tab, and then click the Reset button.

Inserting a Microsoft Word Table.

Purpose.
√ You can insert other types of objects like Microsoft Word tables, Excel worksheets or charts,
WordArt objects, scanned photographs or other applications into PowerPoint.
1. Click on the New Slide button, and select the Table Layout option from the Apply slide
layout gallery.
2. Double-click on the Table placeholder.
OR
1. Open the slide on which you want to add a table.
2. On the Insert menu, choose Picture, then select Microsoft Word Table.
3. Type in the number of rows and columns required, then click OK.
4. In the grid that appears, type in your information.
5. After you finish typing in the information, click outside the grid to return to your presentation.
Note. Once the table is inserted, you can perform all sorts of functions on it like sorting,
calculations, enhancing, aligning text and numbers, and so on.

Inserting Drawing Objects.

Purpose.
√ To add drawings and modify them in order to enhance the look and content of the presentation.
You can draw objects such as squares, rectangles, polygons, lines, ellipses, textboxes, or even
combine different shapes. These are referred to as AutoShapes.
The drawing can be on a blank slide on its own, or it can be included as part of another slide.
1. Select the drawing tool from the Drawing toolbar.
To get a wider selection of drawing tools/ shapes, click on the AutoShapes button.
2. Click on any of the buttons. The mouse pointer changes to a plus (+) symbol.
3. Drag the plus pointer to the slide in order to draw the object desired.
4. When you finish drawing an object, it is automatically selected. The fill handles indicate that
the drawing is selected.
Tips.
 To draw a proportional object, hold down the SHIFT or CTRL key while you draw.
For example,
- To draw a perfect square or circle, select the rectangle or the oval tool, hold down the
SHIFT key as you drag.
- To draw an object from the center outwards, hold down the CTRL key while you draw.
Editing a Drawing Object.
Editing an object may involve moving it, copying, cutting and pasting.
1. Click on the drawing object to select it.
2. Click the relevant command from a menu or toolbar.
Resizing the Drawing Object.
1. Drag the resize handles (the fill handles).
A dotted outline of the drawing or shape appears as you drag showing you the new size.
Rotating a Drawing.
You can rotate an object 90 degrees to the left or right or to any other angle.

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It is possible to rotate one object, a set of objects, or a group of objects. If you rotate an AutoShape
that has attached text, the text rotates with the shape.
For example, to rotate an object 90 degrees to the left:
1. Click on the drawing object you want to rotate to select it.
2. On the Drawing toolbar, click on the Rotate Left button.

Grouping or Ungrouping Objects.

Grouping objects means combining them so that you can work with them as one single object.
This technique can help you to build complex drawings.
- You can rotate, and resize or scale all objects in a group as a single unit.
- You can also change the attributes of all objects in a group at the same time. For example, you
might change the fill color or add a shadow to all objects in the group.
You can ‘ungroup’ a group of objects at any time, and you can easily ‘regroup’ them by selecting
any one of the objects that was previously grouped.
To Group Objects.
1. Select the objects you want to group. To do this, Hold down the SHIFT key, then click on
each of the objects.
2. On the AutoShapes toolbar, click on the Draw button, then choose Group.
-OR-
Right-click inside the selection, point to Grouping, then click Group.
To Ungroup Objects.
1. In Slide view, select the group you want to ungroup.
2. On the AutoShapes toolbar, click on the Draw button, then choose Ungroup.

Exercise.
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Scaling a picture’?
2. What are the reasons for grouping objects?

Animating Slide Text and Objects.

Purpose.
√ Animation effects are usually added to slides so as to add interest to the presentation.
√ They also assist the presenter to control the flow of information and to focus on important
points.
Slide Text refers to any text that appears on the slides.
Slide Objects refers to all other objects like drawing, ClipArt pictures, charts, tables, etc that are
included in the slides.
Animation effects are special visual effects or sound effects that are added to text or objects on a
slide, e.g., Fly from Top, Wipe left, etc.
Animating Slide text and objects means adding special visual effects or even sound effects to text
or an object on a slide. For example, you can have the text appear one word, or letter at a time
from the top of the screen.
Animating Slide Text.
1. Open the presentation file and switch to Slide Sorter view.
2. Click once on the slide you want to apply Animation effects to.

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To display the Animation Effects toolbar, right-click inside the toolbars, then select the Animation
Effects toolbar.
3. Using the Animation Effects toolbar, you can quickly apply preset Animation effects to your
slides. Some of the effects include; the Typewriter effect, Flash once, Camera effect, Drive-in
effect, etc.
4. Click on the effect that you would like to apply to the text on the slide.
Microsoft PowerPoint places an animation symbol below the selected slide. This shows you that
the text in that slide is animated.
5. To apply other Animation effects that are not shown on the Animation Effects toolbar, click
the Text Preset Animation box on the Slide Sorter toolbar. From the drop-down list, choose
the effect that you want to apply, e.g., Fly from Top.
6. To view the animations applied, click the Slide Show button.
Click the mouse button to proceed from one point to another or from slide to slide.
Note. To animate the title, click the Animate Title button found on the Animation Effects toolbar.
7. Press the ESC key to end the slide show.
To animate the Text one word or paragraph at a time.
1. Switch to Slide view.
2. From the Animation Effects, select Custom Animation. This displays the Custom
Animation dialog box.
3. To set Animation Effects, click on the Effects tab.
4. Under the Entry animation and sound area, select the animation you would like.
5. In the After animation section, select what would happen after the animation, e.g., Hide or
Don’t Dim, etc.
6. In the Introduce text area, click the drop-down arrow, and then click the option you would
like, e.g., By Word. This option sets the text to appear one word at a time during a slide show.
7. Click OK.
8. When you switch to Slide show, the new animation effect will display automatically.

Animating Slide Objects.

It is possible to animate objects on a slide just like text.
For objects with text, you can either animate the text in the object or animate the text and object
together. When you animate the text in an object, the object remains unaffected.
1. Switch to Slide view, and select the slide that contains the objects you want to apply the
animation effects to.
2. Select the shapes or objects that you want to animate.
3. From the Animation Effects toolbar, choose Custom Animation.
4. Choose the settings you want.
5. Preview the animation set by clicking on the Preview button, and then click on OK.

Setting Slide Transitions and Slide Timings.

Purpose.
√ A Slide Transition is a special visual effect that is used to introduce a slide during a slide show.
Slide transitions are usually added to slides to create added impact to a presentation.
Examples of slide transitions include effects like Wipe Down, Box in, Cut, Checkerboard Across,
Dissolve, Fade Out, Cover Down, etc.
√ Slide Timing refers to the length of time a slide appears on the screen. If you don’t want to
manually move through a slide show by clicking the mouse, you can set the length of time a

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slide appears on the screen. This allows the presenter to be in control of time during a
presentation.
Setting Slide Transitions.
1. Switch to Slide Sorter view by clicking the Slide Sorter view button so as to view all the slides.
The Slide Sorter toolbar is activated.
2. On the Slide Sorter toolbar, click on the Slide Transition Effects box, and select a transition
effect from the list.
OR
1. If you are in Slide view, open the Slide Show menu, then choose Slide Transition.
2. In the Effect box, select the transition you want.
3. Change the transition speed if necessary.
4. Click on Apply. If you want to apply the transition to all the slides, click on Apply to All.
Note. Microsoft PowerPoint places a transition symbol below the selected slide. This shows you
that the slide has a transition effect.
Applying Slide Timings.
There are 2 ways you can set slide timings on the screen.
(i). By setting the time manually for each slide, and then run the slide show and view the timings
you set.
(ii). By using the rehearsal feature, where you can record timings automatically as you rehearse.
You can also adjust the timings you’ve already set and then rehearse the new ones.
Setting Slide Show timings manually:
1. In Slide view or Slide Sorter view, select the slide(s) you want to set the timing for.
2. On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition.
3. Under Advance, click Automatically after, and then type in the time you want the slide to
appear on the screen.
4. To apply the timing to the selected slides, click Apply. To apply the timing to all the slides,
click Apply to All.
5. Repeat the process for each slide you want to set the timing for.
6. To view the timings, click Slide Show.
Note. In Slide Show, clicking a mouse always advances a slide, even if the timing set has not yet
elapsed.
Setting Rehearsed Slide timings:
You can also set slide timings using the Rehearse Slide timing feature. This means that you can
rehearse the slide show and adjust it accordingly.
1. On the Slide Show menu or toolbar, click Rehearse Timings. The Slide Show begins in
rehearsal mode and the Rehearsal dialog box appears at the bottom of the screen.
The slide time begins running as soon as the first slide appears.
2. Click the Next button () on the dialog box as soon as you are ready to go to the next slide.
3. When you reach the end of the slide show, a dialog box appears showing you the total time for
the slide show.
4. Click Yes to accept the timings or No to try again.
5. You can click the Repeat button to restart the process if the slide timings are not appropriate
for your purposes.
Note. As with animations and transitions, you can see the slide timings for the slides when in
Slide Sorter view.

Creating a Slide Show.

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There are 2 ways to advance your slide show; Automatically or Manually.
- You can click the mouse manually to move your slides through the slide show.
- You can use the Automatic Advance timing feature to move your slides through the slide
show automatically. It keeps the slides for the time you specify in the Advance box.
1. On the Slide Show menu, click Set Up Show.
2. Under Show type, select the Loop continuously until ‘Esc’ checkbox.
3. In the Slides area, select the slides you want to show. If you want all the slides, choose All. If
you just want to view particular slides, then type in the slides in the appropriate section.
4. In the Advance slides area, click the Use timings, if present option, i.e., if you would like the
show to run automatically.
5. Click OK.
The slide show runs through your presentation, using the slide timings that you set in the Slide
Transition dialog box.

Entering Speaker Notes.

Purpose.
√ Speaker Notes are the notes that a presenter uses as ‘cue cards’ or reminders in the course of
giving a slide show.
These notes are usually printed and they help the presenter to remember key points during a
presentation.
Speaker Notes can be typed in using the Notes Pages view.
Each slide has a notes page that includes a smaller version (miniature) of the slide and space for
speaker notes.
You can create notes pages while you are creating your presentation and then use them as speaker
notes when delivering the presentation.
1. On the View menu, click Notes Page.
-OR-
On the File menu, click Print and then click Notes Page in the Print What box.
2. Click inside the Notes box, and then type in your notes for the current slide.
3. To enlarge the view of the Notes box, click the Zoom box and choose a suitable size.
4. Use the scroll bar to move to other slides you want to add notes to.

Using the Slide Master.

Purpose.
√ A Master is a special slide or page on which you define formatting for all slides or pages in
your presentation.
A Slide Master is the slide that holds information such as; Text, Pictures, background items or any
special formatting which you want to appear on every slide in a presentation.
If you make a change to the Slide Master, the change affects all the slides in your presentation
based on the Master.
1. To display the Slide Master, on the View menu, select Master, and then click Slide Master.
The Slide Master appears showing the different areas of the slide, e.g., the title, date, footer, and
number areas as well as the text area.
2. You can use the Slide Master to format the title and the main text on your slides including
fonts, size, color, etc.
If you would like to have a picture or object appear on every slide, add the object to the Slide
Master.
You can also create other types of masters in the same way. These include:
- Title masters.

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- Handout masters.
- Notes masters.
Inserting Headers and Footers.
You can use headers and footers to add information such as the date and time of the presentation,
the slide or page number.
1. On the View menu, click Header and Footer.
2. In the Header and Footer dialog box, select the Slide tab.
3. Select the options you want. For example, to add a footer select the Footer checkbox, then
type in your text in the space provided.
4. Click the Apply to All button, to add the information to all the slides.
You can change the position of the footer or number by dragging it to a new position. You can
also format the text in all areas of the slide.
5. To return to your slide, click Close on the Master View toolbar.
6. All the slides will have the formatting specified in the Slide Master, together with the Footer,
drawing, page number, etc.

Exercise.
1. What is the difference between Animation effects and Transition effects on a slide?
2. (i). What is a Slide Master?
(ii).What kind of information is usually included on a Slide Master?
3. (i). What are Speaker Notes?
(ii). In what view can you type in Speaker Notes?

Organization Charts.
An Organization chart is a diagram showing/describing the hierarchy of staff in an organization,
or the flow of a process.
An Organization chart is constructed in a similar manner to a family tree.
Uses of an Organization chart.
In most organizations, the charts are constructed/used:
1). To show lines of authority in the organization and all the workers and their titles.
2). To show processes or functions.
Like a family tree, it needs to be reviewed from time to time since changes like expansions or
mergers may take place.
Organization charts may also be used to illustrate processes or procedures in an organization, or to
draw flowcharts, etc.
There are different types of organization charts, but the most common are; Vertical and
Horizontal organization charts or a combination of the two.

