EEE VIVA QUESTIONS
&
ANSWERS
QUESTION 1: WHY WE GET LESS VOLTAGE IN THE SECONDARY WINDING THEN THE
EXPECTED OUTPUT IN A TRANSFORMER?
ANS: There are several reasons why the voltage in the secondary winding of a
transformer might be less than the expected output. Here are some common
factors:
If the load connected to the secondary winding has a lower resistance than
anticipated, it can cause a higher current to flow through the secondary winding.
According to Ohm's Law (V = I * R), a higher current through the winding will result
in a voltage drop across the winding's internal resistance, leading to a lower output
voltage.
Transformers have inherent losses, including copper losses (due to the resistance of
the windings) and core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses). These losses can
cause a reduction in the overall efficiency of the transformer and result in a lower
output voltage.
Transformers have a regulation percentage that accounts for the voltage drop under
load conditions. The regulation is usually specified by the manufacturer and
depends on factors like winding resistance, reactance, and core characteristics.
Physical damage, manufacturing defects, or poor connections within the
transformer can also lead to reduced voltage output.
QUESTION 2: WHY THE CURVE OF VOLTAGE OF A DC GENERATOR GETS SATURATED
IN THE OCC GRAPH?
ANS: The Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC) graph of a DC generator shows
the relationship between the generated electromotive force (EMF or voltage)
and the field current when the generator is operating under open-circuit
conditions. In the OCC graph, the voltage increases with the field current
until it reaches a point of saturation, beyond which further increases in the
field current have little effect on the generated voltage. The saturation
phenomenon is a result of the magnetic properties of the materials used in
the generator.
Here are the key reasons why the OCC curve of a DC generator becomes
saturated:
The magnetic core of a DC generator is typically made of ferromagnetic
material. When the magnetic field intensity (proportional to the field current)
increases, the magnetic domains in the core align to a certain extent,
resulting in an increase in magnetic flux. However, as the field intensity
continues to increase, a point is reached where a significant portion of the
magnetic domains is already aligned, and further increases in field intensity
have diminishing returns in terms of increasing magnetic flux. This is the
saturation point.
At saturation, the permeability of the magnetic material decreases, and the
ability of the material to support further increases in magnetic flux
diminishes. As a result, the rate of change of flux with respect to field current
decreases, leading to the saturation of the OCC curve.
As the OCC curve saturates, the generated voltage reaches a maximum, and
further increases in field current have minimal impact on the voltage. This
saturation point is a practical limit in the operation of the DC generator.
QUESTION 3: WHAT IS RESIDUAL MAGNETISM?
ANS: Residual magnetism refers to the phenomenon where a magnetic
material retains some level of magnetization even after the external
magnetic field that originally magnetized it has been removed. This residual
magnetism can persist for some time, depending on the characteristics of
the material and the circumstances of magnetization.
Magnetic hysteresis is the tendency of a material to retain some level of
magnetization due to the lagging effect between the changes in the external
magnetic field and the response of the material. When a material is
subjected to a varying magnetic field, its magnetic domains may not
instantly realign, leading to residual magnetism.
Materials used in magnetic cores of devices, such as transformers and
inductors, can reach a point of saturation where further increases in the
external magnetic field do not result in proportional increases in
magnetization. Saturation can lead to residual magnetism as the material
retains magnetization even when the external field decreases.
Remanence is a material's ability to retain magnetization after exposure to
an external magnetic field. Some materials exhibit higher remanence,
meaning they retain more magnetization even after the external field is
removed.
Techniques such as demagnetization, proper core material selection, and the
use of compensation circuits are employed to mitigate the effects of residual
magnetism in various applications.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER:
A single-phase transformer is a static electrical device that transfers
electrical energy between two circuits through electromagnetic induction.
The working principle of a single-phase transformer is based on Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction and the mutual induction between two
coils.