An example of a Vertical organization chart:

An example of a Horizontal organization chart:

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PowerPoint uses a program called ‘Microsoft Organization Chart’ to insert organization chart
objects in your presentation slides.

Create an Organization Chart.

Purpose.
√ To show relationships between staff and departments.
√ To define lines of authority and responsibility in an organization, etc.
1. Open the presentation for which you want to add an organization chart.
Method 1:
(i). Display the slide you want to add an organization chart to in Normal view or Slide view.
(ii). On the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click Organization Chart.
Method 2:
(i). Click the New Slide button. This opens the New Slide dialog box.
(ii). From the Apply slide layout gallery, click to select the Organization Chart layout.
(iii). Click OK.
Regardless of the method you use, a blank new slide appears with a placeholder for the
organization chart.
2. Double-click on the placeholder in order to insert the organization chart.
This starts the Microsoft Organization Chart application.
An organization chart is displayed in the window and it has two levels. The top level of the chart
is open and ready for you to enter your information. This information is usually typed into a Chart
Box.

Entering Text into the Chart Box.

1. Select the chart box in which you want to type in information.
2. Click inside the chart and select the placeholder text displayed.
3. Type in your own text. As you continue typing, the chart box expands to fit the text.
You can use the Up or Down arrow keys to move between the placeholder text lines. After entering
all the text in the chart, you can modify the chart to meet your specific needs.
To Add a Chart Box to an Organization Chart.
In most cases, a typical organization will have more than just four employees, and so the number
of chart boxes displayed will not be enough to include all their names and titles. There is need
therefore, to add more chart boxes.
1. Click a chart box type on the Organization Chart toolbar.
The chart boxes usually on the Organization Chart toolbar are used to add different levels to the
chart.
To add lower levels to the chart, click on the Subordinate, and to add higher levels click on the
Manager. For employees on the same level, click on the Coworker option.
2. Select and click inside the chart box you want to attach the new level to.
3. If you want to delete the chart box, select it, and then press the Delete key.

Edit Organization Charts.

Purpose.
√ To change the style or structure of an organization chart. E.g., some people or companies
favour a horizontal chart as opposed to a vertical one.
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√ Editing may also involve rearranging the chart boxes. This can be achieved by moving some
chart boxes to different locations or deleting some chart boxes.
This action may be necessitated when, for example, someone changes jobs or leaves the
organization; or when new people join the organization.
√ You can also edit the text in the chart title, chart boxes and text labels.
Editing the Chart title and Chart boxes.
To edit or format a chart box or chart title, the chart title or chart box must be selected first.
To select the Chart title.
- Position the pointer to the left of the Chart Title text, and then Drag to select the chart title text.
The chart appears selected or highlighted.
- Type in the text and click on a blank area of the window to deselect the title.
To select a Chart box.
- Click inside an individual box to select one box.
To select more boxes, click the Edit menu, choose a command from the Select submenu such as
All, All Managers, Lowest Level, etc.
Rearranging the Chart boxes.
1. Click a blank area on the chart window to ensure that no chart box is selected.
2. Drag the box that you want to move to where you want to place it.
Changing the Styles of chart boxes.
1. Select the chart boxes whose style you want to change.
2. Click on the Styles menu, then select the style from the options that appear.

Formatting an Organization Chart.

Purpose.
√ All elements of the organization chart can be formatted. These include; the chart title, chart
boxes, the connecting lines, etc.
Formatting the Font of the Chart Title.
1. Select the words ‘Chart Title’ or any text that may have been typed in the chart title section.
2. On the Text menu, select Font.
The Font dialog box appears.
3. Choose the Font, Font Style and the Font Size you want, then click OK.
Formatting the Chart Boxes.
You can change the different elements of the chart boxes like the Color, Border style, Border color,
Border-line style, Shadow, etc to suit individual tastes and requirements.
1. Select individual chart boxes by clicking on each of them.
2. On the Boxes menu, point to any of the options available to format the chart boxes.
Color – allows you to choose or change the color of the chart boxes.
Shadow – adds a shadow to the chart box.
Border style – allows you to choose style for the border, e.g., dotted lines or broken lines.
Border color – to change the color of the border.
Border line style.
3. Once the formatting is done, click a blank area of the chart window to deselect the chart boxes.
Formatting the Connecting Lines.

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Connecting lines are the lines that connect the chart boxes. These lines can be formatted to a
different thickness or style.
1. On the Edit menu, point to Select, and then click Connecting Lines.
The chart’s connecting lines are dotted, indicating that they are selected.
2. On the Lines menu, there are options for formatting color, thickness and style. Click on any
of the options and choose the type of format that you prefer.
3. Click a blank area in the window to deselect the connecting lines.
Add a connecting line to the Organization Chart.
Sometimes you may want to show a unique relationship between chart boxes in your organization
chart that is currently not represented. Usually a dotted line can be used to indicate that the
manager has some measure of authority over the subordinate, but the exact nature of that authority
is not usually indicated in the chart.
You can draw independent lines between any chart boxes.
1. If the drawing tools are not visible. then click on the View menu, then choose Show Draw
tools.
The drawing tools usually appear on the right side of the organization chart toolbar.
2. Click the ‘Auxiliary Line’ button.
3. Position the cursor (which is cross-shaped) at the edge of the chart box you are drawing the
line from.
4. Drag to the edge of the chart box you are drawing the connecting line to.
Note. You can draw other types of lines like horizontal or vertical lines, diagonal lines or even
rectangles by using the other buttons on the drawing toolbar.
Add a Text Label to the Organization Chart.
A Text Label is any extra text that is added to the chart that is not necessarily within a chart box.
This may be some form of explanation, say, about a unique relationship or a note to draw attention
to a certain fact.
1. On the Organization Chart toolbar, click the Enter Text button.
2. Click to position the cursor where you would like to place your text to place the insertion point.
3. Type in the text.

Exit Microsoft Organization Chart.

Purpose.
√ Microsoft Organization Chart is the program that enables us create, edit or format an
organization chart in PowerPoint. Therefore, if we want to continue using PowerPoint for
creating other slides, we need to exit from this program.
1. On the File menu, Click Exit and Return to ‘Presentation’ or choose Close and Return to
‘Presentation’.
A dialog box appears prompting you to update the object in a certain presentation before
proceeding.
2. Click the Yes button to update your presentation.
This will ensure that the chart (and any changes made to it) is updated in your slide.
3. Click on a blank area to deselect the chart object.

Printing a presentation.
Purpose.
√ You can print slides from a presentation when you want to get hard copies of them. In addition,
you can also print speaker notes, audience handouts, outlines, etc.

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1. When printing a colour presentation on a Black & White printer, it is advisable to first preview
the slides in either grayscale (i.e., showing all the shades of gray) or in pure black & white
before printing, in order to ensure that what you are printing is going to be legible.
You may also have used some dark text against a shaded background, which when printed may
not be legible at all.
To preview and change how slides will look like when printed in black and white:
 To preview the slides in grayscale or in pure black and white, or in color, click
Color/Grayscale button on the Standard toolbar, then choose the option.
The slide switches from colour to Black and White or Grayscale view depending on the options
chosen.
Note. You can change more than one object at a time. Hold down the SHIFT while you click each
object and then click an option.
You can also mix black-and-white options on the same slide.
To return to the previous view in color, click the button again.
2. On the File menu, click Print.
The Print dialog box appears.
3. To print in grayscale, select the Grayscale checkbox. To hide all shades of gray and print in
pure black and white, select the pure black and white checkbox.
4. Under the Print What section, choose what you want to print, e.g., Slides, handouts, Notes
Pages, Outlines, and so on.
5. Click OK.

Exercise.
1. Describe an Organization Chart.
2. What are the different types of organization charts available in PowerPoint?
3. What are the steps that should be taken in order to change the style of the organization chart?
4. Give TWO uses of an organization chart.

Presentation Tips.
Purpose.
√ An effective presentation is well prepared and carefully planned.
An effective presentation is more than just slides that contain text and shapes. It often combines
text, shapes, charts, colour, and sometimes sound or movies to produce a successful
communication tool. This is due to the fact that, most people retain 40% - 50% more information
when they see and hear simultaneously rather than from just listening.
Characteristics of an Effective presentation.
Effective presentations have some common characteristics, which should improve communication
between the speaker and the audience.
Simplicity.
Good presentations are simple and to the point. They are not long-winded and boring or
complicated.
They are easy for the speaker to present and easy for the audience to understand.
A long-winded and complex presentation usually ends up confusing the audience contrary to
expectations.
Visuals.
Good presentations make use of a lot of visuals, i.e., graphics, pictures, ClipArt, charts, and so on.
These generally serve the purpose of:
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1). Attracting attention to the pertinent (important/relevant) points of a presentation.
2). Helping relieve stress and ‘eye fatigue’ from too much reading.
3). Making your presentation more interesting.
4). A visual can tell the audience much more about the subject matter than a slide full of text. In
other words, “A picture says more than a thousand words”.
Colour.
A good presentation usually has a lot of colour. Compared to a black and white presentation, a
colour presentation attracts a lot of attention.
However, the use of colour must be judicious (sensible / well judged), otherwise, the presentation
will end up being overly ‘colourful’ and too flashy.

Creating an Effective Presentation.

Having determined the characteristics of an effective presentation, the next logical step is to create
the presentation using the tools covered in this package.
There are THREE steps that need to be followed in order to create an effective presentation.
1. Planning.
2. Preparing.
3. Execution.
(I). Planning a Presentation.
You need to develop an overall plan for your presentation before you begin writing it down.
Organize the entire presentation in your mind and sketch the outline of your presentation on paper.
During planning, the following aspects of the presentation need to be considered:
1. The Message.
2. The Style.
3. The Length.
4. The Output.
5. The need for related materials.
Message.
This is the most important part of your presentation. It is important for the presenter to know the
subject well.
Therefore, define the purpose of the presentation and plan your main points carefully, focusing on
essentials. Also, set goals you want to be achieved by the end of the presentation.
In PowerPoint, you can create an outline from scratch using Outline view or you can choose a
Sample Outline using the AutoContent wizard. Some of the samples include; Financial Report,
Business Plan, Launching a Product, General, etc.
Style.
The style can be formal or informal. This depends on the intended audience.
It is important that you do a background study of the make up of your audience before you decide
on the style. Also, choose a style that compliments your audience.
Generally, the style conveys the tone of the presentation.
Length.
Determine the amount of time or duration you have to present your presentation.
This will assist in developing and coming up with the right number of slides. For instance, it does
not make sense to have a large number of slides for a 10-minute presentation; neither does it make
sense to have too few slides. The recommended length for a presentation is 30 minutes or less. If
your presentation is going to last more than that, provide a break halfway through for the audience.
Output.
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This should reflect the presentation style.
Some recommendations or preferences are:
- Black and White overheads for informal presentations.
- Colour overheads for a formal meeting.
- 35-mm slides for professional meetings where computers are not available.
Related Materials.
They are an important part of the presentation. These include materials like audience handouts,
notes pages and speaker’s notes.
They serve the useful purpose of:
- Helping the presenter to stay on track during the presentation, e.g., using speaker’s notes.
- Helping your audience follow along with your presentation and be able to take notes at
the same time, e.g., using audience handouts.
Having considered all the above aspects of a presentation, the end product of the planning stage
should be a Sketch or a rough outline for the presentation.

(II). Preparing the Presentation.

This stage involves translating the planned sketch into slides and choosing a presentation layout.
Choose a layout design that will display the content of the presentation.
Layout Design.
The layout design should be simple, contrasting and consistent.
For a conservative image, use simple color lines and borders, whereas for a flashy style use flashy
colours, curves and shapes.
Keep all textual matter brief and include graphics whenever possible.
Designing Visuals.
The Type, Style and Placement of the visuals should compliment the content. For example, use
bulleted lists, charts, drawings, tables, worksheets, ClipArt or pictures where appropriate.
Other Layout Essentials.
Include slide numbers, headers and footers to help reinforce the same message on each slide or
handout page.
Incorporate appropriate transition effects, build effects, etc and add speaker’s notes to your
presentation.
Finally, run through the presentation and re-sequence the slides as needed.

(III). Executing the Presentation.

The following areas have to be looked at:
Equipment.
- Before the actual presentation, ensure that audio-visual equipment such as, Projectors
are functioning properly.
- Ensure that there is proper focus of visuals, e.g., the overhead projector screen being
used should be well positioned and in full view for all the audience.
- Practice using the machines or equipment in advance at the venue to familiarize yourself
with them.
Light and Sound.
- Reduce sources of external noise, if possible. These can be loud voices from the
corridors, noisy Printers and machines, etc. This is to avoid unnecessary distractions to
your audience.
- Ensure that there is enough light at the venue to avoid eye-strain.
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Audience.
- Involve the audience in the presentation. This can be done by:
 Asking questions and inviting questions from the audience.
 Timing the presentation and pausing at appropriate stops to allow for discussion, etc.
- Invite and act on feedback. Feedback from the audience can be verbal or non-verbal.
Voice/Mannerisms.
- Make effective use of voice. Use a moderate voice; do not use a voice that is too loud
or too soft. Also, vary the tone in your voice to capture interest.
- Avoid distracting mannerisms like twiddling fingers, picking your nose or teeth in
public, throwing your hands about, etc. These can actually end up offending or putting
off the audience.
Rehearse.
- Rehearse the presentation with yourself as the audience.
- Rehearse with a friendly audience in the actual venue.
- Time yourself.

Using the Pack and Go wizard.

Purpose.
√ When you want to run a slide show on another computer, you can use the Pack and Go wizard.
The wizard “packages” together, on a disk, all the files and fonts used in the presentation.
√ When you intend to run your show on a computer that doesn’t have PowerPoint installed, it
also packages the PowerPoint Viewer on the disk.
√ You can also pack a presentation in order to compress it.
1. Open the presentation you want to save on a disk.
2. On the File menu, click Pack and Go.
3. In the 1st step, select the files that you would like to pack. Then click on Next.
4. Choose the destination for the file. This can be the A: drive or even a folder on the hard disk
itself. Click on Next.
5. Choose whether linked files and true type fonts should be included in your presentation.
In a presentation file, some of the information or objects are contained in a different file. The
presentation file is referred to as the Destination file, whereas the other file is known as the Source
file. If the files are such that whenever the information in the source file is updated, then the
information in the destination file is also updated, then the files are referred to as Linked files.
6. Click on Next.
7. Depending on whether the destination computer has PowerPoint Viewer installed or not, select
the relevant option and click on Next.
8. Click on Finish.
9. Click OK.
The presentation is now ‘packed’ and can be used on a different computer.
Tip. If you make changes to your presentation after using the Pack and Go wizard, just run the
wizard again to update it.

Unpacking a Presentation.
Purpose.
√ When you want to run a slide show on another computer.
√ You may also want to run a slide show on a computer that does not have PowerPoint installed
using the PowerPoint Viewer on the disk.
However, before ‘unpacking’ a presentation, you must have used the Pack and Go wizard to
package your presentation.
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1. In Windows Explorer program, open the folder in which you packed the presentation. If you
had packed the presentation to a floppy disk, insert the disk into the drive.
The compressed file has the extension .ppz. Such files cannot be opened from the Explorer
window until they have been extracted (unpacked).
2. In Windows Explorer, go to the drive where the disk is located.
3. Double-click on the file Pngsetup.exe.
4. Type in the name or location of the destination folder you want to copy the presentation to.
5. Click OK.

Using the PowerPoint Viewer.

If the machine you are unpacking the presentation to does not have PowerPoint installed, then you
have to include the PowerPoint Viewer when packing the presentation.
1. To run the slide show, in Windows Explorer, double-click the PowerPoint Viewer (Ppview32),
and then click the presentation you want to run.

Exercise.
1. Give TWO reasons for packing a presentation.

INTERNET.
Why Study about the Internet?
√ To understand what the Internet is, the services that it offers, what is required in order to get
connected, as well as to establish a connection and log out of the Internet.

What is the Internet?

 It is a large no. of connected computers (or a large set of computer networks) linked together
that communicate with each other, over telephone lines.

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 It is a worldwide computer network connecting thousands of computer networks, through a
mixture of private & public data using the telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide (global or an international) network of computers that provide a variety of
resources and data to the people that use it.
 Internet refers to a global inter-connection of computers and computer networks to facilitate
global information transfer. It is an interconnection of computers throughout the world, using
ordinary telecommunication lines and modems.
The Internet uses VSATS (Very Small Aperture Telecommunication Systems) such as Telephone
lines, Satellite.
The other names for the Internet are:
- The Net.
- Information Superhighway.
- Cyber space.
Internet is a facility that links the Internet users to the actual Internet documents. Therefore, it is
a system that links together many kinds of information all over the world. This technology allows
computers equipped with telecommunication links to exchange information freely, and as such,
the Internet has enhanced what is being referred to as a global village.
Internet enables companies, organizations, individuals, schools and governments to share
information across the world.
A computer on the Internet can be located anywhere in the world. The Internet enables the
computer to communicate with any other computer.

HISTORY (DEVELOPMENT) OF THE INTERNET.

The Internet was started by the U.S Department of Defence in 1969 as a network of 4 computers
called ARPANET. Its aim was to connect a set of computers operated by several Universities and
Scientists doing military research so as to enable them share research data.
The original network grew as more computers were added to it. By 1974, 62 computers were
already attached.
In 1983, the Internet split into 2 parts; one dedicated exclusively (solely/only) to military
installations (called Milnet), and the other dedicated to university research (called the Internet),
with around 1,000 host computers.
In 1985, the Canadian government developed the BITNET to link all the Canadian Universities,
and also provided connections into the U.S Internet.
In 1986, the U.S National Service Foundation created NSFNET to connect leading U.S
universities. By the end of 1987, there were 10,000 host computers on the Internet and 1,000 on
BITNET.
In 1987, the National Science Foundation leased (acquired/rent) high-speed circuits to build a new
high-speed backbone for NSFNET. In 1988, it connected 13 regional internal networks containing
170 LAN’s and 56,000 host computers.
The Canadian Research Council followed in 1989, replacing BITNET with a high-speed network
called CA*net that used the Internet protocols. By the end of 1989, there were almost 200,000
host computers on the combined U.S and Canadian Internet.
Similar initiatives (plans/projects) were undertaken by other countries in the world, such that by
the early 1990s, most of the individual country networks were linked together into one worldwide
network of networks.
Each of these individual country networks was different (i.e., each had its own name, access rules,
and fees structure), but all the networks used the same standard as the U.S Internet network. So,
users could easily exchange messages with each other.

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By 1990s, the differences among the networks in each of the countries had disappeared, and the
U.S name; Internet began to be used to mean the entire worldwide system of networks that used
the Internet TCP/IP protocols.
A Protocol - a set of rules and standards that computers use to communicate with each other over
a Network.

Features of the Internet.

(i). The Internet is a collection of networks; it is not owned or controlled by any single
organization, and it has no formal management organization. However, there is an Internet
Society that co-ordinates and sets standards for its use.
In addition, Networks have no political boundaries on the exchange of information.
(ii). Networks are connected by Gateways that effectively remove barriers so that one type of
network can “talk” to a different type of network.
(iii). To join the Internet, an existing network will only be required to pay a small registration fee
and agree to certain standards based on TCP/IP.
The costs are low, because the Internet owns nothing, and so it has no real costs to offset.
Each organization pays for its own network & its own telephone bills, but these costs usually
exist independent of the Internet.
(iv). Networks that join the Internet must agree to move each other’s traffic (data) at no charge to
the others, just as it is the case with mail delivered through the International Postal system.
This is why all the data appear to move at the cost of a local telephone call, making the Net
a very cheap communication media.

FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET.

The Internet carries many kinds of traffic, and provides users with several functions. Some of the
most important functions are:
1. Communication.
Many people all over the world use the Internet to communicate with each other.
Internet communication capabilities include; E-mail, Usenet Newsgroups, Chatting and Telnet.
You can send e-mails to your friends anywhere in the world, chat with your friends, send instant
messages, etc.
2. Information retrieval.
The Internet is a library. Thousands of books, magazines, newspapers and encyclopedias can
be read on the Internet.
3. Easy-to-use offerings of information and products.
You can find information for your school assignments, buy books online, check what the
weather is like anywhere in the world, and much more.

INTERNET SERVICES.
The following are some of the services offered by Internet:
(i). Electronic mail (e-mail).
(ii). Fax services.
(iii). Conference services.
(iv). Online chatting.
(v). Downloading of programs.
(vi). Online shopping.
(vii). File transfer.
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(viii). Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies).
(ix). Free information retrieval (e.g., Educational information).
(x). Formation of Discussion groups, e.g. Usenet Newsgroups.
(xi). Video Conferencing.
(xii). Access & Use of other computers.

Electronic Mail (E-mail).

An E-mail is a system that enables sending & receiving of messages electronically through
computers. It is used for communication between organizations or departments in the same
organization.
E-mail is a quick, cheap, efficient & convenient means of communication with both individuals
and groups. It is faster than ordinary mail, easy to manage, inexpensive and saves paper.
With Internet mail, it is possible to send and receive messages quickly from businesses, friends or
family in another part of the world. An E-mail message can travel around the world in minutes.

Fax services.
Fax services enable individuals & businesses to send faxes through e-mail at a lower cost compared
to the usual international Fax charges.
Conference services.
Conferencing on the Web can be defined as the dynamic exchange of all kinds of information –
text, graphics, audio, video, etc – in a situation whereby the conversations are organized by item
and allows a participant to contribute spontaneous responses to any item in the conversation.
Application of Conferencing on the Web.
The conversation can:
 Provide important information that can assist in decision-making.
 Provide any required technical support.
 Help in community-building, project management & distance learning.
 Help to organize electronic meetings, etc.
The Internet also allows you to have access to various types of information you might require to
make accurate and informed decisions, E.g., it provides information on business, education, sports,
politics, etc.

Chatting.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chatting system on the Internet that allows a large no. of people
from various locations of the world who are on the computer to chat (i.e., simultaneously hold live
and interactive electronic conversations) among themselves.
You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with similar
interests. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read interesting stories.
Anyone interested in chatting can join a discussion forum on one of the listed topics. Only people
who happen to be signed on at the same time are able to talk because messages are not stored.
This discussion can be an effective business tool if people who can benefit from interactive
conversation set a specific appointment to meet and talk on a particular topic.
Disadvantage.
(i). Usually, the topic is open to all without security; so intruders can participate.

Information retrieval.
The Internet is a voluntarily decentralized network with no central listing of participants or sites.
Therefore, End-users, usually working from PCs are able to search & find information of interest
located in different sites assisted by special software and data stored in readily usable formats.
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The Internet gives you information on almost any subject. This is because of the Worldwide Web
(www).
The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages containing
information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based (i.e., it is able
to access text and graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).
With the WWW, you can review Newspapers, magazines, academic papers, etc. In addition,
Governments, colleges, universities, companies and individuals offer free information on the
Internet. E.g., you can inquire (find out) about universities in Britain or America.
Note. Its major problem is finding what you need from among the many storehouses of data found
in databases and libraries all over the world.

Dowloading of Programs.
There are thousands of programs available on the Internet. These programs include; Word
processors, Spreadsheets, Electronic cards, etc.
You can therefore, look for the latest software over the Internet, e.g., you can get the latest Anti-
virus software, and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.

Entertainment.
There are hundreds of simple games available on the Internet. These include; Chess, Football, etc.
The Internet also allows you review current Movies and hear Television theme songs.

Online Shopping.
You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. E.g., you can view a
catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in an online Order form.
Commercial enterprises use the Web to provide information on demand for purposes of customer
support, marketing and sales.

File Transfer.
Data in the form of files can be transferred across the Internet from one site to another using the
File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP software is needed at both ends to handle the transfer. It is
through FTP that the two pieces of software manage to ‘understand’ each other.