A single-phase transformer consists of two coils of wire, known as the
primary winding and the secondary winding. The primary winding is
connected to the input voltage source, and the secondary winding is
connected to the load.
The two windings are wound around a common magnetic core made of a
high-permeability material such as laminated steel. The magnetic core
provides a low-reluctance path for the magnetic flux generated by the
current flowing through the windings.
When an alternating current (AC) flows through the primary winding, it
creates a changing magnetic field around the winding. According to
Faraday's law, the changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force
(EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding.
The voltage induced in the secondary winding is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linking the secondary winding. The magnetic core
ensures that a significant portion of the magnetic flux generated by the
primary winding links with the secondary winding, facilitating efficient energy
transfer through mutual induction.
One of the significant advantages of transformers is that they provide
electrical isolation between the primary and secondary circuits. There is no
direct electrical connection between the two windings, and energy transfer
occurs solely through magnetic coupling.
The transformer transforms the input voltage applied to the primary winding
into a different voltage at the secondary winding. The voltage transformation
is determined by the turns ratio. If the turns ratio is Ns/Np, where Ns is the
number of turns in the secondary winding and Np is the number of turns in
the primary winding, the voltage ratio is Vs/Vp=Ns/Np.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC GENERATOR:
A DC generator, also known as a dynamo, operates based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, specifically Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. Faraday's law states that a change in magnetic field within a
closed loop induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the loop. The working
principle of a DC generator involves the conversion of mechanical energy
into electrical energy through this process.
The working principle of a DC generator is fundamentally based on Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, which states that the induced EMF is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux within a closed loop. In a
DC generator, the armature coil serves as the closed loop where the induced
EMF is generated.
A DC generator consists of the following essential components:
Armature: A coil of wire that rotates within a magnetic field.
Field Magnet: A stationary magnetic field that interacts with the
rotating armature.
Commutator: A rotary switch mounted on the armature shaft that
reverses the current direction in the coil as it rotates.
Brushes: Conductive contacts that maintain electrical contact with the
rotating commutator.
When the armature is rotated within the magnetic field created by the field
magnet, the magnetic flux linking the armature coil changes. This change in
magnetic flux induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the armature coil, as
per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
The induced EMF in the armature coil initially produces an alternating current
(AC) voltage. As the coil rotates, the direction of the induced current changes
with the changing magnetic field. This is known as an alternating current
because the direction of the current alternates.
To convert the generated AC voltage into direct current (DC), a commutator
is used. The commutator is a rotary switch that reverses the direction of
current in the armature coil at the appropriate moment, ensuring that the
current always flows in the same direction in the external circuit. This
process of rectifying the current is crucial for obtaining a unidirectional (DC)
output.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR:
A DC motor operates based on the principles of electromagnetism and
electromagnetic induction. The fundamental laws that govern the working
principle of a DC motor are Fleming's Left-Hand Rule and Faraday's Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
Faraday's law states that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (EMF) in a closed loop. In the case of a DC motor, the changing
magnetic field created by the rotation of the armature induces a voltage in
the coil, which is essential for the continuous operation of the motor.
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule describes the relationship between the direction of
the magnetic field, the direction of the current, and the direction of the force
acting on a conductor in a magnetic field. In the context of a DC motor, it
helps determine the direction of rotation based on the direction of the
current and the magnetic field.
Here are the basic components of a motor:
1. Armature:
The armature is a coil of wire that carries current and is usually
mounted on a rotating shaft.
2. Commutator:
The commutator is a rotary switch that reverses the direction of
current in the armature coil, ensuring continuous rotation.
3. Brushes:
Brushes are conductive contacts that maintain electrical contact
with the rotating commutator.
4. Stator:
The stator provides a magnetic field, typically created by a set of
permanent magnets or an electromagnet.
When an electric current is applied to the armature coil, a magnetic field is
produced around the coil. The direction of the magnetic field is determined
by the direction of the current according to Fleming's Left-Hand Rule.