Discussion Groups.
A Discussion group is a collection of users who have joined together to discuss some topic.
There are many discussions on different topics including Cooking, Skydiving, Politics, Education,
recreational, scientific research, etc.
Two of the commonly used discussion groups for business are;
 Usenet newsgroups.
 List Servers.
(a). Usenet newsgroups.
These are the most formally organized of the discussion groups.
Using a facility on the Internet called USENET, individuals can gain access to a very wide
variety of information topics.
Usenet Newsgroups are usually worldwide discussion groups in which people share
information and ideas on a defined topic through large electronic Bulletin Boards where
anyone can read any articles or write articles and post messages on the topic for others to see
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The individuals can add messages to different topics and read those contributed by others.
For instance, users such as students can ask questions about problems they face, or they could
contribute or give an advice on how to improve the teaching of the subject.
Messages can be easily linked so that it is easy to know messages that are related.
Establishing a new newsgroup requires a vote of all interested people on the Internet. If
enough people express interest, the new topic is established.
Note. To join a Newsgroup and be able to read messages on various topics, your computer
must have Newsreader software such as Outlook Express, or Internet News.
Any Internet user can access some of these newsgroups, while other newsgroups will require
to subscribe to a specific topic or set of topics.
Once you have subscribed, each time you access the newsgroups you are informed of any
new messages added to the topics. You can then read these messages and respond to them
by adding your own message.
The Usenet software receives “postings” of information and transmits new postings to users
who have registered their interest in receiving the information. Each individual posting takes
the form like that used for e-mail.
There are over 10,000 such newsgroups; however, each Usenet site is financed independently
& controlled by a Site Administrator, who carries only those groups that he/she chooses.
(b). List Server
A List Server (or list serve) group is similar to the Usenet newsgroups, but is generally less
formal.
Anyone with the right e-mail server software can establish a list server, which is simply a
mail list.
The processor of the List Server processes commands such as request to subscribe,
unsubscribe, or to provide information about the list serve. The List serve mailer directs
messages to everyone on the mailing list.
To use a List server, you need to know the addresses of both the Processor and the Mailer.
To subscribe to a List server, you send an e-mail message to the List server processor, which
adds your name to the list. Many different commands can be sent to the List server processor
to perform a variety of functions. These commands are included as lines of text in the e-mail
messages sent to the processor.
List servers are more focused that the Usenet newsgroups and have fewer members. They
are harder to find than the Usenet newsgroups because literally anyone can create one.

Video Conferencing.
Video conferencing provides real-time transmission of video & audio signals to enable people in
2 or more locations to have a meeting.
The fastest growing form of video conferencing is Desktop video conferencing.
Small cameras installed on top of each camera enable meetings to take place from individual
offices.
Special application software (e.g., CUSeeMe) is installed on top of each client computer. It
transmits the image across a network to application software on a video-conferencing Server. The
server then sends the signals to the other client computers that are to participate in the video
conference. In some areas, the clients can communicate with each other without using the server.
Some systems have integrated other types of GroupWare with desktop video conferencing,
enabling participants to communicate verbally to attend the same “meeting” while sitting at the
computer in their offices.
Advantage of Video conferencing.
(i). Saves time & cost, as it reduces the need to travel.

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Access & Use of other computers.
The Internet has a facility called TELNET that enables a user on one computer to use another
computer across the network, i.e., the user is able to run programs on the other machine as if he/she
is a local user.
Telnet is a protocol, which enables a user on one computer to log in to another computer on the
Internet.
TELNET establishes an error-free, rapid link between two computers, allowing a user to log on to
his/her home computer from a remote computer even when traveling. You can also log on to and
use third-party computers that have been made available to the public.
TELNET will use the computer address you supply to locate the computer you want to reach and
connect you to it. You will, of course, have to log in & go through any security procedures you,
your company, or the third-party computer owner have put in place to protect that computer.
Telnet requires an application image program on the Client computer and an application layer
program on the Server of the host computer. Many programs conform to the Telnet Standard (e.g.,
EWAN).
Once Telnet enables the connection from the Client to the Server, you can log in by use of
commands. The exact commands to gain access to these newsgroups vary from computer to
computer.
Telnet enables you to connect to a remote computer without incurring long-distance telephone
charges.
Telnet can be useful because, it enables you to access your Server or Host computer without sitting
at its Keyboard.
Telnet can be faster or slower than a modem, depending on the amount of traffic on the Internet.
Note. Telnet is insecure, because everyone on the Internet can attempt to log in your computer
and use it as they wish. One commonly used security precaution is to prohibit remote log ins via
Tel-net unless a user specifically asks for his/her account to be authorized for it, or permit remote
log ins only from a specific set of Internet addresses., e.g., the Web server at a university can be
configured to only accept telnet log ins from computers located on the Kabete Campus network.

Electronic Commerce.
Many people are actively using the Internet for Electronic Commerce (i.e., doing business on the
Internet).
The use of the Internet in E-commerce is not necessary for making money as such, but mainly to
find information, improve communication and provide information.
Many people automatically focus on the retail aspect of e-commerce, i.e., selling products to
individuals. However, this is just one small part of e-commerce. The fastest group and the largest
segment of e-commerce is business-to-business settings.
There are 4 ways in which the Web can be used to support E-commerce;
(i). Electronic Store.
Electronic Store is a Website that lists all the products or services a business wishes to sell,
thus enabling customers to purchase them by using the Internet itself.
E-store sites provide physical goods and services.
The cost of providing information on the Web is low (unlike a Catalog, in which each page
adds to the cost), and therefore, electronic stores can provide much information. In addition,
electronic stores can also add value by providing dynamic information.
E-mail can also serve the purpose of E-store. This is because, e-mail is essentially a collection
of e-stores. The mail usually provides all the computer information needed for e-commerce,

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and advertises the mail to potential customers. In return, the stores pay the mail a monthly
fee or some percentage of sales.
(ii). Electronic Marketing.
E-marketing sites focus on the products or services of one company with aim of increasing
sales.
This type of site supports the sales process, but does not make actual sales. The goal is to
attract and keep customers.
By doing so, such sites provide a wealth of information about the firms and products complete
with technical details and photos. Customers can review these but cannot buy over the Web.
The idea is to encourage the user to visit a local dealer, who will then make a sale.
Computers also use e-marketing sites to provide newsletters with information on the latest
products and tips on how to use them. Other companies enable potential customers to sign
up for notification of new product releases.
E-marketing is cheaper in many ways than traditional marketing (radio, direct marketing, TV
or print media). This is because while it costs the same to develop these traditional media, it
costs nothing to send information to the customers. It is also easier to customize the
presentation of information to a potential customer, because the Web is interactive. In
contrast, the other media are fixed once they are developed, and they provide the same
marketing approach to all who use it.
(iii). Information / Entertainment provider.
The Information/Entertainment provider supplies information (in form of text or graphics) or
entertainment. These providers provide information from many sources with an aim of
helping the users.
Several radio and TV stations are using the Web to provide broadcast of audio and video.
The Web also offers new forms of real entertainment e.g., enables new multiplayer interactive
games, which are not available in any other media. The information / entertainment providers
generate revenue by selling advertisement printouts.
(iv). Customers Service sales.
This provides a variety of information for customers after they have purchased a product or
service – to allow customers access most commonly needed information 24 hrs a day.
Many software companies post updates that fix problems so that customers can download for
themselves.
Customer service sites benefit both the company and the customers. They enable customers
to get a 24 hr support and easy access to needed information.
They often reduce the no. of staff needed by automating routine information requests that
previously had to be handled by an employee.

GroupWare.
GroupWare is a software that helps groups of people to work together more productively.
They are often organized using a two-by-two grid.

Same place Same time Different time

Group support systems Group support systems
Different Video teleconferencing, Desktop video E-mail, Discussion groups,
place teleconferencing Document-based GroupWare
GroupWare allows people in different places to communicate either at the same time (as on a
telephone) or at different times.

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GroupWare can also be used to improve communication and decision-making among those who
work together in the same room, either at the same time or at different times.
GroupWare allows people to exchange ideas, debate issues, make decisions, and write reports,
without actually having to meet face to face. Even when groups meet in the same room at the same
time, GroupWare can improve meetings.
The major advantage of GroupWare is its ability to help groups make faster decisions, particularly
in situations where it is difficult for group members to meet in the same room at the same time.
The 3 most popular types of GroupWare are;
- Discussion groups.
- Group support systems.
- Video Conferencing.

Group Support Systems (GSS).

Both e-mail and documents-based GroupWare are designed to support individuals and groups
working in different places at different times. They are not suited to support groups working
together at the same time and in the same place. In addition, they don’t provide advanced tools
for helping groups to make decisions.
Group Support Systems (GSS) are software tools, designed to improve group’s decision-making.
GSS are used with special-purpose meeting rooms that provide each group member with a network
computer plus a large screen video projection system that acts as electronic blackboards. These
rooms are equipped with special-purpose GSS software that enables participants to communicate,
propose ideas, analyse options, evaluate alternatives, etc. Typically, a meeting facilitator assists
the group.
The group members can either discuss verbally or use computers to type ideas and information,
which are then shared with all other group members via the network. For large groups where only
one person can speak at a time, typing ideas is faster than talking. Everyone has the same
opportunity to contribute and ideas can be collected much faster. In addition, GSS enables users
to make anonymous comments. Without anonymity, certain participants may withhold ideas
because they fear their ideas may not be well received.
The system also provides tools to support voting and ranking of alternatives, so that more
structured decision-making process can be used.
Just like in document-based GroupWare, vendors use the Web browser as their client software.
So, almost anyone can access GroupWare Server.
Note. Discussion groups, document-based GroupWare and GSS all focus on the transmission of
text and graphical images.

Information Superhighway.
A term coined by U.S Clinton administration referring to advanced information infrastructure
accessible to individuals, groups and firms.
In general, the Information superhighway can be defined as;
 A facility that provides a global electronic data interchange between computer users at a higher
rate of message exchange, and at cheaper costs. E.g., the Internet that allows researchers,
businesses, and electronic media to exchange information.
 An Information Communication Technology (ICT) network, which delivers all kinds of
electronic services – audio, video, text, and data to households and businesses.
The communication services on the superhighway can be one-to-one way (Telephones, e-mail,
fax, etc); one-to-many (Broadcasting, interactive TV, video conferencing, etc), many-to-many
(typified by bulletin boards and forums on the Internet).
Origin.

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Information superhighway is a mass technology project aimed at creating a National Information
Infrastructure (NII) in the U.S.
The concept emerged as the brainchild (idea) of U.S vice president Al Gore. It is an alliance
between the Federal government and a no. of industries.
The Information superhighway describes networks of Optic fiber and Coaxial cable linked by
sophisticated switches that can deliver voice, data, image, text, and video signals all in the same
digital language.
In the U.S, it has been proclaimed (declared) as the foundation for a national transformation to an
information-based society, and a key element in the national efforts to sustain leadership in the
world economy.
Governments and industries are developing a new method of competition, which will enable
telecommunications, cable television, computer hardware and software companies, and
entertainment corporations to work together to create and operate information superhighways.
These activities will finally result into a wide range of electronic services including electronic
Shopping malls, collaborate electronic Education and distance learning, electronic Libraries,
Multimedia information, messaging, and entertainment.

Web casting.
Web casting (or “Push technology”) is a special application of the Web that has the potential to
dramatically change the way we use the Web /Internet.
With Web casting, the user signs up for a type of information on a set of channels. Regularly
(minutes, hours, days), the user browser contacts the Web server providing these channels to see
if they have been updated. If so, the browser will load the information, and if required by the user,
will automatically display the information on the user screen.
Web casting changes the nature of the Web from one in which the user searches for information (a
“pull” environment) into an environment in which the user accepts whatever information is on the
Webcast Server (a “push” environment). This is called the “Push” because the user does not
request specific information, but rather permits the Web server to “push” the information when it
becomes available.
The Web has been likened to a library because users move form site to site and page to page just
like they move from shelf to shelf and book to book in a library.
Web casting is more like TV because the content and time of delivery is selected using the Web
caster, the user only chooses the channels.
Web casting can be used for news (e.g., CNN) or financial reports (e.g., Stock market quotations),
Corporate announcement, and as a replacement for broadcast e-mail. It even has the potential to
provide automatic updates to software packages.

Importance of services provided on the Internet.

The services offered by the Internet can be used as important tools in various ways:
1). As a research tool:
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer
opinions.
2). As an advertising / trading tool:
To help in selling goods or delivering information through the Web pages to customers on a
24-hour basis.
3). As a communication tool:
To support communication with customers, suppliers or staff through Electronic mail (e-mail).
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4). As an Entertainment channel:
Most of the Games, Movies, and Television theme songs are available for free on the Internet.
In addition, you can have live, interactive conversations with people around the world
including celebrities.

Users of the Internet.

Considering the facilities & the various tools offered, the Internet has attracted among others the
following users;
 Researchers can get information.
 Writers and Scientists use the Internet to compile, compare and analyse their work.
 Individuals use the Internet for their work or to communicate with each other.
 People with the same interests can share ideas.
 Large organizations use the Internet to communicate with each other, and also to keep in touch
with subordinate (subsidiary) companies or their suppliers.
 Students can communicate and gather information.
 Business people can advertise, communicate and sell their goods.
 Sales people use the Internet to keep in touch with their home offices.
 Buyers can do their shopping online.

Exercise (a).
1. (a). What do you understand by the term Internet?
(b). What are the other names of the Internet?
2. Describe the Functions of the Internet.
3. List 6 services that are offered on the Internet.
4. Identify 6 categories of people who can benefit through the use of the Internet.
Exercise (b).
1. Define the Internet.
2. Briefly describe six services offered by the Internet.
3. Discuss the growth of Internet in recent days.
4. Explain the importance of Information superhighway (Internet).
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a). E-commerce.
(b). Webcasting.
(c). Telnet.
(d). Information Superhighway.

CONNECTING (LOGGING ON) TO THE INTERNET.

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Log On -To identify yourself & gain access to a computer. To log on, type a user name & a
password.

Facilities Needed.
To use the Internet, you must have access to it. In order to get connected to the Internet and access
the World wide Web, you will require the following facilities:
1). A Computer.
The computer to be used must have the following desirable elements;
(i). A Fast processor, e.g., Pentium 1 & above - to quickly access and download information
& programs from the Internet.
(ii). RAM memory of 32 MB & Above.
(iii). Hard disk capacity of at least 400 MB.
(iv). A high-quality Colour Screen – to enable you view the various graphics and images.
(v). Free disk space on which to download the information or programs from the Internet.
2). Web Browsers.
Web browsers are application programs that are used to retrieve Web pages from the Internet
onto your Personal Computer.
One of the most popular Web browsers is Internet Explorer from Microsoft.
Each Web page in the World Wide Web is based on an HTML (HyperText Mark Language)
file. A Web browser decodes the information in an HTML file and displays a Web page on
your computer screen according to its instructions. This process is called Downloading.
 Downloading is the process of copying files from one computer to another by using a
Modem or a network connection. You can also download files from the Web to your hard
disk.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) -The language used to create Web pages. To
view HTML documents, use Web browsing Software.
3). Telephone lines.
4). Modem (Modulator/Demodulator).
On the Internet, computers exchange information through Telephone lines. Therefore, to use
the Internet, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.
A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information.
As a Transmitting modem, it translates computer information (which is in digital form) into
analogue form (the form that can transmit over telephone lines). This process is called
Modulation.
As a Receiving modem, it translates the information back into digital form (a form that your
computer can understand); a process called Demodulation.
The Modem must be fast. This helps to reduce the amount of time spent waiting for Web
pages, files, or messages from the Internet.
Modem speeds are expressed in Bits per second (bps). The typical speeds are 9,600 bps, 4.4
Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8 Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.
5). Internet Service Provider (ISP).
When connecting to the Internet using a modem, you need to sign up with an Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a commercial organization (or a company) that
provides Internet connections, along with a set of support services usually for a fee. It
maintains a Server that is directly connected to the Internet.

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 Internet Service Provider - A company or organization that provides Internet Access,
usually for a fee. To connect to your ISP, use a modem.
Most people and organizations connect to the Internet over a Telephone line through an ISP.
However, some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own Internet
connections.
An ISP usually has a no. of Host computers. These host computers usually provide space for
the storage of user’s electronic mail messages, storage of user’s Web sites and a set of related
facilities such as, advice, support software and appropriate security.
Examples of the local ISPs include;
 Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya, and Inter-Connect.
Connecting to an ISP involves calling the provider and setting up a PPP account. When you
open an account with an ISP, you will be provided with a User name and a Password.
(i). Username – Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on
the Internet.
(ii). Password – This is needed for security purposes. It ensures that your Internet account is
secure.
Note. ISPs charge for the services rendered.
6). Website.
This is an area in the Internet where information of a particular organization is kept. The
Website must be updated on daily basis.
Content Provider - A business that uses the Internet to supply you with information such as news,
weather, business reports & entertainment.

ACCESSING THE INTERNET.

There are 3 common ways in which an individual user can access the Internet:
(a). Through a connection already setup through the computer in your organization. Typically,
the service is accessed in a similar way to other services on a LAN.
(b). Through paying for an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
In order to access an ISP directly, the user will need a Personal Computer, a Modem, a
Telephone line & a suitable software in order to connect to the service. Most ISPs give help
and advice on how to connect.
(c). Through a Bulletin Board Service (BBS), e.g. CompuServe. BBS are commercially run
information providers, each with its own information services and normally offering access
to Internet services.
The BBS companies normally sell some form of start-up package.

Logging out from the Internet.

Purpose.
√ As long as you are connected to the Internet, you continue to incur Telephone and account
usage charges. This can prove to be expensive in the long run.
It is recommended that you disconnect or log out from the Internet soon after you have finished
with a session. This is to avoid incurring extra or unnecessary charges.
1. Right-click the Connection Indicator icon on the Taskbar.
2. From the shortcut menu that appears, click Disconnect and you will automatically be logged
out.
When you log out, the Connection Indicator icon is disabled.
Note. Some browsers or ISPs automatically disconnect you from the Internet when there is no
activity between the user and ISP for a period of about 5 – 10 minutes.
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Understanding the World Wide Web.

Purpose.
√ To understand some of the Internet terminologies like Web pages, Web sites, Web browsers,
URLs and Home page.

The World Wide Web (www).

The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3.
 The Web is an Internet application (software) that uses the Internet as its network.
 World Wide Web is the graphical, multimedia portion of the Internet.
 The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked Web pages published on the Internet.
 The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages
containing information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based
(i.e., it is able to access text & graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).
The Web is a part of the Internet. It is comprised of millions of Web pages. This huge
collection of documents is stored on computers, called Hosts, around the world.
The documents may contain text, pictures, sound, small programs or forms to be completed by
a user.
To view files on the Web, you need Web browsing Software. This software can be used to
view different locations on the Web or to explore the Web pages.

Web pages.
 Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals who are interested in
putting themselves on the Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.
 Web page is a location on the WWW, usually a Web site.
The Web pages can also be found on company Intranets.

Intranets and Extranets.

What is an Intranet?
 An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of
documents among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).
 Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers
within an organization.
Intranet has a private Web Server, which can be made available to the entire organization,
individual department or to specific departmental workgroups.
An Intranet uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet and can be connected to the
Internet.
Note. Intranet applications are usually combined with the normal Web application of other
organizations, but are hidden from those outside the organization.
Extranet:
An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected
users outside the organization.
E.g., a certain university can have an Internet library containing millions of articles, but only make
it available to staff and students at colleges and universities within the country.
To access the library, you must provide a password when you connect to the Internet site.

Home Page.

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 Home page is the Web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started, i.e., when you
access the Web.
E.g., the Internet address of the Windows home page is http://www.Microsoft.com /Windows
 Home page can also the first page of a company or an individual’s Website on the Web.
Those who offer information through the Web must first establish a Home page – a www text
and graphical screen that welcomes the user and explains the organization that has established
the page.
 Home page – is the introductory page of a Web site. The home page contains links to other
pages in the site.
Notes.
 You can set any Web page as your Home page.
 Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the Websites you visit. Your home page
is set through Internet Explorer. The home page of a Website is the introductory page for the
site.
If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a Web page, you will jump to the home page of the
Website, not yours. To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.

Web Site.
 A collection of Web pages belonging to an organization or individual. These organizations or
individuals maintain the Website.
 Web site - A group of related Web pages.
 A Web site is a screen or a collection of screens that provide information in text or graphical
form that can be viewed by Internet users by activating the appropriate icon or commands.

Web Browsers (Web browsing software).

A Web browser is a program that lets the user browse through information on (or surf) the Web.
Information on the Web is structured into pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to
locate and access information on that page.
A WWW browser program enables the user to either search for data by name or by specifying
locations known as Uniform Resource Location (URL).
The two common Web browsers are:
- Internet Explorer from Microsoft.
- Navigator from Netscape.

Browsing the Web.

This is also known as Navigating or ‘Surfing’ the Web.
 To Browse is to navigate the Internet or the contents of your computer.
 Browsing can also be defined as moving around and between Web pages.
Using a Web browsing software you can read documents, listen to music, watch videos, make
purchases, participate in surveys, advertise products, do research, share interests and download
files on the Web.

Web Hosting.
A World Wide Web Server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents from
Clients (browsers) over the Internet. Files containing Web sites are placed on these servers.

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A Host computer is any computer connected to the Internet and stores information that has been
made available to the Web.
ISPs also use host computers to store user’s electronic mail messages, Web sites and other related
facilities such as, support software and appropriate security.
Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator – URL).
An Address is the location of a file.
Each Web page in the world has a unique Internet address or location. Internet addresses are also
called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL). E.g., the general URL for Microsoft is
http://www.Microsoft.com./
You can use addresses to find files on the Internet & your computer. You can instantly display
any Web page if you know its URL. E.g., http://www.compaq.com.
AutoComplete - A feature in the Address Bar. When you begin typing a previously used address,
this feature finishes it as you type.

How the Web Works.

Internet Addresses.
Internet addresses are strictly regulated, otherwise, someone could add a computer to the Internet
that had the same address as another computer.
Each address has 2 parts; The computer name and its domain.
The Domain is the specific part of the Internet to which the computer is connected (e.g., Canada,
Australia, etc).
The general format of an Internet address is therefore: computer.domain. Some computer names
have several parts separated by periods. For example, the main university Web server of an
imaginary University like Yairobi can be www.Yairobi.edu, while the college of Humanities and
Social Sciences server can be www.chss.Yairobi.edu.
Each domain has an address board that assigns address for its domain. The boards ensure that
there are no duplicates.

Finding Web pages (information) on the Web.

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There are 3 ways you can use to find interesting and useful Web pages on the Web;
1). You could get the Web address from an advertisement.
Many businesses include their Web addresses in their Television and Print advertisements.
2). You click a link that will enable you jump from one page to another.
Many industries or organizations, magazines and topic experts maintain pages that provide
links from page to page.
3). Use of Search Engines.

Search Engines / Search Services.

 A Search engine is software that helps in locating information in the Web.
 Search engine is a tool that searches the Web for information that you want to find.
Purpose.
√ If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web but
you do not know where to find it, you can use a Search engine to locate sites that contain the
information.
√ Locate particular information in a Website, e.g., if you wish to read the Sports news you can
load a Web site like http://www.cnn.com/, and then use a search engine within that site to locate
information on Sports.
The following are the various search engines:
1). Yahoo – www.Yahoo.com.
2). AltaVista – www.altavista.digital.com.
3). Excite – www.excite.com.
4). Meta Crawler – www.metacrawler.com.
5). Infoseek.
6). Lycos.
These search engines offer different kinds of searching capabilities. However, they differ in the
way they organize information in response to your request.
Yahoo focuses on the largest & most important Websites and organizes them in a directory format.
Small and little known Websites are excluded. Therefore, if you are looking for the address of a
well-known company or product or a popular topic, Yahoo is probably the easiest way to find it.
Alta Vista is the broadest of all. It lists almost everything it can find. It is probably the best choice
if you are looking for an unclear topic or a very specific combination of topics or words (e.g., to
find a famous quote).
The major disadvantage of Alta Vista is that, you may have to look through dozens of sites before
you find the ones you want. In addition, Alta Vista does not provide some help in focusing your
search.
Excite is easier to use in that, it uses advanced special intelligence techniques to help you search
those pages that best match your interest. E.g., after looking at the result of a search, you can tell
Excite to find more pages that are similar to a specific page it has found. Excite will then search
again and present those pages first. In this case, Excite refines the search based on the
characterization of the page you have selected.
Meta Crawler provides the best search facilities. It does not search the Web and provide a list of
what it finds. Instead, whenever you enter a search request, it simultaneously sends that request to
several search engines (including Yahoo & Alta Vista), then combines, and organizes the
information it receives from all the search engines into one display.

Exercise.

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1. Mention at least 4 facilities that are needed to connect to the Internet.
2. How can you establish the time you have been online in a session?
3. In a step-by-step format, illustrate how you can log out of the Internet.
4. Define the following terms:
(a). Intranet.
(b). Extranet.
(c). Worldwide Web.
5. (i). What is a Web site?
(ii). Give the advantages and disadvantages of a Web site.
6. Give 2 examples of Web Browsers.
7. Explain the term ‘Host computer’.
8. Define the word ‘History’ with reference to a Web browser.
9. (a). What is a Search engine?
(b). Give examples of Search engines.
10. How does the Web work? Explain with the help of a diagram.
11. Describe the procedure of finding information on the Web.

Purpose.
√ When you browse the Web, you may come across sites that you want to visit regularly.
Examples of such sites include; news sites like CNN or BBC. You can decide to ‘bookmark’
the Web page.
The Bookmark feature (also known as a Hotlist or Favorites feature) allows you to store the
addresses of Web pages that you frequently visit. Hence, you do not have to constantly retype
your favourite Web page addresses. When you want to visit the site, simply select the
bookmark from a list.
1. Open the Website that you want to create a shortcut to. E.g., http://www.cnn.com.
2. On the Favorites menu, choose Add to Favorites.
The Add to Favorites dialog box appears. The name of the site you are in appears on the
Name box.
3. Under Create in: click the folder you want to add the site to, e.g., Links, then click OK.
This will add the title of the Web page in the Favorites list.
To go to a site using a Bookmark.
1. On the menu bar, select Favorites.
2. Select the folder that holds the favorites item, e.g., Links.
3. From the drop-down list, click CNN.com.
To delete a Bookmark.
1. On the menu bar, select Favorites.
2. Point to the item from the Favorites list, e.g., CNN.com.
3. Right-click the item, and then click Delete.
The Confirm File Delete dialog box appears.
4. Click Yes, to remove the item from the list.