The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts with the magnetic
field of the stator. According to the Lorentz force law, the interaction
between the magnetic field and the current-carrying conductor results in a
force that acts perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the
magnetic field.
The force generated causes the armature to rotate. The direction of rotation
is determined by the direction of the current and the orientation of the
magnetic fields.
As the armature coil rotates, the commutator ensures that the direction of
the current in the coil is reversed at the appropriate moment. This reversal of
current direction is crucial for maintaining a continuous rotation in the same
direction. It prevents the motor from reaching a point where it stops due to
the force acting against the rotation.
The electrical energy supplied to the motor is converted into mechanical
energy, and the motor shaft turns. This mechanical output can be harnessed
to perform useful work, such as driving a fan, turning wheels, or any other
mechanical application.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A 3 PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR
The working principle of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor is based on
electromagnetic induction and the laws of electromagnetism. Specifically,
the operation of induction motors involves Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction and the Lorentz force law.
Faraday's law states that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (EMF) in a closed circuit. In the case of the induction motor, the
changing magnetic field in the stator induces voltage in the rotor, leading to
the generation of rotor current and the initiation of motor rotation.
The Lorentz force law describes the force on a charged particle moving
through a magnetic field. In the context of the induction motor, the
interaction between the induced rotor current and the magnetic field results
in the Lorentz force, which drives the rotation of the motor.
When a 3-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator windings, it produces a
rotating magnetic field. The magnetic field rotates at the same frequency as
the AC power supply and induces a voltage in the rotor.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the rotating
magnetic field in the stator induces voltage in the rotor conductors. This
induced voltage creates a current in the closed-loop rotor conductors.
The interaction between the induced rotor current and the magnetic field
produces a force, known as the Lorentz force. This force causes the rotor to
turn, initiating the rotation of the motor.
The rotor, being short-circuited, has a closed current loop. The interaction
between the magnetic field and the rotor current generates torque, driving
the rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field.
3-phase squirrel cage induction motor operates on the principles of
electromagnetic induction, Lorentz force, and the creation of a rotating
magnetic field. The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
to perform work.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SYNCHRONUS GENERATOR:
A synchronous generator, also known as an alternator, operates based on
the principles of electromagnetic induction and is primarily governed by
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. It is called a synchronous
generator because the generated AC voltage is synchronized with the
frequency of the rotating magnetic field.
Faraday's law is fundamental to the generation of voltage in the stator coils.
It states that the electromotive force (EMF) induced in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the coil. In the
case of a synchronous generator, the rotating magnetic field induces a
changing magnetic flux in the stator coils, resulting in the generation of AC
voltage.
The rotor is the rotating part of the generator. In a synchronous generator, it
is an electromagnet or a set of coils that produce a magnetic field when
supplied with direct current (DC). This rotating magnetic field is typically
generated by a separate DC power source.
The stator is the stationary part of the generator and contains a set of coils.
These coils are connected to the load and produce the output voltage when
exposed to the rotating magnetic field.
The rotor is supplied with DC current, creating a magnetic field. As the rotor
rotates, it produces a rotating magnetic field. The key characteristic of a
synchronous generator is that the rotation speed of the rotor is synchronized
with the desired frequency of the generated AC voltage.
According to Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, a changing
magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a coil. As the rotor's
magnetic field rotates, it cuts across the stator coils, inducing an AC voltage
in them.
The synchronous generator produces a steady AC output voltage with a fixed
frequency. This output can be connected to the electrical grid to provide
electrical power to consumers.
The term "synchronous" in synchronous generator emphasizes the synchronization
of the rotor's rotation speed with the desired frequency of the generated AC
voltage. The rotation speed of the rotor determines the frequency of the generated
AC voltage.
SPEED CONTROL METHODS:
Speed control in DC motors is crucial for various applications where different
operating speeds are required. There are several methods to control the speed of a
DC motor, each with its advantages and limitations.