Disadvantages of Internet.
(i). It’s a technology, which is fetched for (imposed/forced on) the Third world countries.
(ii). The cost of the Internet Service Provider is high.
(iii). It is leading to exposure of morally harmful shows such as Pornography.
(iv). It leads to spread of viruses.
(v). Has proved to be unreliable especially accessing information.
(vi). No copyright rules meant to protect the property of an organization.

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ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL).
About e-mail.
Electronic mail (also known as e-mail) is one of the common services provided by the Internet.
 E-Mail is a worldwide system for sending & receiving electronic messages from one computer
to another.
 E-Mail (Electronic mail) refers to electronic messages sent over the Internet or a network.
E-mail can contain both text & files.
With e-mail, users can create and send messages to one user, several users, or all the users on a
distribution list.
Most e-mail software enable users to send text messages. In addition, users can attach files from
Word processors, Spreadsheets, Reports, production data, etc, and then send them by e-mail.
Most E-mail packages allow you to do the same things you do with regular paper mail. You can
file messages in electronic file cabinets, forward copies of messages to other users, send “carbon
copies” of messages, and so on. The E-mail packages also allow you to filter or organize messages
by priority. E.g., all messages from a particular user (e.g., your boss) could be given top priority,
so that they always appear at the top of your list of messages.
However, E-mail is a much faster, economical & convenient way of sending messages to family,
friends and colleagues than the paper mail (usually called “Snail mail”). Messages can be sent or
received 24-hrs a day. With “Snail mail” a message or a letter is sent to the recipient through the
Post office and takes days or weeks before reaching the destination.

Components required.
For one to be able to communicate using e-mail, the following components are needed:
1). A Computer - where you will send or receive the e-mail messages.
2). An E-mail program.
Your computer must be installed with an e-mail program that lets you send, receive and manage
your e-mail messages.
Examples of E-mail programs;
 Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, & Microsoft Exchange from Microsoft.
 Communicator from Netscape.
 Lotus Notes.
 Eudora.
3). E-mail address of the sender & the address of the receiver.
4). An Internet Service Provider (ISP) - company who will deliver your message to the receiver.
Once you send a letter or a message, it travels from your computer through a Modem, which
connects your computer to the Internet using the Telephone network. The Mail passes through
various computers, until it reaches the final destination.

E-mail addresses.
Each user has his own e-mail address (or mailbox) in form of computer storage space to receive
messages. The mailbox is accessed via a computer terminal within the system. In addition, each
user has a password to protect access to his/her own mailbox.
Messages are drawn to the user’s attention when they enter the system.
Components of an E-mail address.
An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol. For example, if your e-mail
address is [email protected]:
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(i). The 1 part of the address to the left side of the @ symbol refers to the person’s identity or
st

login name. It is the name or identifier of the specific individual or organization, e.g., “drg”.
(ii). The 2nd part following the “@” symbol is the computer address. It is usually made up of 2
to 3 sub-parts to further identify the individual, organization, ISP or a country. In this case:
 “tropicalheat” identifies the business.
 “.com” is the extension, which identifies the type of the organization.
The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -
Extension Represents
.org A non-profit making organization
.edu An educational institution or organization
.com A commercial organization
.net Network
.mil Military
.gov government
Sometimes, the name of the country is included in the e-mail address. E.g., [email protected]
or [email protected].
In this case, “.co.uk” refers to a company in the United Kingdom, while “.co.ke” refers to a
company in Kenya.
Examples of E-mail addresses;
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected] (free e-mail address)
[email protected] (free e-mail address)

Exercise.
1. (a). What is E-mail?
(b). Give TWO examples of e-mail software.
(c). Give an example of an e-mail address.
2. Identify institutions whose e-mail addresses end with the following extensions:
(i). .org ______________________________________________________
(ii). .gov ______________________________________________________
(iii). .edu ______________________________________________________
(iv). .com______________________________________________________
(v). .net ______________________________________________________
(vi). .mil ______________________________________________________
3. Identify the parts of the following e-mail address:
[email protected]

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A B C D
A _________________________________________________________________
B _________________________________________________________________
C _________________________________________________________________
D _________________________________________________________________

Differences between E-mail and General Post office mail.

1). E-mail is computerized, while Post office mail is manually operated.
2). Post office mail is slow, while E-mail is fast & has a wide area of coverage.
3). E-mail is more secure.
Advantages of E-mail.
Electronic mail has several advantages over regular mail.
(i). It is cheap & economical.
It costs almost nothing to transmit an e-mail message over the network, i.e., there is no need
for stamps, envelopes, etc.
(ii). It is secure, i.e., access to a user’s mailbox can be restricted by use of a password.
(iii). It is faster, i.e., mails can be sent instantly.
The delivery of an e-mail message normally takes seconds or minutes, depending on the
distance to the receiver.
(iv). It is efficient, i.e., a message prepared only once can be sent to several people.
(v). It is convenient.
With E-mail, you can send your messages when it is convenient for you and your recipients
respond at their convenient times.
(vi). E-mail is cheaper in terms of the time invested in preparing the message.
The expectations and culture of sending & receiving e-mail are different from that of sending
regular letters. Regular business letters & inter-office memos are expected to be error-free
and formatted according to certain standards. In contrast, most e-mail users accept less well-
formatted messages and slight typographical errors are overlooked. So, less time is spent
perfecting the appearance of the message.
(vii). E-mail can act as a substitute for the Telephone calls, thus allowing the user to avoid
telephone tag (i.e., the process of repeatedly exchanging voice mail messages because you
or the other person may not be available when the other calls).
E-mail can often communicate enough of a message so that the entire “conversation” will
take less time than a phone call.
E-mail is particularly effective for multinational organizations, which have people working in
different time zones around the world.
Disadvantages of E-mail.
(i). The initial installation cost is higher.
(ii). Messages may be lost before they are read due to virus infections.
(iii). Messages may not be kept for future reference due to the high cost of storage, i.e., it requires
regular deletion of messages from the hard disk.

Exercise.
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1. How does one send an e-mail message?
2. What is the advantage of filing e-mail messages when you can leave them in the Inbox and still
have them for future reference?
3. List THREE levels of importance one can set on an e-mail message.
4. Lucille has received an e-mail message that contains an attachment. Can she use any
application to open the attached file? Explain.
5. What are the advantages of e-mail over the ordinary post office mail.
6. Give THREE differences between electronic mail and the Post office mail?

BENEFITS FROM THE USE OF THE INTERNET.

1). Reduces the Cost of Communication.
Before the Internet, organizations had to build their own Wide Area Networks or subscribe to
Value-Added Network (VAN) service.
Many organizations find the Internet more cost-effective than building their own networks or
paying VAN subscription fees. Organizations use the Internet to fulfill a wide range of
communication needs. This lowers other communication costs, including their network
management expenses, telephone and Fax costs.
Reduced communication costs are beneficial particularly to small businesses because it
sometimes enables them to compete with larger companies in the markets that would otherwise
be closed to them.
2). Enhances Communication & Co-ordination.
Global companies use the Internet as an important instrument for coordinating their activities.
Such companies have set up internal Web sites to keep employees informed about company
developments. Through the Web, employees are able to see a company Calendar, the employee
Policy manual, product Brochures, interactive Training tools, and even stock quotes.
The Internet has made it easier and less expensive for companies to co-ordinate small staffs
when opening new markets or working in isolated places, because they do not have to build
their own networks.
3). Accelerates the Distribution of Knowledge.
To speed product development and also to react to an emerging problem, information gathering
must be quick and easy.
The Internet is very useful in the modern society, which is increasingly dependent on
knowledge. Organizations are using E-mail and the availability of databases all over the world
to gain access to information in such areas as Business, Science, Law, and Government. The
Internet can quickly link a computer user sitting at a computer screen to mountains of data
(including Graphics) all over the world, which would otherwise be too expensive and too
difficult to get.
4). Improves Customer service and satisfaction.
Organizations can also use the Internet to communicate efficiently to make product
information, ordering and technical support easier and immediately available.
A company can establish a Website on the Internet in order to distribute useful product
information to its customers and product users. It can also use the Internet to give engineering
support to its customers without the involvement of engineering staff.
5). Facilitates Sales and Marketing.

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The Internet provides opportunities for firms to market and sell their products in a way that
does not offend others. This is because, the Internet is a passive instrument, i.e., it requires
potential customers to seek out offerings by companies rather than having those companies
actively reach out to potential customers, as is the case in most marketing and advertising.
Retailers update their Web page offerings frequently as required. Suppliers can also update
technical materials used by customers easily. Therefore, the Internet assist buyers and sellers
make contacts.
Firms use their Websites to distribute more marketing information. A firm can include its Web
address in product advertisements and design their site for visitors to browse information on
pricing, press releases on new products, technical manuals and sales brochures.

PROBLEMS FACING THE INTERNET.

1). Lack of Security.
Lack of security is one of the reasons why the Internet, while being widely used to facilitate
transactions, is still in limited use to carry out transactions.
When large amounts of data are stored in electronic form, they are exposed to more kinds of
threats/dangers than when they exist in manual form.
Through data communication networks, information systems in different locations on the
Internet are interconnected. The potential for unauthorized access, abuse or fraud is not limited
to a single location but can occur at any access point in the Internet.
Internet Hackers have found ways of stealing passwords as they pass through one site and use
them to break into computer system at other sites all over the world.
The hackers can get access to company’s strategic business plans, profit reports, product
development information, pricing data, marketing plans, sales contracts, and scientific research
data. Such information is too sensitive and companies are unwilling to have it accessed by
unauthorized people.
2). Technology Problems.
(a). The Internet lacks standards for accessing the net and sending e-mails. A no. of
incompatible ways for accessing the net exist, allowing specific users to perform certain
functions but not others.
(b). The lack of standards also affects the ability of organizations to establish a stable link to
the Internet. As the traffic on the Internet becomes more complex, it can bring problems
if it does not have good technical support.
(c). Many people and organizations are sending so much data through the Net, much of it in
graphics form, such that telecommunication links are already overloaded. Frequent users
are unable to access the net, while those who use the graphics-based Web regularly find
connecting to the intended Server very slow or even almost impossible during busy times.
(d). Moreover, the growing need for bandwidth due to graphics will only expand as the
transmission of sound and full-motion video expands. All this is raising the cost of using
the Net. Some firms are already discovering that they need more expensive
telecommunications connections, Workstations or higher speed computers with improved
graphics capability, and even Information system specialists with skills related
specifically to the Internet.
(e). Individuals and organizations in less developed countries with poor Telephone lines,
limited hardware and software capacity or Government controls on communication will
not be able to take full advantage of Internet resources.
(f). Due to the fact that there is no a comprehensive method of locating and keeping track of
pages in the World Wide Web (www), Internet users often spend a lot of time in futile
(unsuccessful) searches, despite the many new tools and planned indexes to the Web.

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There is no good technology enough to filter/sort out irrelevant information while
allowing people to access the specific information they need.
3). Legal Issues.
Until a greater clarity on several legal issues is obtained, doing business on the Internet will
become unreliable.
Laws governing E-commerce are mostly non-existing or are just being written.
There are several open questions that still exist such as, the legality of E-mail contracts, the
role of electronic signatures, and the application of copyright laws to electronically copied
documents.
4). Anti-Commercial culture.
Initially, the Internet was a scientific and academic tool. As it grew, a strong anti-commercial
culture grew with it.
Internet users have shown themselves unwilling to accept the Internet mail. Many commercial
users also fear that allowing commercial organizations to add very many unasked for marketing
messages will make the Internet E-mail difficult to manage.
Thus, while businesses remain free to use the Internet for E-mail, research, and other forms of
information exchange, they will have to learn new ways to do their marketing on the Internet;
ways that do not offend the other users.

Exercise I.
1. State the various methods of accessing computer and locating files.
2. Describe the main benefits from the use of the Internet.
3. Give a brief view of the main problems of the Internet.

Exercise II.
1. Briefly describe four advantages of using Internet to disseminate information compared to
other conventional methods. (8 marks).
2. One of the problems of using Internet for business is insecurity. What are some of the other
problems and what controls should be put in place in order to solve the problems?. (4 marks).
3. Your manager wishes to be connected to the Internet. He already has a powerful Personal
Computer (PC), a Printer and access to a Telephone line. However, he understands that he will
need a Modem.
Required:
(a). State why a Modem is required to connect him to the Internet. (2 marks).
(b). Suggest any four application areas in which you would expect a Supermarket retail
manager to use the Internet. (4
marks).
4.

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DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL

Introduction
Data & Information must be protected against unauthorized access, disclosure, modification or
damage. This is because; it is a scarce & valuable resource for any business organization or
government. It is mostly used in transactions, it can be shared, and has high value attached to it.
Data & Information security:
Data security is the protection of data & information from accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorized persons.
Data & Information privacy:
Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual & must not be accessed by or
disclosed to any other person, without direct permission from the owner.
Confidential data or information – this is data or information held by a government or
organization about people. This data/information may be seen by authorized persons without the
knowledge of the owner. However, it should not be used for commercial gain or any other
unofficial purpose without the owner being informed.

Review Questions
1. Differentiate between private and confidential data.
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2. Why is information called a resource?
3. (a) Explain the term ‘Information security’.
(b) Recently, data and information security has become very important. Explain.

SECURITY THREATS TO DATA & INFORMATION

1). COMPUTER VIRUSES
 A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the files
are opened for use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of the user.
 A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other programs or interfere
with the proper functioning of the computer system.
A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:
(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.
(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program & data
files, by interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Types of computer viruses.
1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate themselves when
the e-mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other undesirable
activities in the background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.

Types of destructions/damages caused by a virus attack

 Delete or modify data, information & files on storage devices (disks) or memory during
normal program execution, e.g., may attack the format of a disk making any program or data
on it impossible to recover.
 Systematically destroy all the data in the computer memory.
 Might lock the keyboard.
 Can change keystroke values or data from other I/O devices, e.g., change the effect of SHIFT
key.
 Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
 Uses up computer memory/space, hence slowing down its performance or causing the system
to crash.
 Changes colour of the display.
 Cause boot failure.
Sources of viruses.
a) Contact with contaminated systems:
If a diskette is used on a virus infected computer, it could become contaminated. If the
same diskette is used on another computer, then the virus will spread.
b) Use of pirated software:

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Pirated software may be contaminated by a virus code or it may have been amended to
perform some destructive functions which may affect your computer.
c) Infected proprietary software:
A virus could be introduced when the software is being developed in laboratories, and
then copied onto diskettes containing the finished software product.
d) Fake games:
Some virus programs behave like games software. Since many people like playing games
on computers, the virus can spread very fast.
e) Freeware and Shareware:
Both freeware & shareware programs are commonly available in Bulletin board systems.
Such programs should first be used in controlled environment until it is clear that the
program does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.
f) Updates of software distributed via networks:
Viruses programs can be spread through software distributed via networks.

Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.

The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:
 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash a
harmless message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Slow booting.
 Gradual filing of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
 Frequent read/write errors.
 Disk access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
 Computer hags anytime when running a program.
 Less memory available than usual, e.g., Base memory may read less than 640KB.
 Size of executable files changing for no obvious reason.

Control measures against viruses.

i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer room.
If they have to be used, they must be scanned for viruses.
iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.
iv). Write-protect disks after using them.
v). Disable floppy disk drives, if there is no need to use disks in the course of normal
operation.
vi). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
vii). Do not boot your computer from disks which you are not sure are free from viruses.
viii). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software houses.
ix). Programs downloaded from Bulletin Boards & those obtained from computer clubs should
be carefully evaluated & examined for any destructive code.

2). UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS

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Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access it
without permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit fraud,
steal the information & destroy or corrupt the data.
Unauthorized access may take the following forms:
a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly use
eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.
b). Surveillance (monitoring):
This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or
people.
The information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for spreading
propaganda or sabotage.
c). Industrial espionage:
Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information that
can be used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain.
The main aim of espionage is to get ideas on how to counter by developing similar
approach or sabotage.
d). An employee who is not supposed to see some sensitive data gets it, either by mistake or
design.
e). Strangers who may stray into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
f). Forced entry into the computer room through weak access points.
g). Network access in case the computers are networked & connected to the external world.

Control measures against unauthorized access.

i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control access to
data.
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills & burglar alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.

3). COMPUTER ERRORS & ACCIDENTAL ACCESS

Errors and accidental access to data & information may be as a result of:
 Mistakes made by people, e.g., one may print sensitive reports & unsuspectingly give them
to unauthorized persons.
 People experimenting with features they are not familiar with. E.g., a person may innocently
download a file without knowing that it is self-installing or it may be dangerous to the system.

Control measures against computer errors & accidents.

i). Restrict file access to the end-users and technical staff in the organization, i.e., deny access
of certain files & computers to certain groups of end-users.
This is because; accidental access mistakes occur if the end-users have too much privilege
that allows them to access or change sensitive files on the computer.
ii). Set up a comprehensive error-recovery strategy in the organization.

4). THEFT
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The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information is so
valuable such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay somebody a
fortune so as to steal the information for them to use.

Control measures against theft of information, hardware, & software.

i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.
ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic grills and
strong padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.

Review Questions
1. Explain any three threats to data and information.
2. Give two control measures one would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and
information.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘industrial espionage’.
4. (a) Define a computer virus.
(b) Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
(c) List three types of risks that computer viruses pose.
(d) List and explain five sources of computer viruses.
(e) Outline four symptoms of computer viruses.
(f) Explain the measures one would take to protect computers from virus attacks
5. How can one control the threat of user’s errors to data and information?

COMPUTER CRIMES
 A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data.
 The use of computer hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g., stealing, forgery,
defrauding, etc.
 Committing of illegal acts using a computer or against a computer system.

Types of computer crimes.

The following are the major types of computer crimes:
1. Trespass.
2. Hacking.
3. Tapping.
4. Cracking.
5. Piracy.
6. Fraud (Theft of money)
7. Sabotage.
8. Alteration of data.
9. Theft of computer time / Theft of service.
10. Theft of data, information or programs.
11. Damage of software.
Trespass.

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 Trespass refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware,
software & backed up data is kept.
 It can also refer to the act of accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer over
a network.
Trespass is not allowed and should be discouraged.
Hacking.
Hacking is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being
transmitted along a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes & passwords to gain
unauthorized entry to the system data and information files in a computer.
Reasons for hacking.
 To copy or corrupt the information.
 As a hobby to test their expertise. Some people like the challenge & they feel great after
successful hacking.
 Some do it for computer & software producing companies that want to secure their systems by
reducing weaknesses discovered after professional hacking.
Hacking is done by skilled programmers referred to as Hackers. Hacker is a person who gains
unauthorised access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief, or personal gain.
Such people are able to break through passwords or find weak access points in software. They are
involved in propagating computer viruses.
Tapping.
Tapping involves listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being transmitted.
Tapping may take place through the following ways:
a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her information
from the computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept messages
being sent & received by the unsuspecting computer.
Cracking.
Cracking is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes
of a software in order to get access to data & information.
These weak access points can only be sealed using sealed using special corrective programs called
Patches, which are prepared by the manufacturing company.
A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software makes it
better.
NB: Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or user names of the
authorized staff.
Piracy.
Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making illegal copies
of copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for re-sale.
Ways of reducing piracy:
i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information against piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.
Fraud.
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Fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of
gaining money or information.
Fraud may take the following forms:
a). Input manipulation:
Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy (ghost)
employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.
b). Production & use of fake documents:
E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax department that could credit his
account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was
discovered.
Fraudsters can either be employees in the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people.
Reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
 For economic gain (i.e., to gain money or information).
 To gain respect (self-worth)
Security measures to prevent fraud:
i) Careful recruitment of staff.
ii) Set up a clear & firm management policy on crimes & frauds.
iii) Restrict access to computer room or terminal.
iv) Use transaction & fill logs to monitor access to sensitive areas of the system.
v) Monitor & investigate error logs and reports on regular basis.
vi) Carry out risk analysis to examine the exposure of the organization to possible fraud.

Sabotage.
Sabotage is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees
or other people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an
organization.
Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those sent by competitors to cause
harm to the organization.
The following are some acts of saboteurs which can result in great damage to the computer centres:
 Using Magnets to mix up (mess up) codes on tapes.
 Planting of bombs.
 Cutting of communication lines.
Alteration.
Alteration is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim of
gaining or misinforming the authorized users.
Alteration is usually done by those people who wish to hide the truth. It makes the data irrelevant
and unreliable.
Alteration may take place through the following ways:
a). Program alteration:
This is done by people with excellent programming skills. They do this out of malice or they
may liaise with others for selfish gains.
b). Alteration of data in a database:

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This is normally done by authorized database users, e.g., one can adjust prices on Invoices,
increase prices on selling products, etc, and then pocket the surplus amounts.
Security measures to prevent alteration:
i) Do not give data editing capabilities to anybody without vetting.
ii) The person altering the data may be forced to sign in order for the system to accept altering
the information.
Theft of computer time.
Employees may use the computers of an organization to do their own work, e.g., they may produce
publications for selling using the computers of the company.
Theft of data (i.e., commercial espionage).
Employees steal sensitive information or copy packages and sell them to outsiders or competitors
for profit.
This may lead to a leakage of important information, e.g., information on marketing strategies used
by the organization, research information, or medical reports.

Review Questions
1. (a) Define the term ‘Computer crime’.
(b) State and explain various types of computer crimes.
2. Differentiate between Hacking and Cracking with reference to computer crimes.
3. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
4. Give two reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
5. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information.
6. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
7. Explain the meaning of Tapping while dealing with computer crimes.

DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES

The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal security
loopholes.
Audit trails
This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find out) all
the weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak access points for
criminals.
An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -
1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of services even
when something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?

Data encryption
Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or copied to
unauthorized destinations.
To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that only the sender & the receiver can be able to
understand by reconstructing the original message from the mix. This is called Data encryption.
The flow diagram below shows how a message can be encrypted and decrypted to enhance
security.

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Black Black
panther kcalB panther
Black
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Cyphertext

Plain text Plain text

Encryption key Decryption key
The message to be encrypted is called the Plain text document. After encryption using a particular
order (or, algorithm) called encryption key, it is sent as Cyphertext on the network.
After the recipient receives the message, he/she decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one
used during encryption called decryption key to get the original plain text document.
This means that, without the decryption key, it is not possible to reconstruct the original message.

Log files
These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and
resources of the information system.
Each user is usually assigned a username & password or account. The information system
administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the
system. This information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system security
policies.

Firewalls
A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged between
different networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.
A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote users) who
do not have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot access sites outside the
network restricted by firewalls.
LAWS GOVERNING PROTECTION OF INFORMATION
Laws have been developed that govern the handling of data & information in order to ensure that
there is ‘right of privacy’ for all people.
The following rules must be observed in order to keep within the law when working with data and
information.
1. Data & information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.
2. Data & information should not be kept longer than necessary.
3. Data & information should be accurate and up-to-date.
4. Data & information should be collected, used & kept for specified lawful purposes (i.e., it
should not be used for unlawful gain).
5. The owner of the data has a right to know what data is held by the person or organization
having it.
6. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
7. Do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for a purpose.

Review Questions
1. What do the following control measures against computer crimes involve?
(i) Audit trail.
(ii) Data encryption.
(iii) Log files.
(iv) Firewalls.
2. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working with data and
information.

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
A computer network forms whenever 2 or more computers are interconnected together with other related accessories
to work together.
Non computer networks include:
a) Road networks that facilitate transfer of goods and services.
b) Telephone networks (voice networks) with many lines that criss cross a country.
c) Blood circulatory system in the human body.
d) The neuron system in the human brain.
DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN NETWORKING
1. COMPUTER NETWORK
 A collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a manner as to exchange data, information or
resources.
 A collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the purpose of communication and
resource sharing.
2. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more computers and in which a
signal can be made to flow from source to destination.
 Some of the shared resources include:
a) Application programs.
b) Printers.
c) Fax machines.
d) Modems.
e) Storage devices.

3. DATA COMMUNICATION
It is the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through the network.
It is the movement of data by telecommunication systems.

Sender Receiver

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TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Local Area Networks (LAN)
Classified
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
according to size.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK

 A communication network that spans a relatively small geographical area like in one building or a school.
 LANs are characterized by:
a) Limited geographical area.
b) High data transmission rates.
c) Low cost transmission
d) Low intra-office traffic.

 LANs allow information and computer resources to be shared by many users e.g.
a) Mass storage devices.
b) Processors.
c) Printers.
d) Plotters.
e) Software.
 LANs are also characterized by the following components:
a) Server.
b) Work stations.
c) Network interface cards (NIC)
d) Network transmission cables.
e) Network operating systems.
f) Network accessories.