FLUX CONTROL:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The flux control method, also known as field control or magnetic shunt control, is a
technique used for speed control in DC motors. In this method, the speed is
controlled by varying the magnetic flux in the motor, primarily through the
adjustment of the field current. By changing the field current, the strength of the
magnetic field in the motor is altered, affecting the back electromotive force (EMF)
and, consequently, the speed of the motor.
The speed of a DC motor is given by the formula: N=kV−Ea, where N is the speed, V
is the applied voltage, Ea is the back EMF, and k is a constant.
The back EMF ( Ea) is proportional to the speed of the motor and is given by: Ea
=k⋅N.
In the flux control method, the strength of the magnetic field (flux) is controlled by
adjusting the field current. Increasing the field current strengthens the magnetic
field, reducing the speed of the motor, and decreasing the field current has the
opposite effect.
The back EMF is directly influenced by the strength of the magnetic field. As the
field current is increased, the back EMF increases, reducing the speed according to
the motor speed equation.
Unlike voltage control, the flux control method does not directly affect the armature
current. Therefore, adjusting the field current primarily influences the back EMF and
speed without significantly affecting the torque.
Flux control is implemented by using a variable resistor (rheostat) in the field circuit.
By adjusting the resistance, the field current can be varied, allowing control over the
magnetic field strength.
The flux control method in DC motors involves adjusting the field current to control
the magnetic flux and influence the back EMF, thereby affecting the motor speed.
This method is often chosen for applications where moderate speed control is
sufficient.
VOLTAGE CONTROL:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Voltage control is a method used for speed control in DC motors. In this method, the
speed of the motor is controlled by adjusting the applied voltage to the motor. By
varying the voltage, the back electromotive force (EMF) in the motor can be
controlled, influencing the speed according to the motor speed equation. The basic
idea is to control the speed by changing the voltage applied to the entire motor,
including both the armature and the field winding.
The speed of a DC motor is given by the formula: N=kV−Ea, where N is the speed, V
is the applied voltage, Ea is the back EMF, and k is a constant.
The back EMF ( Ea) is proportional to the speed of the motor and is given by: Ea
=k⋅N.
By adjusting the applied voltage ( V), the back EMF can be controlled and,
consequently, the motor speed. Increasing the applied voltage increases the back
EMF, reducing the speed, and decreasing the applied voltage has the opposite
effect.
It's important to note that when the applied voltage is increased, the armature
current and torque also increase. This is because the torque is directly proportional
to the armature current.
Voltage control in DC motors involves adjusting the applied voltage to control the
back EMF and influence the motor speed. This method is widely employed in
applications where variable speed control is required across a broad range.
ARMATURE CONTROL METHOD:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Armature control is a method used for speed control in DC motors. In this method,
the armature voltage is varied to control the speed of the motor. By adjusting the
voltage applied to the armature, the back EMF (electromotive force) can be
controlled, which in turn influences the motor speed. The basic idea is to control the
speed by changing the voltage applied to the armature while keeping the field (flux)
constant.
The speed of a DC motor is given by the formula: N=kV−Ea, where N is the speed, V
is the applied voltage, Ea is the back EMF, and k is a constant.
The back EMF ( Ea) is proportional to the speed of the motor and is given by: Ea
=k⋅N.
The back EMF is also related to the applied voltage ( V) and the armature resistance
(Ra):
Ea=V−Ia⋅Ra, where Ia is the armature current.
By adjusting the armature voltage ( V), the back EMF can be controlled and,
consequently, the motor speed. Lowering the armature voltage decreases the back
EMF, leading to an increase in motor speed, and vice versa. Armature control is
often implemented using a variable resistor (rheostat) in series with the armature
circuit. By adjusting the resistance, the armature current Ia can be varied. Thus the
armature voltage can be varied.
Armature control in DC motors involves adjusting the armature voltage to
control the back EMF, thereby influencing the motor speed. This method is
widely used in applications where a DC motor requires variable speed control
within certain limits.