A. SERVER
 A computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other computers (workstations) on a network.
 The server provides services to LAN users.

B. WORK STATIONS
 Any other computer connected to a network and can share resources with any other devices on the network.
2. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
 Type of a network which covers a geographical extended fashion area like a town or city (approximately a radius
of 5 – 50 km).
 The MAN infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has offices across a metropolitan area.
 A MAN therefore is made up of many LANs in a metropolitan area.
3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
 Also known as Long Haul Network (LHN).
 It is a type of a network that covers a large geographical area such as a country, a continent or the whole world.
 It consists of many LANs and Mans connected to form one large network such as the Internet.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WANs
a) Unlimited geographical area.
b) Low data transmission rates.
c) High transmission link costs.
d) Long distance transmission.
e) High degree of vender independence.
f) Costly to install and maintain.
PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
 These are the reasons for setting up computer networks, together with the challenges associated with the
implementation of the computer networks.
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
1. Resource sharing
2. Remote communication.
3. Distributed processing facilities.
4. Cost effectiveness.
5. Reliability.
1. Resource sharing

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 Resource refers to data/information, files, printers, modems, communication links, storage devices, fax machines,
application programs etc.
 As long as computers are connected, they can share their files, exchange mail, send faxes from any point on the
network.
 Users do not need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to a network printer.
 The centralized access to data and information leads to less waste of time and hence greater productivity.
 In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a network server.
 The clients/workstations then send their requests to the server.
 The network server runs a special program (server software) which controls computers on the network and listen
to client requests to service them over the network. – Illustration Page 6
2. Remote communication
 Refers to the transmission of data signals between the communicating devices located at different geographical
locations.
 A remote client (a computer that accesses resources) from a remote host (the computer being accessed) provides
remote communication mostly by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwaves and
satellites.
 It is through remote communication that people can be able to share ideas and pass messages over the Internet.
 Remote communication thus eliminates the need of people to travel/roam for long distances by giving them a lot
of freedom to the network which translates to more productivity.
3. Distributed processing facilities
 Refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different computers which are on the same
network.
 Computers can do processing at their own dispersed locations or departments and can share programs, data and
other resources with each other.
 It simplifies flow of information and saves time and resources.
Advantages of distributed data processing:
a) The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
b) Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.
4. Cost effectiveness
 Although the initial cost and laying down of network components may be expensive, the savings experienced and
the value added to service delivery make them a ready choice for enterprising managers.
 The network greatly increases the efficient use of scarce resources.
 Networks have also enhanced daily communication by providing a paperless communication environment.
 Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other instead of having to bear the cost of stamp duty or
delivery charges.
 Company executives may not need to travel across continents to hold meetings. They can hold video conferences
and save on traveling expenses.
5. Reliability
 Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
 Users can still access data and information from the other computers on the network incase one breaks down.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology:
 It is the physical arrangement of computers on a network.
 Refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is passed from one
computer to another in the network.
 It is the way in which the points or stations of a network interlink (interact together).
 It determines the data paths that may be followed or used between points in the network.
 Network topology can be viewed in two ways:
a) logical topology.
b) Physical topology.

A. LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
 Also called signal topology.
 Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the NT.

Examples of logical topology

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i) Ethernet topology.
ii) token ring topology.

I) ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
 All computers listen to the network media and can only send data when none of the others is sending.

II) TOKEN RING TOPOLOGY

 A special package for data called a token goes around the network and only the computer whose address is on the
data held in the token will take up the token to read the data and then release the token.
 The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.

B. PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
 Refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network.

Examples of physical topology

i) Star topology.
ii) Bus topology.
iii) Ring topology.
iv) Mesh topology.
v) Tree/hierarchical topology.
I. STAR TOPOLOGY
 A set up where all devices are connected to a central hub/server/switch.
 A host computer is attached to locals through multiple communication lines.
 The local computers are not linked directly to each other.
 Between any two stations, communication is via the central computer.
 When the hub/central machine receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the
other nodes on the NT.

Workstation

Hub/Switch

Printer

Star topology
ADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY
1. Star networks are easy to configure.
2. network failures due to cables breakdown are low since cables are not shared.
3. failure of any computer does not affect communication in the NT, unless it has major effects on the host computer.
4. wiring hubs increases flexibility for growth i.e. additional and deletion of nodes does not involve interfering with
the others.
5. allows centralization of key networking resources like concentrators and servers.
6. gives the NT administrator a focal point for NT management. It is easier for the administrator to troubleshoot and
diagnose NT related problems.
Disadvantages of star topology
1. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be grounded.
2. Installation is time consuming; each node forms a segment of its own.

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3. It is costly, requires one complete cable per computer.

II. BUS TOPOLOGY

 Also known as Daisy-chain topology or multipoint network.
 All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or backbone.
 All stations are attached directly through appropriate interfacing hardware to the transmission medium.
 Each workstation on the network must be capable of knowing when it can and cannot transmit data using the
shared medium, since the cable can carry only one message at a time.
 A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the cable
causing signal distortion.
 As the data passes along the cable, each station checks whether the data is addressed to it.
 If the address matches the machine’s address, it receives the data otherwise it rejects it.
 The network addresses of computers on a network is called the medium access control (MAC) address.

Bus Terminator

Workstation
Printer
Bus topology

Advantages of bus topology

1. It is easy to install.
2. Requires less physical lines hence less costly.
3. It is independent i.e. any single computer can’t affect communication between other computers.
4. Easy to expand, just need to add the new computer on the line.

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Only one node can transmit signals at a time.
2. Failure or fault in the transmission line affects the whole communication network.
3. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult.
4. Limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable. Increase in the number of computers results
in an increased collision as machines compete for transmission.

III. RING TOPOLOGY

 All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop.
 There is no host computer.
 Each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network to its neigbour.
 It uses repeaters (devices that receive data at one end and transmit it bit by bit to the other end).
 A special bit pattern called a token is circulated around the ring sequentially from one node to the next and a node
is only permitted to transmit data when it receives the token.
 A token can be viewed as an envelope or a bag where data is placed for transmission and carried around the
network.
 All computers in ring topology have equal capabilities of sending and receiving.

Advantages of ring topology

1. They use short length cables – less costly.
2. Simple to install.
3. Very effective where there is distributed data processing.
4. More reliable because of alternate routing if one computer breaks down.
5. The packet delivery time is fixed and guaranteed.

Disadvantages of ring topology

1. Installation requires sophisticated software.

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2. Delays in communication are directly proportional to the number of nodes the message has to pass through.
3. Requires a lot of reconfiguration when new nodes are added.
4. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
5. Token management must be robust because loss or corruption of the token can cause chaos.
6. One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network. However, this is not the case with IBM token ring
where a device called Multi Station Access Unit (MSAU) is used for station bypass in the event a station fails.
7. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.

Ring topology

IV) MESH TOPOLOGY

 Most common type used in WAN, where there are many paths between different locations.
 Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between the nodes.
 Every node has a connection to every other node in the NT, making possible for direct communication with every
computer hence every computer dictates its priorities.

Advantages of mesh topology

1. The network is reliable and effective due to direct relationship between the computers.
2. Point to point connections optimize throughput of data.
3. The NT can still operate even when a node breaks down or a connection breaks.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

1. It is expensive on cable due to redundant links.
2. Administration of the network is difficult because of the peer to peer connections.

V) TREE/THERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY
 A hybrid topology.
 Groups of star – configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.
 It can also be derived out of breeding a combination of other networks.
Advantages of tree topology
1. Failure of one or more nodes does not affect the whole network.
2. Failure of a single branch does not bring the whole network down.
Disadvantages of tree topology
1. Communication path can sometimes become quite long.
2. Installation can become costly and complex.
Workstations

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Tree topology

SETTING UP PEER – TO – PEER LAN

Hardware requirements
1. A computer running on any version of Ms Windows especially Windows 9x/2000/Me/Windows Xp.
2. Network interface card (NIC). Some computers may have it already installed onboard so that you do not have to
purchase one.
3. A hub or a switch.
4. Transmission media preferably unshielded twisted pair category 5.
5. RJ45 connectors.
Tools
1. Crimping tool.
2. Cable tester.
3. Screw drivers.
NETWORK SECURITY
 In networking, there are several ways of enforcing security, one of them is share level and the other is user level
security.

a) Share level security

 A simple network security used in peer to peer networks.
 The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.
 Most desktop O.S. such as Windows 9x provide such kind of security.

b) User-level utility
 Used on server based networks.
 A network administrator assigns accounts to users.
 Each user is provided with a unique name and password which he/she can use to access network resources.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
 These are devices used as interfaces or junctions between the terminal devices.
 Terminal equipment are devices at both ends of the communication link such as a computer.
 Examples of data communication devices include:
i) NICs.
ii) Modems and codecs.
iii) Hubs.
iv) Bridges.
v) Repeaters.
vi) Routers.
vii) Gateways.
viii) Switches.
ix) Access points.

I) NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS (NIC)

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 Creates a physical link between the computer and the transmission media.
 It is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.
 However, most computer motherboards to day come ready with an onboard network interface controller.

II) MODEMS AND CODECS

 A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over the analog media.
 A codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital medium.
 A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.
III) HUBS Illustration pg 24
 Also called a concentrator.
 It is a component that connects computers on a network and is able to relay signals from one computer to another
on the same network.
 A hub usually connects networks that have a common architecture i.e. one that has the same set of communication
software usually called protocols.
 Protocols are a set of rules that govern the communication between devices on a network.
 A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the components on the network.
 After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the message from the network
that is part of the broadcast domain.
 Some hubs called intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are communicating on the network and
keep the information in a small database of their own called a management information base (MIB).
 The NT server can then use this information to fine-tune the NT.
 Intelligent hubs can be able to manage a NT by isolating computers that are not functioning properly.
 Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a NT. However, this increases the broadcast
range which may lead to broadcast storms on the network.
 Broadcast storm refers to a condition where a NT is overwhelmed with message broadcasts due to malfunctioning
of NICs or hub related problems.

IV) BRIDGES illustration pg 25.

 NT device that selectively determines the appropriate NT segment for which message is meant for delivery
through address filtering.
 A bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.

Purpose of using a bridge:

1. To extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.
2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the data destination segment of the NT.
 A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcasted in that segment.

IV) REPEATERS
 A device that receives a signal from one segment of a NT, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it and then
sends it to another segment.
 It enables NT to eliminate attenuation problems.
 They are the simplest way to expand a NT because they broadcast the same message to other NT segments.
 However, they should be used with reservation, because they expand the broadcast domain, which may lead to
broadcast storms on the NT.
 A broadcast storm is a condition whereby the NT is oversaturated with messages making communication
impossible.

V) ROUTERS
 Interconnects different NTs and directs the transfer of data packets from source to destination.
 Routing depends on NT addresses.
 Each NT has a unique identifier or address called the network address.
 All the computers on the same network have the same network address nut different host numbers.
 The router receives a packet from another router on the internetwork and checks the destination’s network address.
 If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the data packet to the destination host by
reading the host address otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network address.
 Some modern routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and a router, called a brouter.

VI) GATEWAYS Illustration pg 27

A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks or Internet.
One such device is the router in which the gateway software is installed.
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A gateway is the most powerful network and internetwork connectivity device because of its ability to convert data
across different network architectures and protocols.

VII) SWITCHES Illustration pg 28

 Unlike a hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting.
 A node refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or a computer on the network.
 The switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by a direct cable between them.
 Some hubs also incorporate the switching mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.
 Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that one switch may be used as a bridge to connect several
hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by broadcasts.

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LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
1. Security issues.
2. High initial cost.
3. Moral and cultural effects.
4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking.
5. Over-reliance on networks.

1. Security issues
 Data and information is prone to more illegal access threats because there can be data access and sharing from
various points.
 Data can also be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties, during transmission of data from source to
destination.
 One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment is encryptioning.

2. High initial cost

 Networking is an expensive venture for an organization.
 It is expensive to acquire networking equipments.
 It is expensive to train network administrators, users and general maintenance of networks.
 The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high.

3. Moral and cultural effects

 The internet has chat rooms and messaging services that may enable under age children to meet peers and adults
on the net, some of whom may have bad intentions.
 Access to pornography and other negative materials has also led to moral decay, leading to the fight against social
problems like HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse more complicated.

4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

 The internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism and drug
trafficking.
 The easy flow of information from one place to another keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the law
communicating easily.
 Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications.

5. Over-reliance on networks
 The danger of network failure can paralyze the operations of an organization besides damaging files.
If by any chance the network fails, many systems in organizations can be brought to a halt
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